Career Progression in UK financial services: Gender and Ethnicity

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A quantitative and qualitative exploration ofperformance appraisal in financial services

Barbara Lond

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of therequirements of the University of East London for thedegree of Doctor of Occupational Psychology

May 2010



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VOLUME I

CONTENTS

Study 1

Study 2



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Preface to the thesis

This thesis examines performance appraisal in financial services and comprises two

separate studies, conducted within separate timeframes, but are linked. Study 1 is aquantitative study exploring the role of performance appraisal ratings as they relate

(along with other variables) to the progression of ethnicity and gender staff groups. This

study was conducted in one financial services organisation using performance appraisal

data over three years, so had a longitudinal element. Study 2 is qualitative and focuses

on gender. This study uses interview data from women in male-typed positions, and in

the upper echelons of financial services organisations in the UK. The second study

explores these senior women‘s experiences of being appraised or evaluated. Both

studies enable a glimpse into the "glass ceiling"1 from a UK perspective. The

quantitative study explores the relationship of ratings at different organisational levels,

with the job function, and with respect to ""solo status2" individuals.

Recent research from the financial services sector conducted by the EHRC in 2009

shows that women are under-represented in the top echelons, and receive up to 80%

less pay than men, and that stereotyping within organisational processes is one

possible cause. The study found that some Black and Ethnic Minority ("BME") staff also

experience negative effects. It is likely that "performance" or the appraisal of it leads to

differential treatment of different groups of staff and impacts on some groups

differentially and unfairly. Research shows that women and some BME groups

1 The concept of the glass ceiling is outlined further on p29 in Study 1.2 Solo status is the term used to describe a range of negative effects on the members of gender or ethnic groups where theseindividuals, the only members of their social category (ie. gender or ethnicity), are present in a homogenous group.



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experience organisations such that their progression is thwarted, or at least affected

such that they are treated differently. Financial services organisations have come under

the spotlight in recent times with many under threat of closure, as well as affecting the

global economy. If organisations are performing poorly, they are likely to fail (Flamholtz

& Aksehirli, 2000). Being treated unfairly can lead to negative effects on staff including

demotivation and lack of productivity. It is likely that something is awry within financial

services organisations and it is feasible to suggest that how performance is measured

and appraised is one issue worth considering. In addition, financial services

organisations are thought to be "macho" and may therefore reward one set of values,rather than a diverse set of values. Therefore the diversity may not be reflected in what

is valued in terms of the organisational culture and ultimately the processes within,

including performance ratings and being evaluated. That financial services

organisations are "macho" may mean that the organisations value masculine attributes

and become places which serve to support and value men, even white men. Certainly,

the suggestion is likely with so few women at the top of these organisations (EHRC,

2009).

Glass ceilings are thought to be responsible for the lack of progression of both women

and ethnic minorities at the top, as they create barriers to progression. However, the

concept is not one which can be examined or operationalised in the usual sense of

psychological research, but rather is an inclusive concept. One way to examine aspects

of how the glass ceiling operates can be taken from a US author, Barreto (2009), who

notes that we need to firstly examine "numbers" as well as "experiences". Study 1 and



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Study 2 examine both of these angles and therefore provide a glimpse of how the glass

ceiling operates in the UK. The barriers can be objectively examined in one sense

(Study 1), and explored further in Study 2 in terms of one group who feels the effect of

glass ceilings – senior women in financial services who are trying to break it. Examining

performance appraisal seems a sensible mechanism for explore the glass ceiling effect,

both from an objective and subjective perspective.

Performance is assessed and measured in organisations, and performance appraisal

involves human perception, human behavior and decision-making, the results of which,in an organisational context where bias and stereotyping operate in various guises, can

have life-long consequences, where the possibility of people being evaluated unfairly is

an issue. This is especially true where decisions outside of the formal performance

appraisal process (the oft-conducted annual event) have more influence as subjectivity

creeps in.

Both women and ethnic groups are still both underrepresented at the higher levels

within large sectors of the UK economy (financial services and the NHS), (Equality and

Human Rights Commission [EHRC], 2009; Kalra, Able & Esmail, 2009; Mistry & Latoo,

2009). Research shows that differential barriers (ERHC, 2009) and opportunities exist

(Perrone, Sedlacek & Alexander, 2001) at various career stages for men, women and

BME groups leading to inequitable consequences. Differential treatment of certain

groups therefore exists.



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Both OP and social psychology (the basis of research in groups and stereotyping) have

long research traditions but need to keep pace with the changing nature of

organisations which have become more globalised and complex, raising diversity issues

not encountered in previous times (Gubbins & Garavan, 2009; Jogulu & Wood, 2008;

Wang, Farme & Walumbwa, 2007). Performance is therefore one of the most important

variables in the OP field. How people are evaluated, the effect of the results of

performance are surely vital to understand, theories of which were developed many

years ago in a mechanistic (in organisational terms), less complex and diverse context,

yet may still be reminiscint in the practice of OP itself in how we examine people inorganisations, including the result of that evaluation (ratings) and how different groups

do or do not progress. Further, how different groups are appraised and progress is

something which occupational psychologists should be at the forefront of examining, not

just from a quantitative, but also a qualitative perspective, to gain a deeper

understanding of these important issues, as there are wider social implications beyond

the workplace. Also of importance for occupational psychologists is performance, at the

heart of any organisation‘s success, what it is and how it is realised for women and

minority ethnic groups; appraisal for example can result in being promoted or dismissed

(Fletcher, 1995; Kakar, 2008) and affect individuals‘ wellbeing, especially if it is done

unfairly (Bagdadli, Roberson, & Paoletti, 2006; Coyle-Shapiro, 2005).

Performance forms the core research focus for OPs. Indeed, the British Psychological

Society promotes OPs as ―concerned with the performance of people at work …

developing an understanding of how organisations function and how individuals and



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groups behave at work … " (Occupational Psychology, British Psychological Society,

website).

The suggestion above is that some groups may be treated unfairly within financial

services organisations. The implicit suggestion is that unfair systems (eg. performance

appraisal) are implemented. Everyone would wish to be recognised and treated fairly

based on meritocratic principles, rather than on what some see as subjectivity, where

―traditional‖ values such as masculinity (and status) are the basis for comparison within

organisations. Discrimination creates unfairness. Paradoxically, treating people fairlyinvolves an amount of ―caring‖ yet this is considered a dialectic to power (Rafael &

Adeline, 1996). However, meritocratic principles are engendered within a fair

organisational culture which impacts externally as well as internally. People inside and

external to organisations are diverse, but this aspect may be lost to some organisations

that would rather run, still, on rather traditional lines. It takes more than ―rhetoric‖

however to change things (Hoffman & Ford, 2010) and ensure that merit becomes at

least part-way enacted as a reality. Unfortunately, there has been much rhetoric about

―equal opportunities‖ and ―managing diversity‖, and now there is "employee

engagement". However, where the same organisations have few women at the top and

whole occupations staffed by a particular demographic group, we cannot change things

unless we really understand the issues first.

The issues are complex and situated within historical and societal factors which have a

bearing on how women and some minority ethnic staff are viewed within organisations



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and therefore what is valued. The effect of dyads and groups impact upon affective and

cognitive processes (Hall & Lord, 1995) and are largely automatic (Blair, Judd &

Fallman, 2004). Gender and some minority ethnic groups are vulnerable to negative

stereotyping which leads to unfair discrimination, a factor in the maintenance of the

―glass ceiling‖ (Barreto, Ryan & Schmitt, 2009; Eagly, 2002; Parker, 2001; Korac-

Kakabadse & Kouzmin, 1997). Bias is still a problem and considered inherent (Randall

Smith, DiTomaso & Farris, 2002), although often unintentional (Weeks, Weeks & Frost,

2003), and where it is systematic, can be a factor in the inequitable disribution of both

performance ratings and rewards.

In understanding glass ceilings, and Barretto's above-mentioned "numbers" as well as

more experiential aspects (and "glass walls") she suggests, we can then pinpoint where

the problems may lie in terms of this understanding and therefore develop more

effective interventions. Initiatives focusing on recruitment are laudable, but are not

effective in breaking glass ceilings which occur over a period of time.

An overview of the central features of the introductions in Study 1 and 2

As mentioned above this thesis comprises two studies and the whole thesis is broadly

about being evaluated in organisations, from an objective and subjective perspective.

Performance and the appraisal of it are central features of both studies. A performance

appraisal system is usually implemented within an organisational culture. Performance

and its history, including the psychometric tradition, is the focus in Study 1, and



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organisation culture and the gender aspect is the focus of Study 2 (in the introductions,

and theoretically), although there are overlaps and links between the two studies.

Organisations comprise groups of people, and bias and stereotyping operate against

groups (ie. an individual becomes representative of the group), another core feature of

the thesis, enters into all HR processes, as all involve human decision-making.

The glass ceiling effect is also common to both studies. Glass ceiling (and glass wall)

effects are the result of stereotyping and (systematic) negative bias against traditionally

under-represented groups (women and some BME groups). Because glass ceilingsinvolve stereotypes, it is necessary to outline the concepts, theories and research

evidence around the cognitive processes which account for decision-making around

performance appraisal and other organisational decisions, and these are outlined in

Study 1. Performance appraisal ratings are the result of decisions made about an

individual's performance, along with the attendant biases inherent in decision making.

These biased decisions will impact on receivers of faulty decisions creating differential

treatment.

Where there is unfairness in organisational processes, this can lead to demotivated and

dissatisfied staff. The issues of organisational justice and the psychological contract are

therefore outlined (in Study 1) and there is much research on the negative

consequences of implementing unfair organisational processes. The author felt it was

important to highlight some of the research on negative outcomes for employees in

terms of absenteeism, lost productivity, low motivation, etc., for completeness. The



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research on some consequences of developing and implementing unfair systems

seems a logical extension of the full picture and understanding of the importance of

treating people fairly. Indeed, the current obsession with "employee engagement"

seems unconcerned with previous research which highlights the importance of having

fair systems in place and ignores bias and stereotyping as a factor where there is

unfairness (eg. Chartered Institute of Personnel & Development (CIPD), 2010). The

terminology may be different but the effects are still the same.

Analytical Framework to illustrate the thesis

The following framework provides a graphic illustration of how the two studies forming

this thesis fit together, includes the important features as mentioned above, and also

includes the outcomes and the implications of the research, including the effect on

"performance", the central feature of the thesis:



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Figure 1: Analytic Framework for the thesis

The boxes in Figure 1 represent the whole thesis in terms of the literature of both

studies and their focus, as well as the actual process and outcome of the research itself.

The solid box represents the central feature of the thesis – performance and the

appraisal of it. The light dotted boxes represent the broad theories and aspects of the

thesis. Firstly are the epistemological assumptions for the thesis. Then, there is

performance and psychometric theory (as applied to performance ratings) and finally,

the organisational culture; performance appraisal processes are implemented within an

organisational culture which impacts on both individual and organisational processes

(see the two boxes labelled "Process"). These processes refer to individual and

institutional processes. Both involve bias and stereotyping, and both create unfair

discrimination, a result of human decision-making, which in turn lead to glass ceiling



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and solo status effects. The "Outcomes" box of both studies include the Study 1 ratings

(Men, Women and BME groups), and the women's experiences (Study 2). The impact

of both studies ("Impact explained" box) is explained in the discussion sections of the

thesis and covers the impact in terms of organisational justice, the careers of women

and BME groups, diversity management and occupational psychology theory and

practice, which further input into performance and appraisal theory.

Specific features of the thesis

This thesis had an exploratory but also quasi-experimental research design. Thequantitative study provided the ―what‖ question from an objective, and post -positivist

standpoint – examining performance appraisal ratings, grades, and other non-

performance factors (i.e. "solo status" and functions). Regression analysis provided

clues as to the cumulative effect of some theoretically important predictor variables on

the employee grade (progression) from a longitudinal perspective (over a 3-year

period). The qualitative study provided the ―why‖ question, in relation to women (a

focus of the financial services sector at the time of writing). The qualitative methods

were chosen with a view to obtaining the women‘s views and opinions, describing

these, and interpreting their experience of being appraised or evaluated within financial

services institutions. Study 2 was conducted within a social constructionist and feminist

framework.

In Barretto's terms, the thesis fulfils an examination of the "numbers" (Study 1) and

"experiences" (Study 2) required to investigate glass ceiling effects, a result of



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cumulative unfair discrimination. However, the term is largely from the US. This thesis

provides a glimpse therefore into the workings of the UK glass ceiling effect within

financial services, an important sector on the global stage where performance and

evaluation is likely to come under the spotlight bearing in mind the negative impact the

sector has had on the global economy during recent times.



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STUDY 1

Examining gender and ethnicity variables, andrelationships with performance ratings and otherorganisational outcomes



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Table of Contents: Study 1

Examining gender and ethnicity variables and relationships with performanceratings and other organisational outcomes

1. Introduction Page

1.1. Overview of Study 1 27

1.2. The Glass Ceiling 29

1.3. Performance appraisal history and the issues surrounding the use and value

30

1.3.1. A short history of performance appraisal research 30

1.3.2. Definitions of performance 33

1.3.3. Putting the research into practice 33

1.3.4. Performance appraisal usage in organisations includingratings

34

1.3.5. How individual and organisational performance arelinked and the differential competency requirements

35

1.4. Stereotyping, bias and effects on decision-making 36

1.4.1. Groups in organisations and effects on decision-makingvia stereotyping and bias

36

1.4.2. More on the invisible glass ceiling: the visible impacts onwomen and BME staff

39

1.4.3. Occupational segregation as a glass wall effect 41

1.4.3.1. Other biases: Attributions and leadership 42

1.5. Summary 43

1.6. Some implications of implementing unfair organisational processes

44

1.6.1. Psychological contract, organisational and procedural justice

45

1.7. Demographics and effects on performance ratings and other

organisational variables

47

1.7.1. Research relating to gender, performance ratings andother organisational outcomes

47

1.7.2. Research relating to ethnicity, performance ratings andother organisational outcomes

48



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1.8. Salience of demography (gender and ethnicity) and the "Solo status" effect

50

1.9. Previous effects on progression 51

1.10. The issue of organisational tenure 52

1.11. Building and expanding on existing research 531.12. Rationale for study 1 54

1.13. Research hypotheses 55

2. Method 58

2.1. Organisational information 58

2.2. Sample 58

2.3. The organis ation’s performance management system 60

2.4. Performance appraisal training 61

2.5. Annual performance review meetings 62

2.6. The performance appraisal instrument 62

2.7. Procedure for the study 63

2.8. Validity and reliability 64

2.9. Variables used in the study 66

2.10. Analyses used throughout the study 69

2.11. Variables relating to ethnicity 70

3. Analysis 72

3.1. Results 72

3.1.1. Results of analysis relating to ethnicity 72

3.1.1.1. Relationship between ethnicity and high and lowperformance ratings

74

3.1.1.2. Relationship between ethnicity and grade (Year 3) 75

3.1.1.3. Relationship between ethnicity and manager andnon-manager grade (Years 1-3) 76

3.1.1.4. Relationship between ethnicity and department orfunction

77

3.1.1.5. Proportions of ethnic minority employees (SoloStatus effect) and the effects on performanceratings and grades

78



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3.1.1.6. Effects of all predictor variables on mean gradereceived by ethnic groups (Year 3)

81

3.1.1.7. Predictor variables regressed onto grade for Asianstaff (Year 3)

82

3.1.1.8. Predictor variables regressed onto grade for Blackstaff (Year 3) 84

3.1.1.9. Predictor variables regressed onto grade for Whitestaff (Year 3)

86

3.1.1.10. Summary of regression analyses for ethnicity andmean grade (Year 3)

88

3.1.2. Results of analysis relating to gender 89

3.1.2.1. Relationship between gender and performanceratings

90

3.1.2.2. Relationship between gender and high and lowperformance ratings 90

3.1.2.3. Relationship between gender and grade (Year 3) 91

3.1.2.4. Relationship between gender and manager andnon-manager grade (3 years)

93

3.1.2.5. Relationship between gender and department orfunction (Year 3)

94

3.1.2.6. Proportions of females (―Solo Status‖ effect) andthe effects on performance ratings and grades ofmales and females

95

3.1.2.7. Effects of all predictor variables on mean grade formales and females (Year 3)

97

3.1.2.8. Summary of regression analyses for gender andmean grade (Year 3)

102

3.2. Overall summary of results 103

4. Discussion 106

4.1. Overview 106

4.2. Ethnicity 106

4.2.1. Ethnicity and performance ratings 106

4.2.2. Ethnicity and function 108

4.2.3. Ethnicity and grade 110

4.2.4. Solo status and effects on performance ratings and 111



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grade in relation to ethnic groups

4.3. Gender 113

4.3.1. Gender and performance ratings 113

4.3.2. Gender and grade 114

4.3.3. Gender and function 119

4.3.4. Solo status and effect on performance ratings and grade 122

5. Conclusions 124

6. Implications for future research for performance appraisal andother HR processes

127

7. Limitations 130

List of tables (Study 1)

Table 1 Variables from appraisal forms and database 67

Table 2 Other variables 68

Table 3 Mean Overall Performance Ratings for Collapsed EthnicityCensus Groupings (1=high, 5=low)

73

Table 4 Numbers of Staff in Each Collapsed Census Group in aHigh (1-2) or Low (4-5) Performance Rating Category

(Year 3)

74

Table 5 Numbers of Staff in Each Collapsed Census Group in aHigh (7-8) or Low (1-2) Grade Category (Year 3)

76

Table 6 Ethnicity and Number of Managers and Non-Managers forAll Ethnic Groups for Years 1-3

77

Table 7 Numbers and Percentages of Ethnicity Groups Working inDepartments/Functions (Year 3)

78

Table 8 Numbers of BME and White Staff in a High (10%>) or Low(9%<) Proportion Department/Function in High (1-2) or Low(4-5) OPR Category (Year 3)

79

Table 9 Numbers of BME and White Staff in a High (10%>) or Low(9%<) Proportion Department/Function in High (1-2) or Low(4-5) Grade Category (Year 3)

80



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Table 10 Descriptive Statistics for Mean Grade for Ethnicity Groups(Year 3)

82

Table 11 Bivariate and Partial Correlations of the Predictors With

Mean Grade (Asian staff)

83

Table 12 Regression table for Asian staff in relation to grade(Year 3)

84

Table 13 The Bivariate and Partial Correlations of the PredictorsWith Mean Grade (Black Staff)

85

Table 14 Regression Table for Black Staff in Relation to Grade(Year 3)

86

Table 15 The Bivariate and Partial Correlations of the PredictorsWith Mean Grade (White staff) 87

Table 16 Regression Table for White Staff in Relation to Grade(Year 3)

87

Table 17 Effects of Predictors Relating to Ethnicity (All Groups) andGrade Compared

89

Table 18 Mean Performance Ratings for Males and Females(1 = high, 5 = low)

90

Table 19 Numbers of Males and Females in High (1-2) or Low (4-5)Performance Rating Category (Year 3)

91

Table 20 Number of Males and Females in a High (7-8) or Low (1-2)Grade (Year 3)

92

Table 21 Number of Male and Female Managers and Non-Managersfor Years 1-3

93

Table 22 Numbers and Percentages of Males and Females Workingin Departments/Functions (Year 3)

94

Table 23 Numbers of Males and Females in a High (10%>) or Low(9%<) proportion department/function in High (1-2) or Low(4-5) Performance Rating Category (Year 3)

96



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Table 24 Numbers of Males and Females in a High (10%>) or Low(9%<) Proportion Department/Function in High (1-2) or Low(4-5) Grade Category (Year 3)

97

Table 25 Descriptive Statistics for Mean Grade for Males and

Females (Year 3)

98

Table 26 The Bivariate and Partial Correlations of the Predictors withMean Grade

99

Table 27 Regression Table –All Predictors on Grade (Year 3) andEffect on Males

100

Table 28 The Bivariate and Partial Correlations of the Predictors withMean Grade

101

Table 29 Regression Table –All Predictors on Grade (Year 3) andEffect on Females

102

Table 30 Comparison of Regression Beta Weights for Males andFemales (Mean Grade Year 3 as Dependent Variable)

103

Table 31 Comparison of different demographic groups and results ofhypotheses (as to significance)

104

List of appendices

Appendix A - Full list of variables 228Appendix B - Print screen of list of research of research articles from

International Journal of Assessment and Development(last 10 years)

231



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Abstract Study 1

Study 1 aimed to examine the relationships between performance appraisal data over a

three year period to assess the impact of performance ratings on the progression ofmen, women and different ethnic groups (BME) within one financial services

organisation. Several hypotheses were posed for the purposes of the study based on

past research relating to gender and ethnicity. The study used archived performance

appraisal data and examined a large number of performance appraisal documents (N =

5,220) over three years from a global financial institution. ANOVA and Chi Square

examined these relationships, and regression analysis was used to examine some

theoretically important variables against the dependent variable "grade" (progression).

Regression analysis of predictor variables including ―solo status‖ effects, (where

individuals are the only members of their social category and experience negative

affects), were regressed onto employee grade. Analysis of ratings was also examined

at different grade levels.

A number of relationships were found between demographics (gender and ethnicity),

ratings and other organisational outcomes; for example women received higher

performance ratings than men for all three years, but not significantly so, whilst being

underrepresented within the high grades. ―Black‖ employees received the highest

performance ratings whilst ―Chinese‖ employees received the lowest ratings in Year 2.

White employees received the lowest rating in Years 1 and 3 but not significantly so.

Overall, the results relating to gender were stronger than for ethnicity, especially as far



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as grade was concerned. Although women were not represented in high grades, and

were in lower grades than men overall, this did not accord with them receiving

commensurately lower performance ratings. The regression analysis revealed a

different pattern of results between ethnic groups, and also between men and women.

In particular, there was a different pattern of results for men, and for White groups, than

either women or the three BME groups, where there were significant effects of the

predictor variables for women and BME groups, but not men.

The results indicate that different rules of progression apply to men than for women and

BME groups. The results overall elucidate factors which may account for progression of

some groups and not others. The implications for future research and practice

implications are discussed.



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1. Introduction

1.1 Overview of Study 1

Performance and the appraisal of it may involve both performance and non-

performance factors, and does involve managers making decisions (whether formal or

informal) about other's "performance", which ultimately impacts on progression. There

is much criticism of the process, yet it is still widely used. Borman calls performance

appraisal "perhaps the most important dependent variable in industrial and

organizational psychology" (2004, p.238). There is however potential for unfair

discrimination in the process leading to inequitable outcomes for some groups, and

creating glass ceiling effects (Barreto, 2009).

Whilst direct discrimination against some minority ethnic groups and women has

declined, indirect discrimination is thought to lead to unfair consequences for women

and some minority ethnic groups. Indirect discrimination for example is said to be one

factor in White men's advancement (EHRC, 2009), and presents a major obstacle to

others (Korac-Kakabadse & Kouzmin, 1997). Where non-performance factors may

inadvertently become part of an organisation‘s decision-making process, including

performance appraisal ratings and other processes, the cumulative effect may be one

which sees different demographic groups occupying different roles, or even different

career paths, affecting career mobility for these groups. These effects are partly the

result of biased decisions being made in organisations leading to unfair discrimination

(Dipboye & Colella, 2005).



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There is extensive research literature on performance appraisal (see Arvey & Murphy,

1998; Fletcher, 2001; Fletcher & Perry, 2001; Latham & Mann, 2006; Murphy &

Cleveland, 1995; Smither, 1998 for reviews), yet there is little research that has

addressed performance ratings awarded to different demographic groups within the UK

(Dewberry, 2001), on different BME groups, nor other factors in combination with

performance appraisal ratings which may serve to help us understand how these factors

may cumulatively link to affect the employee grades (ie. effect on progression) on

different groups. This study therefore explores performance appraisal ratings, the link

with grade, and also examines "solo status" and department/function (role complexity)on employee grade within a field setting. Both performance (rating) and non-

performance factors are examined to understand where any differences may lie for

different demographic groups. Instead of only Black and White groups as in previous

studies (Dewberry, 2001), this study examines four demographic groups, ie. Asian,

Black, Chinese, and White.

The next sub-sections outline literature firstly on the glass ceiling, followed by a brief

history of performance appraisal and the various definitions of performance itself. Also

outlined are cognitive processes involved in how biased decisions are made, and the

effects of procedural and organisational justice. There is much evidence of research

relating to gender and ethnicity, and the unequal distribution of performance ratings

which, although not usually specified, could be said to be a glass ceiling effect. The

next sub-section outlines some of this research. Some research on Kanter‘s ―solo

status‖ effects is presented, where some minorities experience negative effects in a



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majority-populated department or function. Also presented is some research on

previous effects of some important organisational variables on progression, including

the impact of tenure and implications for women. Following is a brief outline of the

glass ceiling effect.

1.2 The Glass Ceiling

The glass ceiling is a metaphorical term that describes the subtle, yet very real barriers

to progression of women and BME staff (Barreto et al., 2009; Stockdale & Crosby,

2004; Korac-Kakabadse & Kouzmin, 1997). The glass wall is a similar term which isakin to the "occupational segregation" effect (Barretto, 2009). Both kinds of barriers

lead to differential progression rates for under-represented groups where these groups

are stereotyped as being more "suitable" for less powerful or prestigious positions

(Barreto, 2009). Ceilings prevent upward progression whilst walls prevent lateral

progression.

As stereotyping is a cognitive process (Allport, 1954), the glass ceiling and wall effects

result from organisational decisions being made about employees based on their

suitability of that group to either a certain role or hierarchichal level. Stereotypes and

attitudes towards these under-represented groups mean that managers will make

biased decisions. Decisions are made regularly in organisations – recruitment

decisions (glass walls mean that only certain groups may be considered for certain

roles), lateral or internal move decisions (more glass walls, where only certain groups

are considered more "suitable"), or upward promotion decisions (glass ceilings mean



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that maybe only "white men" are considered "suitable" for certain higher level roles).

Performance appraisal rating decisions, and the promotion decisions which may flow

from them are a part of the glass ceiling effect. Before embarking on research

examining barriers to progression for women and BME groups, it is necessary first to

succintly outline the history of performance appraisal itself.

1.3 Performance appraisal history and the issues surrounding the use and value

1.3.1 A short history of performance appraisal research

Performance appraisal is often considered by authors as one of the most importanthuman resource practices (Boswell & Boudreau, 2002; Judge & Ferris, 1993). It also

has a long research tradition as a topic of occupational psychology (Fletcher, 2002).

Performance appraisal and other human resource (HR) activities have also become part

of a more strategic approach to integrating these activities with organisational objectives

(Fletcher, 2001; Gubbins & Garavan, 2009). HR activities are therefore concerned with

improving performance.

Performance appraisal research in the 1970s was very much in the psychometric

tradition, evaluated against quality criteria of validity and reliability, with the emphasis on

reducing rating errors, assumed to improve the accuracy of measurement (Kuvaas,

2007). Issues relating to bias were also addressed, but only narrowly related to

measurement issues of the performance ratings themselves (Kuvaas, 2007).

Landy and Farr (1980) changed direction of the research, and Ilgen and Feldman



27

(1983) and DeNisi et al. (1984) followed. They considered that the search for rating

error could not be improved upon, and turned to information processing (i.e., how the

rater processes information). The focus at this point therefore was more on accuracy of

judgement.

The current focus of performance appraisal research has now moved on to consider

some of the context in which performance appraisal systems are used (Catano, Darr &

Campbell, 2007). The baby of ―bias‖ (gender and ethnicity) though appears to have

been thrown away with the bathwater of accuracy in the new research tradition. Thereis little emphasis on the factors that bias performance rating3

As performance is complex and variable (Chockalingam & Ones, 2000), this has given

rise to methodological issues in measuring exactly what is ―true‖ performance (Cook,

1995). Along with this, appraising performance is ultimately a human decision-making

process. It is therefore difficult to concur with conclusions by Arvey & Murphy (1998)

and a review by Landy, Shankster & Kohler (1994)4 that there is no bias present in

supervisory ratings. Stauffer & Buckley (2005) believe that other authors implicitly

support this view. Researchers such as Ford & Kraiger (1985) did conclude bias was

present but that the small effect size that found differences between Black employees

receiving lower performance ratings than ―White‖ employees appears to have led to

3 . The focus of bias is lacking in both OP and HR Development (HRD) research (see for example Stauffer & Buckley (2005) whosearticle "reconsiders the belief among personnel psychologists-the belief that supervisory ratings are not biased on the basis of race(p. 586) and Bierama, 2009, who critiques from a feminist perspective, the research and practice of the HRD profession andpractitioners, and especially, that issues of bias and equality has not formed part of the profession‘s agenda for a number of years..4 The Landy, Shankster & Kohler (1994) work is a review of personnel selection ratings used to "measure" performance. The workcan be applied to supervisory ratings to be used in performance appraisal. It is the work of "measurement of performance" which isimportant. The issue of bias applies whether it is used in selection or appraisal research. In any event, research in any form



28

research of this kind being stalled somewhat, especially at higher organisational levels

(Agars, 2004).

As a small effect size is a psychometric ―problem‖ to be ignored, Arvey & Murphy (1998)

etc. omit the human effects of such. This is understandable since the focus was on

psychometric properties (of measuring performance). Both Eagly (2003) and Agars

(2004) make the point however that even small effect sizes have rather large cumulative

implications on the numbers of people affected by such effect sizes.

The issue is complex however with evidence not only of rating bias, but of other biases

throughout the careers of women and BME groups (An-Ju & Sims-Nova, 2005; McKay

et al., 2007; Sackett & Lievens, 2008) leading to inequitable results for these groups,

especially within financial services, where women are under-represented for example

(eg. EHRC, 2009).

Obviously the notion of performance itself is important. Objective factors can be

observed whilst subjective ones cannot, for example. How we define performance in

research has importance in terms of how it is then measured and implemented in

practice. The next section follows up on these issues.

relating to bias, stereotyping or unfair discrimination is more or less missing from today's research agenda of both OP and HRprofessions.



29

1.3.2 Definitions of performance

Definitions of performance are wide-ranging. Recently, Sackett & Lievens (2008)

concluded there were three major dimensions: task performance, citizenship

performance, and counterproductive behaviour. Campbell, McCloy, Oppler & Sager

(1993) point out also that, ―knowing what to do is combined with how to do it‖ (p. 35)

and they also conclude that performance is not the result of performance but includes

factors which cannot be observed such as cognitive factors, including declarative and

procedural knowledge, skill and motivation. Racial, sexual, ethnic, and personality

biases (Feldman, 1981) may therefore affect the outputs of performance (Campbell,McCloy, Oppler, & Sager, 1993) in this view. Different definitions of performance

include the range of factors which may constitute performance and includes observable

and unobservable aspects but which may influence how performance is perceived. The

definitions have implications for practice.

1.3.3 Putting the research into practice

Performance appraisal research suffers from flawed designs (Murphy & Cleveland,

1995) and comprising much of it in laboratory settings (Murphy & Cleveland, 1995;

Dewberry, 2001). Highly experimental and controlled research has its place in terms of

identifying specific variables to be used in field settings (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt &

van Enger, 2003; Gardner & Deadrick, 2008). Nevertheless, commentators have cited

the lack of field research as a problem for performance appraisal research and practice

(Eagly et al., 2003). In addition, laboratory studies find stronger effects than field

studies, yet much of the research has been in the laboratory (Brewer, 2000; Post,



30

DiTomaso, Lowe, Farris & Cordero, 2009). The ultimate goal of performance research

is surely to translate the findings into practical implementation and use of performance

appraisals by practitioners.

1.3.4 Performance appraisal usage in organisations including ratings

Despite the criticism, performance appraisals are still used extensively in organisations

(Fletcher, 2001; 2004; Parker, 2001; Pettijohn, Parker, Pettijohn & Kent, 2001; Nurse,

2005; Nickols, 2007) and many organisations use a system which is fairly similar—the

end result may be an overall performance rating (OPR) which reflects ―performance‖(Catano et al., 2007) whatever that may be for a particular organisation. Some still use

the system for awarding pay rises (Chartered Institute of Personnel & Development

[CIPD] 2007).

A high performance rating is used as an indication of ―high‖ performance for an

individual (Parker, 2001; Pettijohn et al., 2001). In this way, this can be considered to

be ―objective success‖ (Ng, Eby, Sorensen & Feldman, 2005) even though it may have

been derived by managers using subjective means. More importantly, high ratings for

employees can lead to progression (Post et al., 2009). However, organisational

practices vary in how they use performance ratings (Furnham, 2004). Research has

found, for example, that employees are often dissatisfied with performance ratings as

well as the process (Catano et al., 2007; De Criere, 2002; Milliman, Nason, Zhu, De

Ciere, 2002) although there is no objective means of directly attributing a certain score

to a certain grade; an overall performance rating is awarded on a ―subjective basis‖



31

even though it may become an ―objective index‖ and "sign" of ―success‖ in some

organisations.

1.3.5 How individual and organisational performance are linked and the differential competency requirements

In order to be successful, the organisation must perform certain tasks (Flamholtz &

Aksehirli, 2000) and individuals must be able to meet their own performance criteria

(Fletcher & Williams, 1992; Furnham, 2004) and understand what ―good‖ performance

is (Fletcher, 2004). In this way, individual and organisational performance is linked.

In addition to different competency and skill requirements within the organisational

hierarchy, managerial skills are generally more technical the lower down the

organisation, whilst interpersonal skills and long-term strategic-level skills are more

important for higher management levels (Eagly et al., 2003; Katz, 1974; Kraut, Pedigo,

McKenna & Dunnette, 1989; Mintzberg, 1973). Where individuals perform

―successfully‖, this may be expected to be reflected in higher performance ratings and

objective career success such as a higher grade at some point (Post et al., 2009).

Indeed, some organisations, especially financial services, will look unfavourably upon

an individual who receives a poor rating on several occasions such that there is a strong

likelihood they may be dismissed (Burdett, 1994; Kabanoff, 1994; Mahoney-Phillips,

2008; Özbilgin & Woodward, 2004; Waal & Coevert, 2007). At the other end of the

scale, employees receiving a high rating will be, or ideally should be, selected for a

higher grade when this becomes available and on an equitable basis in demographic

(gender and ethnicity) terms. This is the basis of a ―seemingly meritocratic and



32

‗objective‘ system‖ (Post et al., 2009, p. 351).

Organisations are complex of course and human processes interfere both with

performance appraisal decisions on awarding performance ratings, as well as on other

processes, such as the design of the competency requirements themselves.

Stereotyping and bias are the mechanisms through which organisational decisions

become distorted, and are addressed in the next subsection.

1.4 Stereotyping, bias and effects on decision-making

This subsection has several parts including how group effects influence decisions in

organisations and the cognitive factors involved, glass ceiling effects relating to women

and minority ethnic groups, as well as occupational segregation effects. The subsection

also briefly outlines attribution, leadership categorisation and leader/member exchange

theories, which all have implications for both women and BME groups working in

organisations, which are especially "White" and/or "masculine", as the groups face

various barriers from stereotyping and bias.

1.4.1 Groups in organisations and effects on decision-making via stereotyping and bias

People become stereotyped largely as a result of being in a social group (Wilder, 1981)

and as individuals in organisations belong to social groups (eg. gender, ethnicity) it is

the group effect that can influence how people are perceived via stereotyping (Wilder,

1991). Stereotyping then leads appraisers making biased, or "faulty" decision-making

or bias (DeNisi, Cafferty & Meglino, 1984; Tversky, Slovic & Kahneman, 1982) based on



33

the stereotypes they form. Faulty in the context of this study because the decision may

not relate to ―performance‖, for example but to the characteristics assigned to a social

group.

Stereotypes, defined as ―cognitive structures‖, influence a perceiver's decision, such as

a rater, about a social group (Allport, 1954; Cleveland & Landy, 1983). Stereotyping is

automatic and difficult to control however, influencing judgements of individuals (Blair, et

al., 2004), resulting from information processing deficits (DeNisi & Williams, 1988).

Busy managers are likely to form automatic views of staff based on stereotyping andbias as a result of this (DeNisi & Williams, 1988) and negative stereotyping may

override any "objective" "good" performance.

Bias is activated by a group member and this information is generalised across a whole

group. Although recent US research shows this process is more- fine-grained than first

thought (with more within-person effects) (Blair, et al., 2004), the effects of bias can be

systematic resulting in erroneously influencing the conclusions about groups where

group factors become the object of performance measurement rather than an

assessment of an individual‘s performance resulting in unfair discrimination (Tajfel,

1970; Fiske, 1998). The group member is then representative of the individual

representative group, the social group (Fiske, 1998). Where stereotyping and/or bias

relating to appraisees occurs, this may be evident in systematically lower performance

ratings given over time to historically marginalised groups (Appelbaum, Audet & Miller,

2003) where performance evaluation is then, inadvertently, based on factors other than



34

actual performance but rather, group characteristics (Heilman 1995; 2001).

Ingroup and outgroup effects are responsible factors in systematic bias where leaders

for example may be biased against people in certain minority groups (Brewer, 1979;

Lord & Maher, 1991; Wilder & Shapiro (1991). Social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner,

1986) predicts managers favour their own demographic group, and behave in ways that

"enhance" their own group. These effects could pose a problem where, for example,

most managers are White men (Caven, 2006). The similarity-attraction paradigm also

influences managers, as they are attracted to their own race (Byrne, 1971). In thecontext of performance appraisal ratings, for example, raters may favour individuals

who belong to their group (ingroup) over out-group members (Igbaria & Wormley,

1995). The decisions of raters are therefore influenced by the group context. The

effects that ensue where group membership is salient in making judgements about

others are well-researched (Eagly, 2002).

Recent research by Post, et al. (2009) highlights how different stereotypes work

together (ie. gender, work context, competencies being assessed) and highlights the

complexities of the job role, gender and the work context in which performance

evaluation occurs.

The above subsections outline how stereotyping and bias work to influence decisions

about people in organisations. The decisions can relate to the award of performance

ratings themselves, but also the decision to promote, and at the start of careers where



35

the EHRC (2009) study found men dominate the higher earning brackets for example.

All of these decisions impact on progression. On a more institutional basis, "Glass

ceilings" result from decisions about people in organisations, creating barriers for both

women and minority ethnic staff and also have stereotyping and bias at their core.

Recent research examines how stereotypes can work in different context.

1.4.2 More on the invisible glass ceiling: the visible impacts on women and BME staff

Where negative stereotyping leads to biased decisions, this can permeate throughoutthe whole organisation, and operate as invisible barriers to progression. How does this

negative stereotyping manifest itself? Women for example viewed through a gendered

lens, a bias, (Barreto et al., 2009; Eagly, 2002; Olsson & Walker, 2003; Ruderman,

Ohlott & Kram, 1995) leads them to conform to their social roles (Carli & Eagly, 2001;

Eagly, 2002) and punished if they do not (Rudman & Phelan, 2007). This, some

authors maintain, results from the masculinist nature of organisations which value

"rationality", "being tough". Women may not be assumed to be this way, hence the

"lens". In addition, senior women, especially, are expected to be ―nice‖ as well as

―agentic‖ to conform also to social stereotyping of being a woman and a leader (Carli &

Eagly, 2001; Eagly & Karau, 2002). The glass ceiling effect means that gender is the

deciding factor on how a woman may be perceived or evaluated (Ogden, McTavish &

McKean, 2006), a non-performance factor. It means women are firstly stereotyped as

women. Importantly, glass ceilings are invisible but the effects are real as women feel

the effects of not conforming to their various and conflicting roles. Authors note that



36

dealing with these counter-stereotypical issues is problematic for women as it causes

conflict and stress (Rudman & Phelan, 2008), leading to a negative impact on women's

progression. Women may reach the glass ceiling and can go, or decide to go no

further. That women are under-represented in financial services suggests possible

negative stereotyping leading to glass ceiling effects which the EHRC (2009) study

found.

Glass ceiling effects work in the same way for BME staff as they also face a number of

barriers. For example, research has found that less access to formal and informalnetworks is afforded to BME staff compared to Non-BME staff (Forret & Dougherty,

2004; Ibarra, 1995). BME staff also receive fewer opportunities for training and

development which would benefit their progression (Higginbotham, 2004; Stark &

Poppler, 2009). Also, it has been found in the US over the years that Black employees

believe they do not receive as much important career information as do White

employees (Alderfer, Alderfer, Tucker & Tucker, 1980; Ilgen & Youtz, 1986; Mor Barak,

Cherin & Berkman, 1998) and a study by Fernandez (1985) found that BME staff

experienced restricted advancement opportunities. Further, a study by Weeks, Weeks

& Frost (2003) found that pay increases for Black employees were lower than for White

employees; more specifically, class influenced the decision for Black but not White

targets. The studies do not often refer to them as "glass ceiling" effects, but they could

be categorised as such. Barreto et el., (2009) for example, outlines the wide range of

barriers which impact on women and BME groups including lack of progression, less

access to networks and training. Alvarez (2009, 2010) in addition points to racism and



37

unfairness as a factor in glass ceiling limitations on some ethnic groups. In these ways,

it is still the "group" effect at work where people are seen first as a member of a social

group (stereotyping) which then leads to the biased decision.

As pointed out previously, stereotyping and bias leads to the phenomenon of glass

ceiling effects (Barreto et al., 2009; Korac-Kakabase & Kouzmin, 1997). Women and

some BME groups share similar and unique effects when glass ceilings are present, but

generally glass ceilings affect progression of these groups where they are under-

represented at the top levels in some organisations.

1.4.3 Occupational segregation as a glass wall effect

Occupational segregation also results from stereotyping, where people become

grouped into certain positions based on their gender (Anker, 1997; Barreto et al., 2009;

Betz, 1994; Deutsch & Silber, 2005; Hirschfeld, Jordan, Feild, Giles & Armenakis, 2005;

Meyer & Maes, 1983) or ethnicity (Kalra et al., 2009), either on a skill-related basis (ie.

more secretaries are women), or on a hierarchical basis (more top managers are men).

This glass wall effect (Barreto, 2009) leads to under-represented groups being in

functions with little visibility within the organisation and like the glass ceiling, impacts on

progression and success (Post et al., 2009). Glass walls in this view lead to glass

ceiling effects. These effects demonstrate the inherent nature of the barriers to

progression where bias impacts on decision-making. Further biases exist in how

behaviour is explained and briefly outlined below.



38

1.4.3.1 Other biases: Attributions and leadership

Attribution theory and the causes of behaviour

Attribution theory explains how people (managers, for the purpose of this study)understand the causes of behaviour (Kelley, 1972), and according to the theory, biases

lead to explanations of the causes of success or failure so has implications for being

appraised (Feldman, 1981). The theory has three dimensions. Firstly, whether an

event is related to the person's ability or effort (internal), or luck (external), secondly, is

the event controllable or uncontrollable (by the person), and thirdly, is the cause of the

event stable or unstable (Weiner, 1986; Kelley, 1972). Managers may erroneously actinappropriately if their understanding is not correct. Fundamental attribution errors,

where a person overestimates the personal factors and underestimates the situation

may mean that managers are more likely to assume that employees' poor performance

is due to a lack of ability or effort rather than to task difficulty or luck.

Research using the theory finds women (eg. Alimo-Metcalfe, 1993) and some BME

groups have negative attributions made about their involvement in events (eg. being

external, not due to effort or ability), so there are implications for performance appraisal

as well as promotion decisions in relation to progression.

Leadership categorisation theory

Another type of bias can occur where leaders are categorised as prototypical (Lord &

Maher, 1991). Where a perceiver "sees" an individual more as a leader (than not), the

perceiver allows the person to exert leadership upon them, and follows them. This

theory has relevance for global organisations where leader prototypes may differ across



39

countries (from the Western model), and some authors suggest that new prototypes are

needed (eg. Chen & Velsor, 1996). It is feasible some appraisers may appraise staff in

different countries, especially global financial services. For example, leadership

prototype dimensions were found to be highly correlated with cultural dimensions in

European countries (Smith, Dugan, & Trompenaars, 1996). Another study found a

"White standard" existed where "being White" acted as a signal about leadership

(Rosette, Leonardelli, & Phillips, 2008). In this way, positive stereotyping works.

Leader/Member ExchangeLeader/member exchange theory predicts high performance where high quality

relationships between supervisors and their subordinates exist. The theory has been

used in a number of studies relating to gender (eg. Varma & Stroh, 2001) and ethnicity

(eg. Stark & Poppler, 2009), and with a range of other variables. Stark & Poppler

(2009) for example found that the relationship between the supervisor and subordinate

was the most important predictor of performance, over and above the racial

demographics of the two. The theory reminds us to take account of the demographics

in a supervisor/subordinate dyad, although mixed effects have been found.

1.5 Summary

The above subsections outlined how stereotyping and various biases can lead to

―faulty‖ decisions being made about different groups in different ways, including in

performance appraisals. These decisions can occur prior to and as part of a formal

appraisal process, for example the decision to promote, and may affect women and



40

some minority ethnic groups unfairly (Powell & Graves, 2003). Erroneous attributions

relating to behaviour can also affect performance appraisal, and leadership

categorisation theory has relevance for being appraised at managerial levels. The

institutional resulting effects of continuing biased decisions may be seen in glass

ceilings and occupational segregation (glass walls) effects, but the ultimate result leads

to unfairness in organisational systems and inequitable results as the research shows.

Bias and stereotyping in making performance rating decisions, as well as in other

various HR other processes, including indirectly through glass ceilings and occupationalsegregation effects, therefore can work together to create barriers and ultimately

disadvantage for women and BME staff (Korac-Kakabadse & Kouzmin, 1997). It is

important that we understand the full extent of these issues, bearing in mind the low

representation of women and BME groups in some sectors.

Where the author outlined above how unfair systems operate and unfair decisions are

made, the section below now turns to considering some implications of implementing

unfair organisational systems, including performance appraisals, using the concepts of

the psychological contract and procedural justice.

1.6 Some implications of implementing unfair organisational processes

Organisations operate many HR systems, including performance appraisal. Where they

are designed and implemented unfairly, this can lead to negative consequences for

individual and the organisation. This subsection outlines the concepts and some



41

relevant research to illustrate.

1.6.1 Psychological Contract, organisational and procedural Justice

The concepts of psychological contract, organisational and procedural justice explain

and predict how implementing unfair systems and procedures such as performance

appraisal can affect people in organisations in various ways.

Firstly, the psychological contract is defined as ―individual beliefs, shaped by the

organisation, regarding terms of an exchange agreement between individuals and theirorganisation‖ (Rousseau, 1995, p. 9) and involves both implicit and explicit promises

made by managers to staff in the course of organisational life (Bagdadli, Roberson &

Paoletti, 2006; Cropanzano & Folger, 1992). Mistrust can occur if for example

organisational systems are violated (Milward, Purves, & Cropley, 2003). Organisational

justice (Greenberg, 1987) is concerned with the concept of fairness in organisations

(Gilliland, 1993). This research has increased significantly over the past decade (see

Colquitt, Greenberg, & Zapata-Phelan, 2005, for a review). One reason for this

increase is that perceptions of fair treatment have been linked to a number of beneficial

employee behaviours (Conlon, Meyer & Nowakowski, 2005) and obviously of

importance for organisations. For example, meta-analytic reviews have yielded a

moderately strong positive relationship between procedural justice, the perceived

fairness of decision-making processes (Thibaut & Walker, 1975; Leventhal 1980), and

task performance (Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001; Colquitt, Conlon, Wesson, Porter &

Ng, 2001) where fair decision-making may improve how individuals complete their



42

tasks. Clearly, fairness is important. In particular, procedural justice is fostered where

procedures utilise accurate information and are consistent, unbiased, offer mechanisms

for correction, represent the concerns of key groups, and are ethical (Colquitt,

Greenberg & Zapata-Phelan, 2005). Studies examining procedural justice have found

that an unfair organisational process will lead to dissatisfaction and lower performance

(Cropanzano & Folger, 1992). These are important implications in relation to

performance appraisal processes, and include both informal and formal aspects

occurring within the process, as well as the written documentation. Indeed, recent

studies have found links between trust and attitudes toward performance appraisal (eg.Hedge & Teachout, 2000).

Similarly, organisations and researchers have been recently using the concept of

―employee engagement‖ (eg. CIPD, website) to explain how staff may become

dissatisfied with organisational processes. Employee engagement is currently a major

factor which public and private sector organisations are now focusing on (CIPD, 2007a)

and includes factors prior to and during an employee‘s tenure, for example,

performance appraisal, and is seen as a mechanism to manage the employment

relationship. Interestingly, the three concepts above link closely to employee

engagement, with the concepts highlighting the implications for under-represented

groups when implementing systems such as appraisal which may be unfair.



43

1.7 Demographics and effects on performance ratings and other organisational variables

This subsection turns to specific evidence relating to gender and ethnicity, and the

relationship with performance appraisal ratings and other variables which affectprogression.

1.7.1 Research relating to gender, performance ratings and other organisational outcomes

There has been previous and current evidence to suggest that women receive either

higher, lower or the same performance ratings (Fogarty, Parker & Robinson, 1998;Landau, 1995; Landy & Farr, 1980; Lewis, 1997; Smith et al., 2002). The picture is not

clear due to different definitions of performance, appraisal ratings and the various

methodologies used in studies (Campbell et al., 1993) as mentioned in a previous

section. Different contexts also influence ratings given to them (Cardy, Sutton, Carson

& Dobbins, 1998). In any event, whether women receive higher or lower ratings is less

relevant where higher performance ratings do not translate to some progression, or

where different rules apply to men and women in relation to performance ratings.

Where an organisation‘s performance appraisal purpose is to decide on promotions, a

lack of progression indicated by lower grades for some groups, could potentially create

problems for the organisation in procedural justice and psychological contract terms as

outlined above, as some people will become less motivated and satisfied if promises

(either implicit or explicit) are unfulfilled (Bagdadli et al., 2006; Cropanzano & Folger,

1992; Siegel, Post, Brockman, Fishman & Gardner, 2005; Post, DiTomaso, Lowe,

Farris & Cordero, 2009; Roch, Sternburg & Caputo, 2007).



44

Landy and Farr's (1980) previous research found several effects examining

performance ratings and gender. In a majority of the published studies, which they

cited, their conclusion was that there was no consistent effect of rater gender on ratings

obtained in various research contexts including instructional, laboratory and simulated

work settings (Landy & Farr, 1980). Other more recent research in different contexts

as mentioned above, as well as various theories, has found a wide range of results (eg.

Post, et al., 2009; Salter, Green, Ree, Carmody-Bubb & Duncan, 2009; Stark & Poppler,

2009). It is clear that the range of research is informative, but much of it does not focus

on the outcomes of ratings over time.

The next subsection examines similar issues relating to ethnicity and being evaluated.

1.7.2 Research relating to ethnicity, performance ratings and other organisational outcomes

Where performance appraisal ratings and ethnicity are concerned, research

predominantly conducted in the US (Dewberry, 2001) has found that Black ratees

receive slightly lower ratings than their White counterparts and found to account for

between 1 and 4% of the variance in performance (Ford, Kraiger & Schechtman, 1986;

Stark & Poppler, 2009), performance being based on objective and subjective criteria

(cognitive, absence and job performance criteria). Some consider this to be small (eg.

Arvey & Murphy, 1998). However, as Stark & Poppler (2009) point out, discrimination

claims in the US involve performance ratings so the issue is obviously a real one in

practical terms regardless of the small effect size (Agars, 2004).



45

Like gender, an individual‘s ethnicity is difficult to ignore and is ―visible‖ (Blair, et al.,

2004; Catano et al., 2007; Fredman, 2001). Some minority ethnic groups may be

viewed in stereotyped ways, either positively or negatively (Alvarez, 2009; Wilder &

Shapiro, 1991). For example, in a US context, Asians are stereotyped as being diligent,

smart, well-organised, motivated, well-educated, passive, quiet, short, reserved and

submissive whilst Hispanics have been stereotyped as being unintelligent, lazy, too

emotional, kind, friendly, lively and passionate (Alvarez, 2009; Fernandez, 1991). Other

stereotypes are likely to operate in the UK, with a changing workforce demography

(Office for National Statistics, 2009). These stereotyped views may have an impact onsome minority ethnic groups being viewed negatively and awarded lower performance

ratings than White groups (Dewberry, 2001; Landau, 1995). Others consider however

that some performance differences may be ―real‖ (Milkovich & Wigdor, 1991).

Varying results have been found between field and laboratory studies (Post et al.,

2009). In addition, most of these studies use only Black and White ethnic categories

(Dewberry, 2001; Ford et al., 1986; Landau, 1995; Pulakos, White & Oppler, 1983;

Waldman & Avolio, 1991) and not different ethnic groupings even though differences

may be experienced by these different groups based on stereotyping (Alvarez, 2009;

Landau, 1995).

The studies and some of the context on which these findings were based may not now

be relevant to today's complex and diverse organisations and Dewberry (2001) and

Tansley, Harris, Stewart & Turner, (2006) further make the point that there is little field



46

research in the UK which examines "ethnicity" and ratings. The US research is certainly

informative. The UK context, like the US is large and dynamic (Stockdale & Crosby,

2004) but with European Union countries joining (Stott, 2007) the concepts of ―race‖ and

―ethnicity‖ are continually being debated, especially "invisible" aspects of diversity

(Office for National Statistics, 2009). It seems therefore important for more research to

be done in the UK as it presents a different context to the US.

The next subsection turns to evidence of solo status effects which applies to and

impacts upon both gender and ethnicity groups in various ways, including the eventualeffect on performance ratings. Once again, bias and stereotyping operate.

1.8 Salience of demography (gender and ethnicity) and the "Solo status" effect

Solo status is a group effect and occurs where an individual is different from a majority

group (in a function or managerial level) such that they do not share the same social

identity as the group (White, 2008; Wilder & Shapiro, 1991). Stereotyping is the

mechanism and works to increase the person‘s visibility as the solo person. The person

then becomes representative of the minority group as a whole. This is thought to put

added pressure on solo status individuals and lead to stress (Craig & Rand, 1998;

Niemann & Dovidio, 1998; Yoder, 1991; Zinner, 1988). Kanter‘s (1977) theory of

tokenism is similar, where she found token women (women working in groups, where

the ratio of men to women was approximately 85:15) were subject to greater

performance pressure than men. She concluded from this study that the women‘s

presence created ambiguities for them in terms of the group culture (―masculine‖). Men



47

responded to this ambiguity in the ensuing culture by increasing the male camaraderie

within the group. Because of the heightened difference, women were marginalised and

not included in informal networking which is important for progression. The effect on

solo individuals is a type of a bias (Craig & Rand, 1984; Crocker & McGraw, 1984) as

decision-making is affected. Recent research however has shown that people who

cognitively appraise the situation as a challenge rather than a threat may actually

perform higher (White, 2008). Individual differences therefore may play a part in solo

status contexts in whether people perform better or worse. The phenomenon would

appear to be an important one especially where, because of some groups beingprogressively under-represented in the higher echelons, negative effects could occur at

different managerial levels on the way to the top. Indeed, the EHRC (2009) report into

financial services mentioned above, reports women are more likely to be promoted to

supervisory posts, but men to managerial posts (p.79). The study finds stereotyping to

be a major explanatory factor for the negative effects against women.

1.9 Previous effects on progression

It is instructive to note at this stage that historical effects of biased recruitment and

selection may still be present in organisations (prior to equality legislation); White men

will have progressed already and some recruited into more select roles and

departments which sees them progressing more quickly (Simpson & Ituma, 2009). So

even where White men do not receive higher ratings, say, than women or minority

ethnic staff, current recruitment efforts focusing on targeting women and minority ethnic

people mean that current higher performance ratings will make no difference to either



48

women or minority ethnic staff. There are therefore processes inside the organisation

(eg. historically where White men are already on progression tracks and have been for

some time (Simpson & Ituma, 2009)) acting as an invisible career barrier which sees

some BME groups and women low visibility departments. This could be especially

relevant to financial services organisations, which have predominantly recruited White

men in previous times (Regini, Kitay & Baethge, 1999) and may still be in the

organisation. Where previously there were no diversity or effective performance

appraisal processes in place, it is easy to see how the effects of contemporary diversity

efforts may be inadequate if not addressed appropriately to take account of thesehistorical concerns. In addition, where diversity strategies only focus on say recruiting

women and minority ethnic staff into the organisation, this is laudable, but lack of

progress of some demographic groups is unlikely to be acknowledged at later career

stages so that women and minority ethnic staff may still not progress as quickly as

White men.

1.10 The issue of organisational tenure

The issues in the preceding subsection elucidate that tenure poses an interesting

dilemma for both women and minority ethnic staff, especially taking into account the

historical effects of both groups having little visibility in organisations until recent

campaigns such as Opportunity 2000 which aimed to increase women in the workforce

(King, 1994). Tenure is taken to be a "sign" of loyalty (Landau, 1995). Where, as

outlined above, some White men may have progressed to senior roles because of

various processes (including the ―glass escalator‖ effect, where men progress quickly



49

into ―feminised professions‖) (Hutlin, 2003), progression may also ensue because they

do not take career breaks. Career progression requires a long tenure in some cases

(Regini et al., 1999). Women and other minorities may leave because of unfriendly

organisational cultures (Dipboye & Colella, 2005) and not, as human capital theory

predicts, because of choice or failure (Koran-Kakabadse & Kouzmin, 1997). Certainly

the EHRC (2009) study highlighted some of these issues.

Tenure has more often than not been used as a moderating variable (eg. Moser &

Galais, 2007). However, in this study, it has been used as an independent variable toexamine its contribution alongside other variables in relation to progression. This

seems theoretically sensible bearing in mind the basis for tenure to contribute

differentially to the progression of demographic groups which may be unequal.

1.11 Building and expanding on existing research

Previous research on performance appraisal has built an empirical basis which has not

come to clear conclusions. Much of this and similar research is US-based (eg. Lance &

Bennett, 2000) and the context of the UK is different. Also, the author could locate few

studies in the UK in the work psychology literature related to issues raised in the US.

However, statistics such as the one that finds minority ethnic people underrepresented

in the NHS and in the police force (Choudhury, 2007; Kalra et al., 2009; Mistry & Latoo,

2009) would suggest more UK-based research is needed.



50

Much of the research on performance appraisal is laboratory-based and calls have been

made for more UK field research. These are real limitations to a research base which is

relevant for a UK context. In addition, organisations are changing and becoming more

global and it is important to understand the implications for UK organisations that

operate globally such as financial services. Diversity and cross-cultural are surely

important to understand, especially as they relate to being appraised in organisations,

and especially where they combine with other factors to affect progression differentially

for some groups. Bias and stereotyping are likely to be factors where there are different

demographic groups in organisations, as the research shows.

1.12 Rationale for study 1

The above sections outlined concepts and theories in relation to performance and

appraisal, and presented research on some processes that may undermine the

progression of women and minority ethnic staff, including bias in performance ratings.

A number of biases are involved in appraisers making decisions about employees

(including awarding ratings and promotions), and some of these are more relevant at

higher levels (eg. leadership categorisation). There are also indications that factors

outside of appraisal presented as contextual effects around decision-making may occur

together to produce unequal effects on different demographic groups leading to

differential rates of progression for groups.



51

1.13 Research hypotheses

The focus of this study was to explore performance appraisal ratings awarded within a

UK financial institution from a gender and ethnicity perspective including the role they

played in progression. The study also examined a number of variables over a 3-year

period to assess their effects on the mean grade (progression) received by gender and

by ethnic groups.

In particular, the study seeks to examine the following hypotheses:

Hypotheses relating to ethnicity

1. That Black and Minority Ethnic staff (BME, i.e., Asian, Black, Chinese) received a

lower performance rating than White staff for all three years.

2. There was a relationship between ethnicity and the two highest (1-2) and lowest (7-

8) performance ratings for Year 3.

3. a) There was a relationship between ethnicity and being in a ―high‖ or ―low‖

grade, such that Asian, Black and Chinese employees were more likely to be in

lower grades than White employees.

b) There was a relationship between ethnicity and whether the person was in a

manager or non-manager grade.



52

4. There was a relationship between ethnicity and the department or function employed

in (Year 3).

5. a) There was a relationship between proportions of BME staff in a department and

whether a staff member was in a high (1-2) or low (4-5) performance rating

category (Year 3).

b) There was a relationship between BME and White staff being in a high or low

grade, in high (10% or more) and low (9% or less) proportion

departments/functions (Year 3).

6. The effect of all predictor variables (proportions of BME staff in a branch,

department/function, Overall Performance Ratings (OPR) for years 1-3, service and

age) differentially affected the mean grade for different ethnic groups in Year 3 (ie.

the cumulative effect of predictor variables over three years).

Hypotheses relating to gender

7. Women received a lower performance rating than men for all three years.

8. There was a relationship between gender and the two highest (1-2) and lowest (4-5)

performance ratings for Year 3.



53

9. a) There was a relationship between gender and being in a ―high‖ or ―low‖ grade.

b) There was a relationship between gender and whether the person was in a

manager or non-manager grade for all three years. (Chi square analysis was

conducted to explore this relationship).

10. There was a relationship between gender and which department/function the

person was employed in (Year 3).

11. a) There was a relationship between the proportion of women in a branch/

department and the performance rating received by men and women (Year 3).

b) There was a relationship between the proportion of women in a branch/

department and the grade received by men and women (Year 3).

12. The effect of all predictor variables (proportions of women in a branch,

department/function, Overall Performance Ratings (OPR) for years 1-3, service

and age) had differential effects on the mean grade received (Year 3) by both

men and women.



54

2. Method

This study used archived performance appraisal data (1998-2000) from a global

financial services organisation to examine the relationships between demographic

factors (gender and ethnicity) and performance ratings and other organisational data

variables. The study was quasi-experimental as the participants were not randomly

allocated, and an opportunity sample was used.

2.1 Organisational information

The organisation employed a total of approximately 71,000 people globally in 2001, of

which almost 50,000 were employed in the UK. Of this total, 29,693 (60%) were White

women, 1,819 (4%) non-White women, 981 (2%) were non-White men and 18,433

(37%) were White men. The organisation also employed a total of 1,000 people in the

UK who had a disability. 31% of all managers were full-time women with 11,039 (65%)

of all women employed on a part-time basis. 70% of all managers were men but only

1% (n = 511) of men were employed on a part-time basis. In 2001, 2.4% of all

managers were Asian, 1.6% were Black and 92% were White.

2.2 Sample

The study sample comprised 1,680 employees from across the UK and who performed

various roles in retail and investment banking, and from ―staff‖ and ―executive‖ groups.

All staff (whether staff or executives) had identical performance appraisal forms.



55

The senior diversity manager identified 1,000 White employees to match the 1,000 Non-

White (BME, Black and Ethnic Minority) employees from various departments and

branches across the UK. The sample was initially drawn from a random selection from

the organisation‘s database across branches and departments, which employed small

and larger numbers of BME employees. The rationale for this initial selection was to

gain access to an equal number of non-White and White employees, as there was a

much smaller number of non-White employees in this organisation and the organisation

wished to identify these people across the desired number of branches/departments.

Line managers in these various branches/departments were sent a memo identifyingthese employees asking for a completed appraisal to be sent to the senior diversity

manager for each person for three years.

From a total sample of 2,000 performance appraisal forms requested, 1,743 appraisals

were returned (87%). The appraisal forms were scrutinised and any forms which did

not include performance reviews for the four quarters (the final review being at the end

of each year), as well as any appraisal forms from staff members who had been on

long-term sick leave or on maternity leave were deleted from the sample, leaving a total

usable sample of 1,680 appraisal forms to be analysed. For each of the 1,680 identified

employees, line managers had returned completed appraisal forms for 1998, 1999, and

2000.

The eventual sample comprised 47.7% who worked in branches, 14.5% in head office

departments and 29.4% in operations; 10.9% were managers, and 80.7% were non-



56

managers. Of the sample, 28.6% were Asian, 15.2% were Black, 1.6% were Chinese

and 46.3% were White employees, 21.0% were men, 70.6% were women.

2.3 The organi sation’s performance management system

The organisation had a performance appraisal process as part of their performance

management system, which was undergoing change during 1999/2000. An

unpublished study, commissioned by a previous diversity manager within the

organisation conducted in the same organisation in 1998, had found that BME

employees received lower performance ratings in the previous year. The organisation‘sappraisal process changed during the period of this study whereby two booklets were

produced for all staff. The full effects of the changes were completed by 2000 when the

performance appraisal form was changed. However, the change to the appraisal form

was minor: the column ―skills total‖ was dropped from the performance appraisal forms

from 2000, and the separate sections for ―Strengths and Developments‖ were also

deleted and included in the ―Summary‖ section of the form. Otherwise, the performance

appraisal forms for all three years were identical.5

The organisation had a common appraisal and objective setting system stated in new

booklets provided in 2000 to be, ―a common language to rate performance‖. These

booklets outlined the ―performance management system‖ that comprised the

performance appraisal system. The performance management system included

objective setting, two of the core objectives for all staff being ―business growth‖ and

5 It is not known the extent of the change process as the relevant person was not available to verify the extent of changes. Thechanges however were visibly observed by the author.



57

―personal development‖. The aim of the whole performance management process was

to reward performance through a ―personal‖ factor and the award of an ―Overall

Performance Rating‖ which influenced salary awards and future development

prospects. The personal factor award related to achievement of objectives as applied to

particular individuals and included behaviour and contribution to team efforts. Key

result areas (objective indices, eg. number of sales) for all jobs were specified in these

booklets. The performance appraisal process involved line managers agreeing

objectives and included the objective key result areas as well as subjective judgements

to be made by the appraiser. ―Leadership‖ was specified as a core objective formanagement roles only. It was specified in literature provided to appraisers that line

managers were required to have line-managed individuals for at least 12 months prior to

appraising a subordinate.

Progress of employees was reviewed quarterly with ―performance‖ measured against

objectives. At the annual review meeting, the appraising manager advised employees

of their personal performance factor, discussed progress and set action plans for the

next year.

2.4 Performance Appraisal Training

All managers were required to attend appraisal training6, also attended by the author.

The two booklets referred to above were provided to attendees, which outlined the

6 However, due to organisational constraints and the nature of the study, it was not possible to ascertain whether in fact this was thecase. The author attended the appraisal training course (for line managers) but there was one participant who had been employedin the organisation for 12 years and had only attended the appraisal training after this time.



58

performance management and appraisal system. One booklet gave an overview of the

whole performance management system used, which was for appraisers only, and

another booklet (also handed out to attendees) was directed towards both appraisers

and appraisees. In the latter booklet, advice was provided to appraisees on how best to

collect evidence for the review meetings. The booklet stated that the information was

also available on the organisation‘s intranet. Seven core standards applied to all

employees and four descriptors were provided for each of these core standards.

2.5 Annual Performance Review Meetings

Managers conducted annual review meetings where the appraising manager discussed

progress and set action plans for the next year. The appraisal form was completed

either during the appraisal interview or some time later when the appraising manager

had reflected on the meeting. However, there were no controls to ascertain when the

appraisal form was completed in relation to the performance appraisal meeting.

2.6 The Performance Appraisal Instrument

The appraisal forms themselves consisted of a person‘s name, staff number, grade,

position and reviewing manager, as well as a section for the OPR. Additionally, there

were sections in the appraisal form where the appraisee and appraiser could write their

own comments.

The other OPR component comprised a 5-item rating as follows:



59

1 O=Outstanding2 H=High Achievement3 G=Good performance4 I =Improvement required5 U=Unacceptable

New rating definitions were provided for the 5-item rating scale although appraisers

were advised to use the same ratings as above for 2000. Also included was a section

relating to whether objectives were ―Not Met‖, ―Met‖, or ―Exceeded‖.

2.7 Procedure for the study

The 1,680 appraisal forms returned were from 280 branches, 95 operations

departments and 93 head office departments. Once the completed appraisal forms

were received, a unique identifier was written onto each page and the year the appraisal

was conducted. For instance, the first appraisal received would be assigned the

number 0001/98, 0001/99, 0001/00. This number was also entered onto a spreadsheet

along with the staff number, name, gender, age and BME grouping. The unique

identifier was used to identify the information, allow for confidentiality and to enable

matching of further data. Also entered was length of service, contractual status (part-

time/full-time), whether person had a disability and also level of education. The

information entered from the appraisal forms was performance rating, line manager

name, line manager gender, skills totals, number of strengths and number of

developments.



60

Information was also provided from the organisation‘s central database situated in

another UK Location. This information was downloaded onto a spreadsheet and

contained the staff number, staff gender, staff race ("B" or "W"), staff race (11 census

classifications), department ID, department name, disability, contract, age, years of

service, and education level for each of the employees in the sample. The unique

identifier and the staff number enabled the data from the two spreadsheets to be

matched. The information from the two sources was constantly cross-checked to

ensure it was correct. For example, a random sample of the hard copy appraisal forms

was checked against the information in the spreadsheet (and which also contained thestaff number, also on the appraisal form). A full list of all variables used in the study is

attached as Appendix A.

2.8 Validity and Reliability

This study did not deal directly with validity in a formal sense (eg. Brewer, 2000) in

relation to the overall performance rating. For example, ratings were not correlated with

objective indices of performance. Although objective indices were used in the

organisation‘s performance appraisal process, they did not relate in a way that could be

objectively examined. The OPR was subjective, based on the appraiser‘s view of the

whole job performance of the appraisee for the year and is a common rating used in

organisations in this way (Borman & Motowildo, 1993).

The rationale for the lack of formal validity of performance ratings was due to archived

data from within a natural organisational setting being used for the study where the



61

performance appraisals had been completed for the three years when the study was

commenced. There was no opportunity for elaborate scientific controls. This study,

therefore, should be viewed as an exploration of the relationship between performance

ratings and other outcomes of the performance appraisal process, including the effects

on progression. This is feasible bearing in mind one purpose of the performance

appraisal process in the organisation was to award higher grades.

Some measure of reliability is attained because of the large samples used (Cohen,

1960) and the use of the same 5-point rating for the three years. However, due to thenature of the study (using archived data), formal test, retest and inter-rater reliability

could not validly be conducted due to the lack of scientific control mentioned earlier

above and nor appropriate for the study.

Overall performance ratings of employees by their line managers have been used as a

valid method to assess performance in organisations in previous studies (Gattiker &

Larwood, 1995; Lyness & Thompson, 2000). The ratings measure used in the present

study was deemed to have face validity: the ratings were commonly applied to all

individuals in the organisation and were known by all to measure success and affect

progress—the purpose of the performance appraisal process was outlined in the

organisation's Performance Management booklet referred to above, and was also

communicated via performance appraisal training for appraisers. The reliability of the

overall performance rating (OPR) as a scale measure is assured by the general

agreement and understanding of the definitions applying to each of the scales of 1-5.



62

For example, although the scale is numerical, there were also qualitative, subjective

definitions to each of the scale measurements. It was generally agreed in the

organisation that 1 was quantitatively and qualitatively larger than 2, 2 between 3, and

so on between each of the OPR rating scale points, and the training attended by the

author confirmed this. This generally accords with Cohen‘s (1960) analysis of reliability

where agreement is reached between scales by two judges. In addition, in the

organisation where this study was conducted, the numerical scales were published in

the Performance Management Handbook and on the intranet which all staff and

managers had access to. Clearly though the rating is subjective – one person‘s ratingmay not equate with another‘s. In addition, it was the organisation‘s policy that where a

rating of ―5‖ (lowest) was received for two years running, disciplinary action was taken.

Because there were policy decisions attached to the rating measurements which were

uniform, this gives some credence to the reliability of the OPR rating scale and the

magnitude of difference between each of the rating scale indices.

2.9 Variables used in the study

The variables used for this study relate to data from the appraisal forms as well as

organisational data provided from the central database. The variables are listed below:



63

Table 1Variables From Appraisal Forms and Database

Appraisal form data

relating to years

Variables

Year 1 Overall performance rating, skills totals (reverse scored from 1-7 for each skill), gradecode (manager, non-manager), number of years in grade (in 1998), number ofstrengths, number of development areas.

Year 2 Overall performance rating, skills totals, grade code (manager, non-manager), numberof strengths, number of development areas.

Year 3 Overall performance rating, grade code (manager, non-manager), grade8all* (4 non-manager grades, 4 manager grades)

*Variable only applies to Year 3.

The variables in Table 1 above, Overall performance rating and Grade code apply to

performance appraisals for all three years. The variable code grade code was coded as

1 = manager; 2 = non-manager. The variable ―grade8all‖ refers to all of the 8 grades

within the organisation (Year 3). For Years 1 and 2, much of the data is missing related

to the 8 grades and so could not be used in any analysis. For this reason, the variable,

"grade8all", only applies to Year 3.

Other variables : Other variables (Table 2 below) relate to demographic data including

ethnicity and gender variables and this information was obtained from the organisation‘s

database (matched via the staff number on the database with the staff number on the

appraisal form).



64

Table 2Other Variables

Variable Definition

Four collapsed ethnic groupings AsianBlackChineseWhite

Proportion of minority ethnic staff:Branch/department with low number of non-Whiteemployees

9% or less non-White employees

Proportion of minority ethnic staff:Branch/department with high number of non-Whiteemployees

10% or more non-White employees

Contractual status 1 = Full-time

2 = Part-time

Functions 1 = Branches2 = Head Office Departments3 = Operations (including processing)

Education 1 = O level or GCSE2 = A level3 = Degree or prof. qualification

Disability 1 = Has disability0 = Does not have disability

Gender 1 = Male2 = Female

Proportions = (% of females in a branch/department) 1 = 0-102 = 11-203 = 21-304 = 31-405 = 41-506 = 51-607 = 61-708 = 81-100

Age 1 = up to 292 = 30-393 = 40-494 = 50+

Service (Years) 1 = 1-52 = 6-103 = 11-154 = 16-205 = 21-256 = 26-297 = 30+



65

Proportions : The variables in Table 2 above relating to the proportion of Non-White

(BME) employees within a particular branch or department use the percentage figure of

10% as the cut-off point. This figure was arrived at in discussion with the diversity

manager. Also, the proportions of BME employees within the organisation varied widely

depending on which region a branch or department was situated in. It is feasible that

other percentages could be used. From an examination of the literature (e.g., Kanter

1977) and taking into account the organisational factors, it was considered that the

threshold of 10% was a reasonable figure to use and broadly in line with literature.

2.10 Analyses used throughout the study

A number of analyses using one-way ANOVA, Chi Square and linear regression were

employed to assess the effects of gender and ethnicity relationships with solo status,

performance ratings and employee grade. Together, they provided a pattern of data,

which could be examined in relation to the research questions, each one providing a

different focus. For example, ANOVA was used to examine significant differences

between ratings. Chi Square was used to examine the categorical properties of high

and low ratings, both of which have different consequences for staff who receive them.

Regressions can be used to test theoretical assumptions and the influence of predictor

variables to assess how much a predictor adds to the prediction of a criterion, over and

above that which can be accounted for by other important predictors (Hinkle, Wiersma &

Murs, 1994). The criterion variable used in this study ("grade8all") was the mean grade

(8 grades), attained by employees in Year 3.



66

The predictor variables are thought to be theoretically important in relation to

progression. For example, for the variable ―Department/Function‖, depending on which

department or function a person works in may result in progressing quicker due to the

nature of the work and experiences the different functions provide—branches in a small

town for example are qualitatively different to a head office department with high

visibility to the rest of the organisation. Function data for all three years may predict a

higher grade if the function the person worked in had a high visibility factor, a highly

prestigious role, for example, in a head office department. In this way, the cumulative

effect of being in a high visibility function may more likely affect the grade a person is inover a three year period rather than say a one year period. The cumulative effect,

therefore, of examining theoretically important predictor variables on the important

variable of interest, the employee grade, is useful, especially from a longitudinal

perspective where a pattern may be discerned between groups. The

Department/function variable was transformed to take account of its categorical

properties to be used in regression analysis (Field, 2009).

2.11 Variables relating to Ethnicity

Throughout the study, four ―collapsed‖ categories of ethnicity were used:

AsianBlackChineseWhite

These were derived from the government census categories, which currently numbers

11 and comprise more refined definitions in each of the above categories. However, for



67

the Chi Square analyses relating to ―proportions‖, only the two categories were used

(i.e., BME and White).

Analysis using the four collapsed categories was conducted because some literature

shows that different ethnic groups experience differences in some organisational

outcomes (Stark & Poppler, 2009) rather than Black and White groups as used in some

US studies (eg. Kraiger & Ford, 1985). The effects of stereotyping (and possible unfair

discrimination) are not uniform across all BME individuals. Some groups experience

either relatively more positive or negative stereotyping. Using the 11 categories asabove however would have resulted in some of the categories having few participants in

some categories. As the study used regression analysis involving a number of

variables, it was necessary to have the minimum required number of observations in

any one category to ensure that the analysis was robust and fulfilled the criterion for a

parametric test. Indeed, as Field (2009) recommends, not all variables need to be

included in a regression.

The next section provides results of the analyses, whilst the section 4 discusses these

findings.



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3. Analysis

The relationships between gender and ethnicity (including solo status effects of both of

these groups), grade and overall performance appraisal ratings (OPR) were explored

using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and Chi Square. A range of predictors

was also regressed onto the Year 3 grade as the dependent variable using linear

regression and showing separate analyses for the different demographic groups.

The ―Results‖ subsection below describes r esults of all analyses and the discussion

appears in the subsequent subsections.

3.1 Results

The first part of this subsection provides the analyses relating to ethnicity, performance

ratings and grades. The subsection then follows with analyses relating to gender. Both

subsections report on the results of regression analyses where all independent

variables are regressed onto the mean grade for all the demographic groups separately.

3.1.1 Results of analysis relating to ethnicity

Hypothesis 1: The first hypothesis stated that BME staff (Asian, Black, Chinese) groups

received a lower performance rating than Non-BME (White) staff for each of Years 1-3.

Table 3 presents mean performance ratings for staff categorised as Asian, Black,

Chinese (BME), and White (Non-BME) for three years.



69

Table 3Mean Overall Performance Ratings for Collapsed Ethnicity Census Groupings (1=high, 5=low)

BME Staff Non-BME Staff

Asian Black Chinese White

Year M SD n M SD n M SD n M SD n

Year 1 2.65 .567 524 2.70 .540 222 2.85 .366 30 2.63 .605 704

Year 2 2.72 .530 467 2.78 .540 234 2.45 .596 22 2.70 .538 750

Year 3 2.77 .528 421 2.82 .505 224 2.77 .612 22 2.76 .535 725

For Year 1, the highest7 mean rating was 2.85 for employees in the Chinese ethnicity

group while employees in the White category received the lowest mean rating of 2.63.

The means were subjected to a one-way ANOVA which revealed non-significant

differences between them, F(df 3, N = 1358)1.621, p = .183.

For Year 2, Black employees received the highest mean rating of 2.78 with Chinese

employees receiving the lowest mean rating of 2.45. One-way ANOVA results were

significant, F(df 3, N = 1473)3.244, p = .021. A post-hoc Tukeys HSD was employed to

assess where the differences lay and this revealed Chinese and Black groups of staff

showed the largest difference in mean ratings, F(df 1, n = 256).328, p< .05.

Performance ratings for Year 3 were also subjected to one-way ANOVA and revealed

that Black employees received the highest mean rating of 2.82 with Asian and Chinese

employees both receiving a mean rating of 2.77. White employees received the lowest

mean rating of 2.76. These results however are not significant F(df 3, n = 1392).848, p =



70

.468.

The results of the above analyses showed mixed results – Year 1 and Year 3 revealed

non-significant results—BME staff did not receive lower performance appraisal ratings.

For Year 2 the result is significant as Chinese staff the lowest rating. Black staff in that

year received the highest rating.

Hypothesis 1 is therefore partially supported. Chinese received the lowest rating in the

BME group.

3.1.1.1 Relationship between ethnicity and high and low performance ratings

Hypothesis 2 stated that there would be a relationship between ethnicity and a high or a

low performance rating received. Table 4 shows the number of staff in each of the

collapsed census groups who were in a high or a low performance rating category (for

Year 3).

Table 4Numbers of Staff in Each Collapsed Census Group in a High (1-2) or Low (4-5) Performance RatingCategory (Year 3)


High performancerating category

97 (31%) 40 (13%) 5 (2%) 175 (55%)

Low performance

rating category10 (31%) 6 (19%) 1 (3%) 15 (47%)

7 Although numerically the rating is ‗lower‘, the performance ratings in the organisation range from 1-5, with 1 being high, 5 being

low.



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Table 4 shows the number of staff in each of the collapsed census groups who were in

a high or a low performance rating category (for Year 3). An inspection of the results

matrix shows that there are differences between the observed and expected

frequencies of some groups and the rating category they occupied with results

subjected to a Chi Square analysis to explore differences between these frequencies for

the four collapsed groupings (Asian, Black, Chinese, White). The analysis revealed that

there was no difference between the groups and whether they occupied a high (1-2) or

low (4-5) performance rating category, 2(3, N = 349) 1.609, p = .657 (two-tailed).

Hypothesis 2 is not supported. The observed and expected frequencies within each

category are reflective of what would be expected in the population. Any relationship

between ethnicity and whether they received a high or low performance rating was

therefore more than likely due to sampling error.

3.1.1.2 Relationship between ethnicity and grade (Year 3)

Hypothesis 3 a) stated that there would be a relationship between ethnicity and being in

a high or low grade, such that Asian, Black and Chinese employees were more likely to

be in the low grades than White employees. Table 5 above shows the total numbers of

staff in each of the ethnic census group categories who were in either a high or a low

grade category.



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Table 5Numbers of Staff in Each Collapsed Census Group in a High (7-8) or Low (1-2) Grade Category (Year 3)


High gradecategory

9 (36%) 4 (16%) 0 (0%) 12 (48%)

Low gradecategory

119 (31%) 58 (15%) 6 (2%) 198 (52%)

Chi square analysis was employed to examine this hypothesis. The result, however, is

not significant, F(df 3, N = 406).643, p = .886.

Hypothesis 3 a) is not supported. There is no significant relationship between ethnicity

and being in a high or low grade category for Year 3.

3.1.1.3 Relationship between ethnicity and manager and non-manager grade(Years 1-3)

Hypothesis 3 b) stated that there would be a relationship between ethnicity and whether

the person was in a manager or non-manager grade for each of the Years 1-3. Table 6

shows descriptive statistics (numbers and percentages) relating to the data.



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Table 6Ethnicity and Number of Managers and Non-Managers for All Ethnic Groups for Years 1-3

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3

Asian managers 32 (35%) 34 (34%) 61 (30%)

Asian non-managers 357 (30%) 356 (32%) 463 (31%)

Black manager 8 (9%) 15 (15%) 37 (18%)

Black non-managers 200 (17%) 175 (16%) 241 (16%)

Chinese managers 2 (2%) 3 (3%) 6 (3%)

Chinese non-managers 15 (1%) 15 (1%) 24 (2%)

White managers 49 (54%) 49 (49%) 96 (49%)

White non-managers 609 (52%) 573 (51%) 752 (51%)

Chi square analysis was employed to explore these relationships. However, this result

is not significant 2(3, N = 994) .643, p = .886 (two-tailed).

Hypothesis 3 b) is not supported. There was no relationship between a staff member's

ethnicity and being in a manager or non-manager grade.

3.1.1.4 Relationship between ethnicity and department or function

Hypothesis 4 stated that there would be a relationship between ethnicity and the

department or function employed in (Year 3).

Firstly, Table 7 below shows descriptive statistics for the numbers of staff, by ethnic

grouping, in each of the bank functions/departments:



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Table 7Numbers and Percentages of Ethnicity Groups Working in Departments/Functions (Year 3)

Number of staff in 4 ethnicgroups

Branch Head Office Operations

Asian (n = 523) 303 (58%) 70 (13%) 150 (29%)

Black (n = 278) 115 (41%) 55 (20%) 108 (39%)

Chinese (n = 30) 12 (40%) 6 (20%) 12 (40%)

White (n = 847) 444 (52%) 135 (16%) 268 (32%)

A Chi Square analysis was computed to examine this relationship which was significant,

2(6, N = 1678) 2.197, p< .001 (two-tailed). Cramer‘s V (effect size), however, is 0.81

indicating that only around 1% in the variance is accounted for by staff‘s ethnicity and

which department or function they were employed in, in Year 3.

Hypothesis 4 is supported—there was a relationship between which ethnic group a

person occupied and which department or function they were employed in, in Year 3.

However, the low effect size indicates that other factors are involved in this relationship.

3.1.1.5 Proportions of minority ethnic staff (Solo Status effect) and theeffects on performance ratings and grades

Analyses were employed to explore the relationship between the proportions of BME

staff in a department/function and performance ratings (high and low) and grades (high

and low) using categorical variables.

Table 8 firstly shows the numbers of staff in each of the high and low proportion

categories:



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Table 8Numbers of BME and White8 Staff in a High (10%>) or Low (9%<) Proportion Department/Function in High(1-2) or Low (4-5) OPR Category (Year 3)

BME staffHigh rating

BME staffLow rating

White staffHigh rating

White staffLow rating

High proportioncategory

108 (56%) 9 (60%) 86 (44%) 6 (40%)

Low proportioncategory

34 (33%) 8 (53%) 70 (67%) 7 (47%)

Hypothesis 5 a) stated that there would be a relationship between BME and White staff

being in either a high or low performance rating category and being in high (10% or

more) or low (9% or less) proportion departments/function. Chi square analysis was

employed to examine this relationship. The results are mixed. There was a significant

relationship between the BME and White groups in the high rating category 2(df 2, n =

194)3.086, p = .01 (two-tailed); there was no significant relationship in the low rating

category 2(df 2, n = 104)2.552, p = .279 (two-tailed). Therefore, the relationship

between being a BME or White staff member in high (10% or more) or low (9% or less)

proportion department or function and who occupied a high performance rating categorywas more than likely a real relationship rather than as a result of sampling error.

However, for the same groups in the low performance rating category, the relationship

was more likely due to sampling error. Cramer‘s V (effect size) was .312 for a high

rating. Therefore, the variance is around not quite 1% with other factors accounting for

the relationship.

8 Only two groups were used for this analysis, rather than the four collapsed census groupings. This was because the ‗proportions‘of staff related to the BME group as a whole. To use the four groups would have yielded too few entries for the table,uninterpretable and unwieldy.



76

Hypothesis 5 a) is partially supported. There was a relationship between the ethnicity of

staff group members and working in a high or low proportion department/function, and

whether they occupied a high performance rating category with an associated effect

size which is very small.

Hypothesis 5 b) stated that there would be a relationship between BME and White staff

being in either a high or low grade and being in high (10% or more) and low (9% or less)

proportion departments/function. Table 9 below provides descriptive statistics.

Table 9Numbers of BME and White9 Staff in a High (10%>) or Low (9%<) Proportion Department/Function in High(1-2) or Low (4-5) Grade Category (Year 3)

BME staffHigh grade

BME staffLow grade

White staffHigh grade

White staffLow grade


118 (57%) 6 (100%) 88 (43%) 0 (0%)


7 (47%) 65 (44%) 8 (53%) 84 (56%)

Chi Square was employed to examine this relationship. This result is significant for both

high and low grade categories respectively, 2(df 2, N = 209)3.225, p< .01; 2(df 2, N =

119)1.004, p< .01. Where there are either high or low proportions of BME staff in a

department/function, both BME and White staff were more than likely to occupy both top

and bottom grades equally. Cramer's V (effect size) is .291 in relation to bottom grades,

and .634 for top grades, meaning that ethnicity accounts for around 1% and 4% of the

9 Only two groups were used for this analysis, rather than the four collapsed census groupings. This was because the ‗proportions‘of staff related to the BME group as a whole. To use the four groups would have yielded too few entries for the table,uninterpretable and unwieldy.



77

variance in being in a low grade and a high grade (in a high or low proportion

department/function) respectively.

Hypothesis 5 b) is supported. Depending on the proportions of BME staff in a particular

department or function, there was a relationship between the ethnicity of a staff member

(either BME or White) and whether they were in a high or low grade. The variance

relating to ethnicity and being in a higher grader was higher than that for low grades.

The effect sizes are both small meaning that other factors account for the relationship

which is slightly stronger as far as high grades are concerned. The ethnic group of astaff member therefore had a stronger effect at higher grades and applied to both high

and low proportion branches.

3.1.1.6 Effects of all predictor variables on mean grade received by ethnicgroups (Year 3)

The ANOVA and Chi Square analyses were further tested using regression. Hypothesis

6 stated that predictor variables would differentially affect the mean grade for different

ethnic groups for Year 3.

Table 10 provides descriptive statistics for the hypothesis:



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Table 10Descriptive Statistics for Mean Grade for Ethnicity Groups (Year 3)

M Min/Max SD N

Asian 3.35 1-8 1.135 524

Black 3.36 1-7 1.118 278

Chinese 3.40 2-6 1.163 30

White 3.26 1-8 1.118 848

One-way ANOVA is not significant; .F(df 3, N = 1680)472

3.1.1.7 Predictor variables regressed onto grade for Asian staff (Year 3)

Table 11 below firstly presents indices to reveal the relative strength of the individual

predictors. Bivariate correlations between the independent variables and mean grade

for Asian staff were negative apart from department/function and proportion of BME

staff (in a department/function). Significant results are indicated by OPR Year 2, OPR

Year 3, Head Office function, Age and Service.



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Table 11Bivariate and Partial Correlations of the Predictors With Mean Grade (Asian staff)

PredictorsCorrelation between each predictor and

mean gradeCorrelation between each predictor and

mean grade controlling for all otherpredictors

OPR Year 1 -.271 -.083

OPR Year 2 -.380*** -.259***

OPR Year 3 -.286** -.135**

Head office function .255*** .260***

Operations function -.081 .042

Age .048** -.142**

Service .192** .198**

Proportion of BME staff -.076 -.040

***p< .001; **p< .01

When all of the predictor variables were regressed onto the mean grade for Year 3 for

Asian staff, the model shows that around 26% of the variance account for the predictor

variables which was significant, F(df 7, n = 294)12.795, p< .001. OPR Year 2, OPR Year

3, Head office function, Age and Service were significant variables. Table 12 below

presents results for the regression analysis for Asian staff:



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Table 12Regression Table for Asian staff in relation to grade (Year 3)

Variable B SE B β T Sig.

OPR Year 1 -.152 .106 -.080 -1.435 .152

OPR Year 2 -.533 .16 -.266 -4.593 .000

OPR Year 3 -.274 .117 -.130 -2.337 .020

Head Office function .798 .173 .240 4.622 .000

Operations function .093 .129 .038 .720 .472

Age -.239 .097 -.187 -2.459 .015

Service .164 .047 .268 3.465 .001

Proportion of BME staff -.091 .132 -.036 .687 .492

Dependant variable: Mean Grade Year 3 Asian staff

3.1.1.8 Predictor variables regressed onto grade Black staff (Year 3)

Table 13 below presents the results showing the relative strength of the individual

predictors. Bivariate correlations between the independent variables and mean grade

for Black staff were negative apart from Service and Proportion of BME staff (in a

department/function). Significant results are indicated by OPR Year 1, OPR Year 2,

Head office function, Age and Service.



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Table 13The Bivariate and Partial Correlations of the Predictors With Mean Grade (Black Staff)


mean grade

Correlation between each predictor andmean grade controlling for all other

predictorsOPR Year 1 -.375* -.191*

OPR Year 2 -.331** -.220**

OPR Year 3 -.329 -.114

Head office function .266** .230**

Operations function -.189 -.047

Age -.048*** -.254***

Service .307*** .401***

Proportion of BME staff .130 .037

***p< .001; **p< .01

When the predictors were regressed onto the mean grade for Year 3 for Black staff, the

model revealed that around 38% of the variance in the mean grade is accounted for by

the predictor variables, which was significant, F(df 7, n = 158)30.337, p< .001. OPR Year

1, OPR Year 2, Head office function, Age and Service were significant variables. Table

14 below shows these results:



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Table 14Regression Table for Black Staff in Relation to Grade (Year 3)


OPR Year 1 -.326 .134 -.184 -2.444 .016

OPR Year 2 -.376 .133 -.200 -2.823 .005

OPR Year 3 -.232 .162 -.112 -1.437 .153


Operations function -.085 .143 -.041 -.590 .556

Age -.392 .119 -.263 -3.286 .001

Service .249 .046 .436 5.478 .000

Proportion of BME staff .083 .179 .032 .460 .646

Dependant variable: Mean Grade Year 3 Black staff

As the number of participants were too few (around 15 per variable required), the

analysis was not computed for Chinese staff.

3.1.1.9 Predictor variables regressed onto grade for White staff (Year 3)

Table 15 below shows the indices to indicate the relative strength of the individual

predictors against the dependent variable. Bivariate correlations between the

independent variables and mean grade for White staff were positive for Head office

function, Age, Service and Proportion of BME staff.



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Table 15The Bivariate and Partial Correlations of the Predictors With Mean Grade (White staff)


mean grade


predictors

OPR Year 1 -.244*** -.138***

OPR Year 2 -.238*** -.147***

OPR Year 3 -.152 -.062

Head office function .306*** .286***

Operations function -.092 .027

Age .013*** -.161***

Service .289*** .321***

Proportion of BME staff .042 .035

***p< .001; **p< .01

For White staff, the regression analysis shows that around 26% of the variance in mean

grade is accounted for by the predictors, and is significant, F(df 7, n = 552)62.734,

p< 001. OPR Year 1, OPR Year 2, Head office function, Age and Service were

significant predictors. Results are shown in Table 16 below:

Table 16Regression Table for White Staff in Relation to Grade (Year 3)


OPR Year 1 -.228 .070 -.134 -3.280 .001

OPR Year 2 -.287 .082 -.147 -3.498 .001

OPR Year 3 -.114 .078 -.058 -1.462 .144


Operations function .056 .087 .026 .645 .519

Age -.183 .048 -.164 -3.820 .000

Service .205 .026 .345 7.959 .000

Proportion of BME staff .050 .061 .031 .814 .416

Dependant variable: Mean Grade Year 3 White staff



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3.1.1.10 Summary of regression analyses for ethnicity and mean grade(Year 3)

Overall, the regression equations explain a significant amount of the variance in the

dependent variable (mean grade), with R 2 values of .262 for Asian staff, .256 for White

staff and .388 for Black staff. Although much of the variance in the dependent variables

remains unexplained, the analysis provides insights into the effect on the mean grade of

some predictors according to the different ethnic groups. A higher amount of variance

predicted the mean grade for Black staff than for Asian and White staff (lowest amount

of variance).

Hypothesis 6 is partially supported. Depending on the ethnic category of staff members

(Asian, Black, White), some predictors differentially predicted the relationship with the

mean grade and not a result of sampling error.

The table below presents the results of the preceding regression analyses relating to

Hypothesis 6 for comparison.



85

Table 17Effects of Predictors Relating to Ethnicity (All Groups) and Grade Compared

Asian Black White

Variable β Sig. β Sig. β Sig.

OPR Year 1 -.080 .152 -.184 .016 -.134 .001

OPR Year 2 -.266 .000 -.200 .005 -.147 .001

OPR Year 3 -.130 .020 -.112 .153 -.058 .144

Head office function .240 .000 .217 .003 .272 .000

Operations function .038 .472 -.041 .556 .026 .519

Age -.187 .015 -.263 .001 -.164 .000

Service .268 .001 .436 .000 .345 .000

Proportion of BMEstaff -.036 .492 .032 .646 .031 .416

It can be seen from Table 17, only OPR Year 2, Age and Service significantly predict

the mean grade similarly across the different ethnic groups. The remaining variables

predict the mean grade differently for different groups. Compared to the Branch

function (baseline variable, Field, 2009), the Head office function is a significantly larger

predictor of the mean grade than the Operations function for all ethnic groups.

3.1.2 Results of analysis relating to gender

As for the analyses relating to ethnicity above, the first part of this subsection provides

the analyses concerning the differences between gender and mean performance ratings

and grades. The subsection then follows with analyses exploring relationships betweengender and other variables.



86

3.1.2.1 Relationship between gender and performance ratings

Hypothesis 7 stated that women received a lower performance rating than men for all

three years.

Table 18 provides descriptive statistics for this hypothesis.

Table 18Mean Performance Ratings for Males and Females (1 = high, 5 = low)

Males Females

Year M SD n M SD n

Year 1 2.64 .638 288 2.66 .565 1070

Year 2 2.68 .606 323 2.72 .517 1150

Year 3 2.75 2.75 324 2.78 .514 1068

This table shows that females received slightly higher mean ratings than males for all

three years. However, a one-way ANOVA revealed these differences were not

significant: Year 1, F(df 1, 1357).287, p = .592; Year 2 F(df 1, N = 1472)1.378, p = .241;

Year 3 F(df 1, N = 1391).862, p = .353.

Hypothesis 7 is not supported and the result is more likely due to sampling error rather

than a real difference between performance ratings for males and females.

3.1.2.2 Relationship between gender and high and low performance ratings

Hypothesis 8 stated that there would be a relationship between gender and the two

highest (1-2) and lowest (4-5) performance ratings for Year 3.



89

Hypothesis 9 b) stated that there would be a relationship between gender and whether

the person was in a manager or non-manager grade for all three years. Chi square

analysis was conducted to explore this relationship.

3.1.2.4 Relationship between gender and manager and non-manager grade(Years 1-3)

Firstly, Table 21 below presents descriptive statistics for this hypothesis:

Table 21Number of Male and Female Managers and Non-Managers for Years 1-3

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3

Males (manager grade)

Males (non-manager grade)

58 (64%)

203 (17%)

62 (61%)

197 (18%)

118 (59%)

267 (18%)

Females (manager grade)

Females (non-manager grade)

33 (36%)

978 (83%)

39 (39%)

922 (82%)

82 (41%)

1213 (82%)

Chi square analysis revealed the difference between observed and expected

frequencies was significant for all years as follows: Year 1 2(df 1, n = 1272)1.122,

p< .001); Year 2 2(df 1, n = 1220)1.062, <.001; Year 3

2(df 1, n = 1680)1.673, p< .001),

all are two-sided. Cramers V, however, shows that gender accounts for only around 1%

of the variance in whether males and females were in a manager or non-manager grade

for Years 1 to 3. The effect size applies to all three years respectively (i.e., .297, .295

and .316).



90

Hypothesis 9 b) is supported. There was a significant relationship between the gender

of employees and being in either a manager or non-manager grade for Years 1-3.

However, the effect size is small indicating other factors account for this relationship.

3.1.2.5 Relationship between gender and department or function (Year 3)

Hypothesis 10 stated that there was a relationship between staff gender and which

department/function the person was employed in11.

Firstly, descriptive statistics are provided in Table 22 below, showing the numbers ofmales and females employed within the three major departments/functions of the

organisation at Year 3:

Table 22Numbers and Percentages of Males and Females Working in Departments/Functions (Year 3)

Branch Head Office OperationsMales (n = 523) 155 (40%) 75 (20%) 154 (40%)

Females (n = 278) 719 (56%) 191 (15%) 384 (30%)

These results were subjected to a Chi Square analysis to assess the relationship

between the gender of the employee and the department or function in which they were

employed; the result is significant, 2(df 1, N = 1678)2.743, p< .001. However, with an

associated effect size indicated by Cramers V (.128), just over 1% of the variance in the

function in which a person worked was accounted for by gender so that other factors

11 This information from the organisation‘s database was only available for Year 3.



91

accounted for the relationship.

Hypothesis 10 is supported, but with a small effect size showing little variance between

the two factors; other factors were involved in the relationship between gender and

department/function for Year 3.

3.1.2.6 Proportions of females in department/functions (Solo Status effect) andthe effects on performance ratings and grades of males and females

Analysis was conducted to explore the relationship between the proportions of womenwithin a department/function and grades (high and low) that men and women occupied.

Chi square was also employed to explore the relationship between the same

proportions and performance ratings (high and low).

Proportions of females and the relationship with performance rating

Hypothesis 11 a) stated that there would be a relationship between the proportion of

women within a department or function and whether males and females were in a high

or low performance rating category.

Table 23 shows descriptive statistics for this hypothesis:



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Table 23 Numbers of Males and Females in a High (10%>) or Low (9%<) proportion department/function in High (1-2) or Low (4-5) Performance Rating Category (Year 3)

MalesHigh OPR

FemalesHigh OPR

MalesLow OPR

FemalesLow OPR


34 (16%) 176 (84%) 6 (22%) 21 (78%)


13 (43%) 17 (57%) 0 (0%) 1 (100%)

Chi square analysis was conducted to explore this relationship which revealed a

significant result for the high rating category, Fishers Exact Test (df 1, n = 240)1.228, p =

.002 (two-sided). Cramer‘s V showed a value of .226 indicating that around 0.5% of the

performance rating was accounted for by gender for Year 3. The result was not

significant for low performance rating category, Fisher‘s Exact Test 1.000.

Hypothesis 11 a) is partially supported. There was a significant relationship between

the proportion of females in a department/function and a high performance rating

category but not a low performance rating occupied by males and females in Year 3.

Proportions of females and the relationship with grade

Hypothesis 11 b) stated that there would be a relationship between the proportion of

females in a department or function (high or low) and the grade category (high or low)

occupied by males and females in Year 3. Table 24 below provides descriptive

statistics for the hypothesis:



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Table 24 Numbers of Males and Females in a High (10%>) or Low (9%<) Proportion Department/Function in High(1-2) or Low (4-5) Grade Category (Year 3)

Maleshigh grade

Femaleshigh grade

Maleslow grade

Femaleslow grade


9 (100%) 0 (0%) 50 (16%) 259 (84%)


8 (100%) 0 (0%) 4 (50%) 4 (50%)

Chi square analysis was conducted to explore this relationship which was significant,

Fisher‘s Exact Test .031 (two-sided). Cramer's V showed a value of .141 indicating that

around 0.2% of the variance between being in a low grade category and being in a high

or low proportion department/functions was accounted for by gender. No statistics were

able to be computed for the high grade categories due to the lack of entries for females

in this category.

Hypothesis 11 b) is supported. There was a significant relationship between the

proportion of females in a department or function and being in a low grade category

(male and females). In both the high and low proportion departments or functions,

males were in a higher grade overall. Due to the lack of entries for females in the high

grade categories, the result should be viewed with some caution.

3.1.2.7 Effects of all predictor variables on mean grade for males and females(Year 3)

Hypothesis 12 stated that the effect of all predictor variables (Proportions of females in

a department or function, Overall performance ratings (OPR) for Years 1-3, Service and



94

Age) had differential effects on the mean grade occupied by both males and females

(Year 3).

Table 25 provides descriptive statistics for the dependent measure (mean grade) for

males and females.

Table 25Descriptive Statistics for Mean Grade for Males and Females (Year 3)

M Min/Max SD N

Male 3.89 1-8 1.516 385

Females 3.09 1-6 .902 1295

One-way ANOVA is significant; F(df 3, N = 1680)162.697, p< .001

Multiple regression was employed to test the contribution of the predictor variables to

the prediction of the mean grade for Year 3 for males and females as separate groups.

Overall, the regression equations explain a significant amount of variance in thedependent variable—for males this was 4%, whilst for females, 9% of the variance in

the mean grade was explained by the predictor variables. Although much of the

variance in the dependent variables remains unexplained, the independent variables

provide insights into the effect on the mean grade (Year 3) of the independent variables

for males and females.



95

Effect on Males

Table 26 presents indices for the relative strength of the individual predictors. Bivariate

correlations between the independent variables and mean grade were negative apart

from Head Office function, Age and Service. Significant results are indicated by the

variables OPR Year 1, and Proportion of females (in a department/function).

Table 26The Bivariate and Partial Correlations of the Predictors with Mean Grade


mean grade


predictors

OPR Year 1 -.280** -.202**OPR Year 2 -.320 -.168

OPR Year 3 -.258 -.137

Head Office function .293 .157

Operations function -.197 -.108

Age .124 -.009

Service .194 .132

Proportion of females (in

department/function)-.250** -.184**

***p< .001; **p< .01

To test this hypothesis, multiple regression analysis was conducted which reveals that

29% of the variance in the mean grade received by males is explained by the

independent variables and is significant F (df 7, n = 127)4.429 p< .01.

Significant beta weights apply to OPR Year 1 and Proportion (of females in a

department/function) only. Table 27 shows these results:



96

Table 27Regression Table – All Predictors on Grade (Year 3) and Effect on Males

Variable B SE B Β T Sig.

OPR Year 1 -.413 .178 -.185 -2.319 .022

OPR Year 2 -.384 .202 -.166 -1.908 .059

OPR Year 3 -.355 .229 -.131 -1.550 .124


Operations function -.312 .256 -.108 -1.221 .224

Age -.019 .177 -.013 -.106 .916

Service .127 .084 .180 1.500 .136

Proportion of females -.572 .272 -.175 -2.104 .037

Dependant variable: Mean grade

Effect on Females

Table 28 below presents indices to show the relative strength of the same individual

predictors. All the bivariate correlations between the strength measures and mean

grade were negative apart from Head Office function and Service. Only OPR Year 3

was not significant.



98

Table 29Regression Table – All Predictors on Grade (Year 3) and Effect on Females

Variable B SE B Β T Sig.

OPR Year 1 -.182 .052 -.128 -3.475 .001

OPR Year 2 -.322 .058 -.206 -5.568 .000

OPR Year 3 -.138 .057 -.087 -2.419 .016


Operations function -.214 .063 -.116 -3.394 .001

Age -.219 .037 -.228 -5.964 .000

Service .173 .019 .357 9.159 .000

Proportion of females -.399 .129 -.107 -3.094 .002

Dependant variable: Mean Grade (Year 3)

3.1.2.8 Summary of the regression analyses for gender and mean grade (Year 3)

Regression analysis explained a significant amount of variance between males and

females. For females 35%, and for males 29%, of the variance in mean grade (Year 3)

was explained by predictors. However, a large amount of variance is unexplained. All

independent variables were significant for females whilst for males only OPR and

proportion of females were significant indicating a different pattern of results for males

and females (see Table 30 below).

Hypothesis 12 is supported. There are differential effects of predictor variables on the

mean grade received by males and females.

Comparison of the beta weights for males and females in relation to grade shows the

different pattern of results in Table 30 below:



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Table 30Comparison of Regression Beta Weights for Males and Females (Mean Grade Year 3 as Dependent Variable)

Males Females

β Sig. β Sig.OPR Year 1 -.185 .022 -.128 .001

OPR Year 2 -.166 .059 -.206 .000

OPR Year 3 -.131 .124 -.087 .016

Head office function .165 .076 .213 .000

Operations function -.108 .224 -.116 .001

Age -.013 .916 -.228 .000

Service .180 .136 .357 .000

Proportion of females -.175 .037 -.107 .002

3.2 Overall summary of results

ANOVA, Chi Square and regression analyses were employed to explore the

relationships between demographic variables (relating to gender and ethnicity) and

organisational outcomes for three years including performance appraisal ratings and

other organisational data variables.

Table 31 below shows combined results for both ethnicity and gender groups for

comparison purposes. The table is explained below:



100

Table 31Comparison of different demographic groups and results of hypotheses (as to significance)

Demographicgroup

Demographic group differences forRating Hilo

ratingHilograde

Mgr Grade3 Years

Function Proportionand OPR

Proportionand Grade

Allpredictors

Gender No No Yes Yes Yes Yes, highrating, Mand F

Yes, Males,in hi andlow prop,Maleshigher

Yes

Ethnicity Yes (Y2) No No No Yes Yes, highrating.No, lowrating

Yes, both hiand lowgrade

Yes

Overall, the results relating to gender were stronger than for ethnicity, especially as far

as grade was concerned, where males occupied a higher mean grade in Year 3, and

also occupied manager grades for all three years. Females received a higher

performance rating in all three years, but not significantly so. In addition, whether a staff

member was male had a significant relationship with the grade, especially where the

proportion of females was small. There were differences between both the number of

predictors of the mean grade for males and females, as well as their magnitude. In

addition, for females, a higher percentage of variance in mean grade is explained by the

predictors than was the case for males.

For BME groups, results relating to ethnicity and overall performance ratings were not

significant for Year 1 and Year 3, but significant for Year 2—Chinese staff received the

lowest performance, Black staff received the highest, whilst White staff received the

lowest rating for those years. Where proportions of BME staff (combined) were high,

there was a significant association between which ethnic group a staff member

occupied and receiving a high performance rating, but not a low rating. In terms of



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4. Discussion of Results

4.1 Overview

This study examined the relationship between gender, ethnicity, performance ratings,

grade, as well as solo status and occupational segregation effects. The study was

conducted in a large global financial institution within the UK which employed around

50,000 people at the time of the study and used archived performance appraisal data

for three years so had a longitudinal element.

This section discusses these results. The section also discusses the findings in relation

to international research and UK evidence. Finally, the study considers the results in

relation to Study 2, the qualitative study.

4.2 Ethnicity

4.2.1 Ethnicity and performance ratings

There is research evidence mostly from the US that generally, lower ratings may be

given to Black employees (Pulakos et al. 1983; 1996; Kraiger & Ford 1985; Ford et al.,

Elvira & Town, 2001) and the conclusion reached that systematic bias may be a reason

(Dewberry, 2001; Stark & Poppler, 2009). Most of the research also uses mainly

laboratory studies, although differences in field and laboratory studies are also found

(Stark & Poppler, 2009). The results from Study 1 however are mixed as far as ratings

are concerned. Significant results were found for Year 2, with higher ratings for Black

staff for that year whilst Chinese staff received the lowest rating. The mixed results



103

concur with some of the US literature. However with a few exceptions (eg. Landau,

1995), the US studies have generally used only Black and White groups (Dewberry,

2001), when examining performance ratings. The results for Year 1 and 3 were not

significant, although it is useful to note that White staff received lower ratings in those

years. White staff were in higher grades overall.

The organisation in which the study was conducted at the time was undergoing some

changes to the performance management process during Year 2 and may have

contributed to the significant increase by Black staff in the performance ratings duringthis period. The research design, method of study and organisational constraints

however precluded any examination of these changes. It appears though that

systematic bias as far as performance ratings are concerned was not an issue for Black

staff but was for Chinese staff in one year. Diversity efforts may have been targeted

towards Black staff, being a larger minority ethnic group in the UK generally, at least in

some parts (Office of National Statistics, 2009). Managers‘ awareness may have been

raised regarding the issue of ethnicity and performance appraisal because in the year

before this study was done, an unpublished study found that BME received lower

performance ratings (using only '"Black" and "White" categories). Where this may have

been the case, raters may have over-compensated by awarding higher ratings to Black

staff, a result found in other research, a result of stereotypical expectations being

exceeded (eg. Post et al., 2009). Also examined were relationships between ethnicity

and any of the groups receiving either a very high (1-2) or very low (4-5) performance

ratings but none were found.



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4.2.2 Ethnicity and function

There is some research evidence that BME employees are employed in lower status

positions (Stark & Poppler, 2009). Systematic bias can enter into other organisational

decisions apart from performance ratings, for example, recruitment decisions and

decisions to promote, following a performance appraisal process. Other research

shows that certain functions are staffed predominantly with people from some ethnic

groups and are prevented either from reaching higher levels or being mobile across

different sectors (EHRC, 2009; Stark & Poppler, 2009). For example, it has been found

that Black and Asian doctors are concentrated in the lower levels in the UK (Mistry &Latoo, 2009). Different functions carry a higher status and can lead to higher rewards

so the long-term consequences of systematic effects of lack of career mobility can be

profound and have wide social implications, especially if the social group concerned

already experiences discrimination of other kinds. Social mobility and career mobility go

hand-in-hand (Whitcavitch-Devoy, 2006; Schroeder, Miles, Savage, Halford, &

Tampubolon, 2008).

The sample data for the current study was collated from Branches, Head Office and

Operations departments. Head Office functions comprise lucrative functions such as

corporate banking (McDowell, 2001; EHRC, 2009) in comparison to both Branch and

Operations departments which have less complex functions. The significant results

relating to ethnicity and function suggest there may be some subtle barriers either for

new joiners in the recruitment process where some ethnic groups are selected for

certain functions, or that employees are not mobile once inside the organisation leading



106

different social history and context. Current anecdotal evidence claims that Eastern

Europeans experience discrimination in the UK, for example, and is considered as a

particular problem for the European Union (Stott, 2007). Indeed, as one commentator

notes in an email from a research group examining migrants: "Previously seen as a

welcome workforce, immigrants now tend to be perceived as violent individuals,

troublemakers and people with a low integration capacity" (Squire, 11 March 2010).

These ideas represent Eastern Europeans being viewed as a stereotypical group. The

US research can be informative.

It would be useful for further investigations using field studies to examine these

important issues to determine how different ethnic groups are recruited into

organisations and in which functions they are employed in. Different functions, for

example, provide higher visibility and opportunity, and can lead to progression (Ogden

et al., 2006). Where certain groups are not represented higher up in the organisation

echelons, research such as this would appear to be imperative.

4.2.3 Ethnicity and grade

Several hypotheses examined the relationship between ethnicity and grade as

occupational segregation effects outlined above apply not only to functions, but also to

managerial levels. In these scenarios, the high grade or lucrative function may serve as

a "signal" (bias) to assessors that high grades and lucrative functions "suit" certain

groups of people, or managers may prefer their own, as similarity-attraction theory

predicts (Byrne, 1971). The bias affects decision-making around who should be



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promoted to the top jobs, either in managerial or functional terms. However, for all of

the hypotheses posed, none were supported. It appears from the results of this study

that although there are indications of occupational segregation within functions, the

same effects are not apparent as far as the grade is concerned. This was the case for

all of the three years. This study does not support the research that, for example, finds

White staff at higher levels in some functions (Stark & Poppler, 2009).

4.2.4 Solo status and effects on performance ratings and grade in relation to ethnic groups

This result provides some support for the solo status effect and how this impacted upon

the grade an employee was in. Where there was a high or low proportion of BME staff,

White staff were more likely to occupy top grades, as well as bottom grades (but with a

small effect size, indicating other factors). The result was not significant for BME staff

and is indicative but inconclusive.

As far as performance ratings were concerned, staff equivalently occupied high and low

rating categories. There is research evidence that where there are solo status (Crocker

& McGraw, 1984) members in a function or department, the person's ethnicity is

―salient‖ which may cause discomfort for the BME solo staff member such that

performance may be affected (Neimann & Dovidio, 1998) and BME staff may therefore

receive lower performance ratings because of this. Research finds this (eg. see review

by Thompson, M., Sekaquaptewa, 2002). However, this was not the case in this study

so does not support this research in this respect.



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There is no literature the author could locate which examined solo status effects on

grade, although one US study used different groups and examined the effect on ratings

given to BME staff (Smith et al., 2002). Other aspects of ―progression‖ (through grades)

should be examined further using different ethnic groups as independent variables. The

analysis relating to solo status effects in Study 1 precluded an examination of the

different ethnic groups and were rather examined as one combined group. As some

evidence shows, bias and stereotyping are inherent (Smith et al., 2002), often

unintentional (Sassenberg & Moskowitch, 2005) and may operate such that different

groups of staff experience differential rates of progression in organisations. Internalcareer ladders within organisations should be examined to understand the effects on

different groups of staff.

Certainly there are fewer BME staff in whole sectors, for example, the NHS, and the

wider factors should be examined to understand these effects also (eg. solo status, and

also issues of "class"). Any bias in decision-making in organisation processes which

leads to unfairness and thwarted career potential should be researched and field

research within organisations conducted to understand these issues further. However,

due to Study 1 being a quasi-experimental one, the results may not generalise to other

sectors. It is suggested however that research be conducted in different sectors.

The next subsection turns to discuss the findings relating to gender and variables

examined.



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4.3 Gender

4.3.1 Gender and performance ratings

A number of hypotheses examined performance ratings and gender. There is research

evidence, although mixed, that some females receive lower ratings than males (Gupta,

Beehr & Jenkins, 1980; Pazy & Oron, 2001; Stark & Poppler, 2009), although these

results vary according to contextual and situational factors, for example where

performance criteria differs, eg. whether task-based or not. There is also evidence that

gender stereotypes affect how a female is perceived in various settings, including

groups of various composition (Chen & Velsor, 1996; Jackson, 1992; Pazy & Oron,2001; Powell & Graves, 2003). However, in this study, females did not appear to be

disadvantaged as far as ratings that they received were concerned. There was also no

differential effect of being in a higher (1-2) or lower (4-5) performance rating category

and being a male or female. Where a low performance rating may lead to dismissal (as

happens in financial institutions, Mahoney-Phillips, 2008) and a high rating could

eventually lead to a promotion (as was stated in the organisation‘s performance

management literature), women did not appear to be disadvantaged as far as

performance ratings were concerned. This result accords with some of the literature

which finds that women receive equivalent or higher performance ratings than men, and

depends on the context, including the competencies being assessed, and other factors,

including women having to conform to social stereotypes, and counter-stereotypes

(Eagly, 2002). It seems that as far as performance ratings were concerned, systematic

bias in the organisation was not an issue.



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4.3.2 Gender and grade

Two hypotheses examined relationships between gender and grade and both were

supported. Hypothesis 9a) examined gender and being in a high or low-grade category

and used all 8 grades (as the information was available), whilst Hypothesis 9 b)

examined gender and being in a manager and non-manager grade. Stereotyping is a

likely issue in this, especially in financial services where the EHRC (2009) found this to

be a factor in a range of effects leading to women being marginalised throughout their

careers within the sector, commencing from recruitment, where men dominate the high-

earning jobs (p. 45). Women may not be seen as leaders, according the leadershipcategorisation theory, or may be unable to manage the counter-stereotypes they face in

the masculine cultures (Eagly, 2002).

The analyses in Study 1 highlight the effect of being a male or female manager on the

grade received over the 3-year period and shows clearly that women were not

represented in high grades or manager grades. The study accords with the EHRC

(2009) research, and also interestingly, the relationships between gender and grade

were, overall, significant whilst between gender and performance ratings they were not.

Bias and stereotyping appears to work therefore outside of the performance appraisal

discussion where the decisions about promotions are made.

These results suggest several things. Females may or may not receive higher

performance ratings than males. However, where performance ratings should lead to a

higher grade, this did seem to occur in the organisation. The organisation‘s literature



111

relating to performance management stated that a higher grade would result from a high

performance rating. Making promotions based on performance ratings is still the

practice in organisations today (eg. CIPD), or at least on some performance-related

basis, especially in financial services (EHRC, 2009). However, in the organisation

studied, this does not appear to have been the case; a high rating did not lead to a high

grade as far as women were concerned. There may be little or no bias in ratings, but

the important factor is in the decisions at other points in people's careers such as the

decision to promotion (to a higher grade), and internal recruitment decisions, which

could lead to occupational segregation effects which the same EHRC study found.

In addition, there was an age effect from this study so that as females got older, the

effect was more pronounced; females did not receive a commensurately equivalent high

grade as older males. Lower down the hierarchy (i.e., the lower grades), females

actually received a higher performance rating. Evaluation bias or distortion (Smith, et

al., 2002) worked in favour of females at this level. One reason for the age effect may

be that females have career breaks due to childcare responsibilities or had many career

breaks which interrupted their careers. Women are seen as lacking commitment for

example (Siegel, et al., 2005). To support this age effect argument, there was a linear

correlation for example, between the grade received and tenure, which is hardly

surprising. However, because there was no relationship between the performance

rating received and a commensurate grade, this suggests that in this organisation,

tenure had a stronger effect on an employee‘s grade and there was little relationship

with the performance rating. Where females do have career breaks and a higher grade



112

relies more on tenure as the results show, this would obviously put females at a

disadvantage. But this is where effective "diversity management" should make a

difference. By understanding these issues and developing effective policies to balance

out the non-negotiable nature of these women's responsibilities. For women, career

breaks appear to be a "signal" for something quite negative about them. How can they

demonstrate commitment for example, if they cannot possibly comply? Organisations

need to take account of research for example which shows women have different career

paths than men (Lyness & Thompson, 2000).

Although numerically, females far out-numbered males in the organisation, and indeed

in other financial services sector generally (EHRC, 2009), they were not represented at

the higher management levels. This accords with other research which finds this, (eg.

Ogden, et al, 2006). Clearly, something happened to females whereby although they

were given performance ratings at least at the same level as men‘s, they were not

recognised as being ―higher‖ performers by being awarded a commensurate grade.

That women leave financial organisations needs to be examined more carefully to

understand why this happens. Certainly, there are anecdotal reports and "social myths"

(Gertz, 1990) that women leave organisations to have children. These myths may add

to a "construction" (Fairclough, 1991) that being a woman is a signal to not be

considered for a promotion, for example (because they will leave anyway).

The findings of Study 1 do show that there was a clear pattern of different relationships

between men and women—the most telling of these is the different pattern of



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relationship between performance and grade which had a continuing impact upon

women and their apparent progression (in grade terms)—the more women advanced in

age, the less they were represented in higher grades generally. This could be either a

result of unfair discrimination relating to gender and/or age, or it could be due to the

different lives of women. Women may become carers for parents in later life. These

effects need to be examined. Flexible working policies and the unfair or lack of

implementation of these to account for these issues could be a factor.

Further evidence of a different pattern of results between males and females iselucidated in the regression analysis which clearly shows that the predictor variables

had significantly different effects between males and females suggesting further that

different rules operate for the two groups. All of the predictor variables were significant

for females, but only two for males. There has been and still is, much criticism

regarding performance appraisals (Catano et al., 2007; Wanguri, 1995) although there

is also confusion around the concept—performance appraisals involve being appraised

over a long period of time, it is a process as well as an outcome (the performance rating

received), and there are contextual factors relating to the process itself (that as an

organisational process, it is implemented within an organisation‘s culture which may

mean that ―espoused‖ factors may confuse how it is enacted). Further research needs

to be undertaken in relation to men and women, and how, for example, decisions are

made about them. Qualitative research would be ideally suited to these investigations.



114

There is much evidence regarding gender stereotyping (Fuegen, 2007; Eagly, 2002),

and research which examines the contexts within which women are evaluated which

highlights benefits for women (Post et al., 2009). Stereotyping is an issue, but research

shows that automatic stereotyping can be changed (Sassenberg & Moskowitz, 2005).

However, the research net needs to be cast wider to under how decision-making affects

progression of females, including at the recruitment stage, how people are appraised,

and also the type of feedback and development people receive. Alimo-Metcalfe (1993,

1996) for example found men and women receive different feedback. Although there

have been strides to increase minority ethnic staff and females at the recruitment stage,there is still evidence that certain groups are favoured for certain jobs (EHRC, 2009;

King, 1994). In addition, there is evidence that complex roles are filled by males, or

indeed any role where the rewards are greater either in status or remuneration (EHRC,

2009; Ozbilgin & Woodward, 2004).

If we were to accept some of the conclusions by some authors that there is little real

difference between ratings and gender, then men really must be performing better,

especially if a high performance rating is equated with objective success. However, this

study shows that performance ratings are not the complete picture when it comes to

progression for women; overall, they do not appear to link to a commensurately high

grade. Stereotyping and biased decision-making may be occurring within various HR

processes, and at different stages of women's careers. The picture is complex however

and further research needs to be conducted.



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4.3.3 Gender and function

The results show that there were significant differences between which department

males and females were employed in. This result is also in line with some literature

which shows that females are assigned to lower status functions (McDowell, 2001) or in

roles with lower complexity, sometimes because they are sidelined into these roles

(Eagly, 2002; Özbilgin & Woodward 2004; Ogden et al. 2006). This then leads to

females not having the ―visibility‖ and development opportunities to progress (Liff &

Ward, 2001; Higginbotham, 2004). For example, an unpublished study, conducted by

the Law Society in the UK found that females left the legal profession because of manyreasons, one of which was the inability to demonstrate higher levels of capability due to

being assigned administrative tasks which consumed their time (Duff & Webley, 2004).

These effects are thought to be a form of bias where females may be viewed through

the gender lens rather through the performance lens (Eagly, 2004; Howard & Hollander,

2000). Further, anecdotal evidence supports the research. In a blog attached to a

report by Scheman (2009), a woman adviser to Wall Street (26 years) remarks:

―Wall Street does not want successful women unless it is in a secretarial or other

administrative role ... that the token women put in as "Director of Diversity" …

continue to disappoint as they fold to pressure and first "behave" and do what

they are told and not make waves ...‖.

Organisational norms, it seems, may be so strong that women have no choice but to

conform. Certainly they did in the Law Society referred to above. In that study they



116

―chose‖ to leave, but only because they were so dissatisfied by the strong masculine

culture (McDowell, 2001; De Cremer, 2006). An assumption may be made that

because females are thought to be ―better at administration‖, they are assigned these

roles (Duff & Webley, 2004). This could lead to women not being seen as capable,

which then leads to them becoming dissatisfied then leaving the organisation which

evidence has found (Heilman, 2001; Eagly, 2002; Heilman & Parks-Stamm, 2007; Post

et al., 2009). Certainly, there is evidence that women leave organisations because of

their dissatisfaction with organisational cultures (Liff & Ward, 2001) rather than purely

because of choice, or failure (Korac-Kakabadse & Kouzmin, 1997).

Organisations would be wise to investigate why females leave, and their lack of mobility

within their careers especially in financial institutions which are thought to reward

masculine values (McDowell, 2001). Focusing on the real issue of organisational

culture and how this impacts on women, rather than the ―problem‖ of females (Bilimoria

& Piderit, 2007) may be one step in the right direction. Work-life balance issues would

appear to be a major factor as far as women are concerned, including raising

awareness of the very real "fact" that where women do take career-breaks, this does

not become equated with not being committed.

Women may be disadvantaged as far as progression is concerned in other ways as the

findings showed. For example, networking and visibility are major predictors of success

(Lyness & Heilman, 2006; Ogden et al., 2006), and where this study finds that women

are significantly more likely to be employed in branches, women may be disadvantaged



117

as they are then less visible. Branches are usually smaller retail branches. They are

very different in quality and kind to the large corporate offices where the top job holders

(who have influence) reside. This may explain how 70% of managers in the

organisation were men while only 30% were women even though they comprised a

larger majority of the total organisation population at around 60%. If this was the case,

then clearly the performance appraisal process was not a fair and equitable one where

individuals receiving similar ratings were not being treated equally, at least in terms of

gender.

Where legislation only focuses on increasing the numbers of females into organisations

(eg. the Opportunity 2000 campaign), it is hardly surprising that private organisations do

not focus their efforts more on understanding further these issues, for example, that

there are differential effects between men and women and the grades they occupy over

a long period. In addition, other issues are ignored. For example, as already

mentioned, women have a different career path because of work-life issues (Scheman,

2009) and there is evidence that their careers are not linear (Brown, Cooper, Hawkins-

Rodgers & Wentworth, 2007; Whitmarsh, Brown, Cooper, Hawkins-Rodgers &

Wentworth, 2007). These issues suggest that the lives of women may not be taken into

account where campaigns such as Opportunity 2000 were designed. Laudable as they

are, focusing on initial recruitment of women into organisations such as this campaign

did, ignores the other more important issues of progression within organisations,

especially financial services, which the EHRC (2009) study highlighted.



118

Although the hypothesis relating to gender and department/function is supported, the

effect size is small with only 1.6% of the variance accounting for the relationship,

suggesting other factors are involved. In addition, causality is not implied in this result

but is an indication of a significant association between which department men and

women are employed in and deserves further investigation. However, in the regression

analysis, for women, both Head office and Operations functions significantly predicted

the relationship with mean grade at Year 3 but not men. Because the baseline variable

(Field, 2009) is the "Branch" function, the Head office function, where it is a significant

predictor, indicates it is further away from the Branch function (low status) as a variablethan it is for the Operations function, which is close in terms of status. As far as men

were concerned, it did not appear to matter which function they worked in—no function

predicted a relationship with the mean grade for men at Year 3.

4.3.4 Solo status and effects on performance ratings and grade in relation to gender

Where the proportion of females in a branch or department was high or low, both men

and women were in a significantly high performance rating category but not a low

performance rating category (Year 3). The analysis was similar for a high grade. There

was a significant relationship between the proportion of females in a department or

function and the grade received by a male or a female. The effect on the grade

received by males and whether there was either a high or a low proportion of females

was such that in both the high and low proportion departments or functions, males were

in a higher grade overall. Due to the lack of entries for females, the result should be



119

viewed with some caution however. There appeared to be some effects of solo status

relating to females in departments or functions with a low proportion of females such

that both males and females are affected. Further research is required in this area.

This result is informative rather than conclusive owing to the lack of causality, which can

be inferred, but also due to the lack of experimental controls afforded using archived

data. The results support some research which finds solo status affects men and

women differently in different contexts (eg. White, 2008).



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5. Conclusions

As far as ethnicity was concerned, these are curious but inconclusive findings. Black

staff received higher ratings, Chinese staff the lowest in one year. Neither is there a

difference between BME and White groups in terms of occupying a higher or lower

grade category. There are however indications of relationships between the ethnicity

and function. Further, when a number of predictor variables were regressed onto the

mean grade, there were differences in both the predictors which are important and the

significance of those predictors in terms of the impact on the outcomes of BME and

White staff which indicated a different pattern of predictors for both groups.

The pattern for women was quite different. There was a mismatch between the

performance ratings where there was no significant difference – women actually

received higher ratings than men but not significantly so. However, women occupied

lower grades overall and were not represented in higher-grade categories. Further,

there appeared to be a different pattern of results, which indicates that men and women

had different progression routes. Considering women are the majority gender overall in

financial services (EHRC, 2009), the result is one worth investigating further,

considering women decrease in representation the further up the hierarchy they reach,

with very few at the top levels. Some women may leave of their own choice, but some

research suggests not, but rather they are forced because of unfriendly organisational

cultures (McDowell, 2001; De Cremer, 2006).



121

Overall, it is feasible to suggest that stereotyping and various forms of bias could be a

likely factor in the different pattern of results found for men and women, and also for

different ethnic groups. Where there is little difference found in relation to performance

appraisal ratings, this does not provide the complete picture as far as how different

demographic groups may progress within organisations. Organisational decisions are

made on a daily basis so what occurs outside of formal decision-making processes may

be a more important factor to focus research efforts on in relation to improving the

progression rates for under-represented groups in financial services organisations.

The diversity department who commissioned this research was at the time focused on

the issue of "ethnicity" and may have led to the less strong results as compared to the

issue of "gender". BME staff had received lower performance ratings in the previous

year. That "Chinese" staff received lower performance ratings in Year 2 may be an

indication that targeted approaches work. BME staff were the targets for diversity

intervention the year prior. It also raises the issue that gender may be an issue which

the financial institutions now need to focus on in light of the EHRC (2009) study, with

the suggestion that stereotyping is a major factor leading to inequitable results between

men and women.

There were some rater consequences, a useful point to bear in mind when considering

in general the non-significant findings for performance ratings. These included a review

of the rating given by a senior manager (the appraising manager having given the rating

and completed the performance appraisal form), an employee signature on the



122

performance appraisal form, as well as a section where the employee could express

their views on the performance appraisal form. There was also a grievance procedure

in place for unfair ratings, where appropriate. In addition, the organisation at the time

had a diversity department which supported this research. Appraisal training was given

to line managers, and appraises and line managers were required to have had line

management responsibilities for 12 months prior to conducting any appraisals. This

was also mentioned in the performance management booklet referred to in the

methodology section.



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6. Implications for future research for performance appraisal andother HR processes

Kandola in 2004 raised the issue that HR professionals need be wary of bias and

stereotyping when implementing performance appraisal systems. This would feasibly

apply to all HR processes, which operate as integral conduits between staff and

management (Fletcher, 2004). The EHRC (2009) study for example, found stereotyping

to be a factor in the under-representation of women in the top echelons of financial

organisations.

Organisations also need to consider the wider issues when thinking about how they

design and implement HR processes such as appraisal, especially where organisations

talk of ―engagement‖ (Cartwright & Homes, 2006) and what factors account for

engaging employees. This would seem to be imperative as far as research and

interventions for people at work, who spend so much time there. Being "fair" leads to

people feeling satisfied and motivated and there is a large research base, for example,

in relation to the effects of implementing HR systems, such as performance appraisal, in

a fair manner. It is important to consider therefore concepts of psychological contract,

organisational and procedural justice and the more recent employee engagement

concept, all of which have implications for the appraisal of performance.

Organisations also need to monitor their performance appraisal systems to ensure they

are fair and that high ratings correlate with success in an equitable manner across

different demographic groups, especially when it is stated as such in the organisation's



124

literature. It would be unwise for organisations to express one view, but act in the

opposite way when implementing HR policies as this is likely to cause cognitive

dissonance. Organisations may also need to be cognisant of "emotional contagion"

effects (Decety & Ickes, 2009; Hatfield, Cacioppo & Rapson, 1994) of treating people

unfairly. Where staff receive equivalent ratings for example, if people observe the

progression of some groups and not others, this is likely to cause demotivation and

dissatisfaction (Coyle & Shapiro, 2005). Where retention issues are at stake, a very

important issue in some sectors, this would appear to be an important factor to take into

consideration. Indeed, even in the current climate of recession and redundancies,organisations would be short-sighted to not consider fairness issues once the recession

has ended and organisations will be looking to recruit. In a recent survey of HR

professionals for example, they considered that "engagement" and ―retention‖ issues

were major factors for organisations in 2009 (30% and 80% of respondents effectively,

CIPD, 2007a). However, another view is that the recession may drive fairness and

equality issues further underground (Woods, 2010).

OP research and HR practice link

OP research needs to be translated into practice, and also to be used by HR

practitioners. Considering the relatively few occupational psychology practitioners in the

UK who appear to be involved in performance appraisal, it seems as if overall,

performance appraisal research and practice by occupational psychologists is not a

priority. An examination of a list of research articles from the ―International Journal of

Assessment and Development‖ over the last 10 years would attest to this (see print



125

screen attached as Appendix B. As one author has pointed out, it is more difficult to

standardise performance appraisal once the employment has commenced (Milkovich &

Wigdor, 1991) and hence the focus on recruitment/assessment research.

Effective training highlighting how bias and stereotyping operate in various guises would

ameliorate or certainly raise consciousness to reduce them as research has shown (eg.

Sassenberg & Moskowitz, 2005).



126

7. Limitations

Several factors limit the conclusions that can be drawn from this study.

Firstly, although this was a sizeable sample used in the study, the effect size is an

important determinant of power and some of these were small suggesting other factors

were involved. That organisations are complex, many other factors can confound

results.

A second limitation is the correlational and cross-sectional nature of the study, which

limits the strength of any causal conclusions.

A third limitation relates to the generalisability to the larger population of employees.

Although the sample was from one global financial institution, it may be premature to

generalise to all types of employees in other financial institutions and other

organisations.

A fourth limitation relates to the research design and attendant variables used in the

study and the effect of any definitive conclusions to be reached. As the study was

quasi-experimental (Whitley, 1996) and participants were identified in the performance

appraisal data forms, there was no opportunity to allocate participants randomly.

Because of the quasi-experimental nature of the study, confounding variables could not

be fully examined.



127

STUDY 2

Senior women’s experience of performance appraisal:how they are evaluated: "different yes, discriminationno"



128

Table of Contents: Study 2

Senior women’s experience of performance appraisal: how they are evaluated:"different yes, discrimination no."

1. Introduction Page

1.1. Overview of Study 2 137

1.2. Organisational culture, The ―Glass Ceiling‖ and its impact 138

1.2.1. Organisational culture and how it is enacted creatinga glass ceiling

138

1.2.2. Organisational culture in financial servicesorganisations and the impact on women

139

1.2.3. Stereotyping of the culture itself 1401.2.4. Diversity management as a device to create an

inclusive culture which appreciates difference142

1.2.5. How appreciating difference can work for women 143

1.3. Women in organisations 144

1.3.1. Overview of evidence of barriers women face inorganisations

144

1.3.2. Work-life balance and women's progression 145

1.3.3. Women in senior positions and how men and

women are evaluated

146

1.3.3.1. Authentic leadership and organisational culture 146

1.4. Differences between men and women, the changing social and organisational context and consequences for women

147

1.5. Emotion at work 148

1.5.1. Women and emotions at work 149

1.5.2. How women are stereotyped according to theiremotions

149

1.5.3. How gender stereotyping of emotions operates 151

1.6. Summary 151

1.7. Rationale for the research 152

1.8. Research aim 153



129

2. Method 154

2.1. Study design 154

2.2. Participants and recruitment of participants 154

2.3. Participant profile 155

2.4. Procedure 156

2.4.1. Communication with participants and informedconsent

157

2.4.2. Interview questions 157

2.4.3. Interview procedure 158

2.5. Semi-structured interviews 159

2.6. Analysis of data 159

2.7. Epistemological considerations which influenced the method and analysis for Study 2

161

2.8. Themes within thematic analysis 162

2.9. Procedure of data analysis 163

2.9.1. Transcription of data 163

2.9.2. Coding of data 163

2.9.3. Data management 164

2.9.4. Table of themes and sub-themes derived from the

data analysis

167

2.9.5. Confidentiality and protocol relating to transcribeddata

168

3. Data analysis 170

3.1. Explanation and overview of the thematic map 170

3.2. Analysis of selected themes 172

3.2.1 The experience of being women within a

male-dominated environment

172

3.2.2 How women experience balancing work andfamily

175

3.2.3 How men and women are evaluated within theorganisation

185

3.2.4 Men and women are evaluated differently interms of their emotions

194



130

3.3. Summary of the thematic analysis 200

4. Discussion of data analysis and findings 202

4.1. Overview 202

4.2. Masculine organisational culture and the systems of maintenance

202

4.3. The organisational culture as a "Glass ceiling" that women unwittingly co-create

204

4.4. The implications for objective performance appraisal and other systems

208

4.5. The enacted organisational culture and the effect on women with or without children

212

4.6. How men and women are evaluated and the implications of this for women

214

4.7. Women being evaluated on their emotions and how this might impact on them

215

4.8. The paradoxes created and possible impacts 217

4.9. Summary of data analysis and findings 218

5. Implications for research and practice 219

6. Limitations 223

7. Conclusions 224

List of Tables (Study 2)

Table 1 Profile of the participants 156

Table 2 Stage of analysis within thematic analysis 160

Table 3 Examples of initial codes (Alphabetically sorted) 165

Table 4 Development of the "Authenticity" theme 166

Table 5 How the theme "Authenticity" was labelled 167



131

List of Figures

Figure 2 Final thematic map 170Figure 3 Thematic map relating to the theme:

―The experience of being a woman within amale-dominated environment‖

172

Figure 4 Thematic map relating to the theme:―How men and women are evaluated within theorganisation‖

185

Figure 5 Thematic map relating to the subtheme:―Men and women are evaluated differently interms of their emotions‖

194

List of appendices (Volume II)

Appendix C - Email communication to participants includingparticipant consent form

271

Appendix D - Full interview schedule and interview questions 273Appendix E - Scanned page showing manual coding of interview

data275

Appendix F - Table of themes and sub-themes 276

Appendix G - CIPD website search for "bias" 323



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Abstract Study 2

Study 2 explored the views and experiences of senior women in financial institutions

relating to being evaluated. Interviews were conducted with a sample of eight senior

women from financial institutions from the UK in male-typed roles. Thematic analysis

(Braun & Clark, 2006) was applied to identify patterns and themes within the interview

data. Overall, this thematic analysis illustrates the latent effect of how the

organisational culture operates from their perspective, including how it influenced their

experience as employees in their organisations, in particular as women.

The women‘s perspective was mixed regarding how men are treated in their

organisations. Some of the women deny any discriminatory behaviour, yet some of the

women also consider that men and women are evaluated differently. However, the

accounts overall show the strong relationship of the organisational culture on how these

women are stereotyped by managers including the issue of children as a salient factor

in being evaluated. There also appear to be different rules for men and women, and

they are appraised or evaluated strongly on their emotions. As senior women, they

however play a part in what appears to be a co-creation of this culture by denying that

discrimination exists and stereotyping both women and men.

Insights are offered on the implications for women, performance management and

appraisal, diversity management, organisational change and development, as well as

development for women in general.



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1. Introduction

1.1 Overview of Study 2

Where Study 1 provided an objective, "what" question of an aspect of the glass ceiling (as

to performance ratings and other variables which linked to progression for different

demographic groups), Study 2 aims to elucidate further aspects of the glass ceiling

(relating to women) – by interviewing senior women about their experience within financial

organisations related to their appraisal or evaluation.

Study 2 is also designed to build upon Study 1 by expanding on and qualifying the

gender issue from that study from the perspectives of women, where in that study,

women in one financial services organisation received higher ratings, occupied lower

grades overall, yet were the majority gender in the organisation.

This section presents the case for how women experience organisations, including the

impact of the organisational culture, in particular financial services organisations, and

being evaluated or appraised within that culture either as part of a formal system (the

annual event), as well as being evaluated or appraised generally. The section also

outlines existing research, reviews and discusses relevant research regarding

performance appraisal, gender and culture, and considers the gaps and possible links

between, organisational culture and women being appraised or evaluated. The section

concludes with the rationale for the study and a statement of the specific research aim

to be addressed in Study 2. These are cited both in the context of the previous research

and the outcomes of Study 1.



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Where Study 1 outlined the glass ceiling, the next sub-section explores the glass ceiling

further in particular, in relation to women (the focus of Study 2) and how organisational

cultures link to the glass ceiling to create barriers for them impacting on their

advancement.

1.2 Organisational culture, The ―Glass Ceiling‖ and its impact

1.2.1 Organisational culture and how it is enacted creating a glass ceiling

Organisational culture is understood to consist of values, belief systems and shared

assumptions, which give meaning to organisations (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Hatch,1993; Schein, 1985). The glass ceiling is a metaphorical term to describe the upper

limit women can reach within organisations, and where the effect is invisible. Systems

such as performance appraisal are developed and implemented within organisational

cultures and decisions made in light of the organisation's culture. Where this is a

masculinist one, this may have implications for how women are viewed (eg, Bierama,

2009; Eagly, 2001, 2004), therefore how they are evaluated (either as part of a formal

system or not), and how decisions are made in general, which cumulatively can impact

on their progression.

Belief systems which inter alia form part of an organisation‘s culture are passed via

individuals working within organisations, and new members ―learn‖ the culture in the

day-to-day activities of work and systems. In this way, organisation cultures provide a

strong force for how people behave within them (Hofstede, 1980; Itzin & Newman,

1996; Wen-Dong, Yong-Li, Taylor, Shi & He, 2008). Organisational members also



135

―construct‖ the culture as they interact with others (Fairclough, 2001) and make sense of

the work practices (Bate, 1994). The "reality" of an organisation's actions and ideas

become shared and "socially constructed", including ideas of leadership (Berger &

Luckman, 2002). It is also thought that organisations differ in their characters or type—

masculine cultures are characterised by hierarchical authority, independence, autocratic

leadership styles and top –down communication (Coates, 2004; Hochschild, 1979;

Kanter, 1977; Marshall, 1993) and impact on women. Barriers are created where

organisation cultures make it difficult for women to progress (An-Ju and Sims-Nova

2005; Barreto et al., 2009; Liff & Ward, 2001; Ruderman et al. 1995). This, someauthors believe, keeps women below the glass ceiling (Barreto et al., 2009; Liff & Ward,

2001).

Women in financial organisations may fare worse than men because of the masculinist

nature of these organisations (Burdett, 1994; Kabanoff, 1994; Özbilgin & Woodward,

2004; Rushton, 2006) where men feel more comfortable with men (Ruderman et al.,

1995). This creates more of a problem for women at higher levels where they are in a

minority and the gender difference may be highlighted (Lyness & Heilman, 2006).

1.2.2 Organisational culture in financial services organisations and the impact on women

The banking and financial services professions are thought by many to be characteristic

of masculine cultures (Burdett, 1994; Kabanoff, 1994). Today, organisations are

diverse (Ruderman et al., 1995) often operating on a global scale, requiring different

competencies than the traditional manufacturing environment (Eagly, 2004). The recent



136

collapse of the banking industry (2008) and other major corporate failures (e.g., Enron,

Lehman Brothers) has signalled to some (eg. Menotti, 2008; Roberts, Albrecht & Gates,

2008) that new paradigms are required to replace the masculine, traditional ―military‖-

type organisational management structures (Clegg, Hardy & Nord, 1995, p. 1303)

reminiscent of past organisations (Eagly et al., 2003; Eagly 2004). Today‘s

organisations are fast-moving and dynamic (Gubbins & Garavan, 2009) and call for a

more appropriate management philosophy and structure (Chen & Velsor, 1996) which

suits the nature of these more, so-called fluid organisations calling for a different way of

being within them.

1.2.3 Stereotyping of culture itself

Writing about organisations has become infused with ideas of masculinity and femininity

including ways of being within them. Some commentators consider for example that a

―female ethos12 ... is becoming increasingly prominent‖ (Clegg et al., 1995, p. 1302),

although this sets up the idea of maleness and femaleness as opposites (Derrida, 1973)

and may be unhelpful. However, the call for change to a ―new paradigm‖ has been

expressed since 1989 (Lawler (III), 1989, p. 91) but the "old boys‘ network" remains,

and is said to be a barrier to women‘s progression (Agars, 2004; Kalra et al., 2009).

Stereotyping in organisations and ideas about organisation and leadership are common,

and men and women may then think and act in stereotypical ways (Heilman, 1995).

12 Feminist authors consider that talking and writing about women in this way, as "binary opposites" is a problem for women. The

comment from this author is made to highlight this point. Comments such as this one set women up against men as differententities, whereas gender is more of a continuum, especially in a workplace context.



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Many authors consider that the male stereotype (e.g., rational, aggressive, strategic) is

linked to values and ideas about organisations (Morgan, 1986; Korac-Kakabadse &

Kouzmin, 1997) where the masculine stereotype is encouraged (Korac-Kakabadse &

Kouzmin, 1997) and the feminine discouraged (Eagly, 2004; Korac-Kakabadse &

Kouzmin, 1997). The idea of "binary opposites" is highlighted with no resolution of the

two. In these situations, one needs join the "other" more dominant side and deny their

"naturalness". This may be women. Indeed, research supports this view where the

impacts on women working in organisations, particularly "masculine" organisations are

varied, for example, women feeling uncomfortable, having to work harder to meet thesame objective standard, and ―leaving‖ the organisation (Eagly, 2002; Forschi, Lad, &

Sigerson 1994; Liff & Ward, 2001; Ruderman et al., 1995). Where they are thought as

the "other"13, this is hardly surprising. Where progression of women is not evident,

unfair discrimination may be an explanation (Barreto et al., 2009; Liff & Ward, 2001;

Weyer, 2007). The enactment of the gendered culture (Kanter, 1977) is often subtle as

authors and researchers regarding the glass ceiling concept contend (Barreto et al.,

2009; Itzin & Newman, 1995). Feminist authors believe that organisations are couched

in hegemonic terms (Bierama, 2009; Parker, 2001) so that research does not address

the issues for women adequately, and eventually impact on practice. Diversity

("difference") management is one way organisations try to mitigate the effects of past

unfair discrimination.

1.2.4 Diversity management as a device to create an inclusive culture which

13 This idea of the "other" can be explained further and is linked to a previous footnote. Several feminist authors give insights as tothe "binariness" of gendered terms, especially where organisations are considered masculine and couched in the hegemonic termsthat Bierama (2009) and Parker (2001), women are then thought of or spoken about as the "opposite" or "other". As Fiaccadori(2006) puts it, "Specifically, it is through the refusal of identification (or ‘disidentification’) that what she calls abject others’ develop;‘bodies’ who do not seem to count but who are nonetheless necessary to the creation of the heterosexual subject (Butler, 1993: 3-4). As Grosz says, for Butler identity is performed or produced through action ..." (p.5).



138

appreciates difference

Diversity management aims to foster inclusive organisational cultures, thereby

minimising glass ceiling effects. Diversity management as a concept refers largely toappreciating differences (Carter, 1999; Kandola & Fullerton, 1994; Stockdale & Crosby,

2004) and has come about as a response to the changing workforce landscape and

how to realise the potential of the diverse workforce (Barreto et al., 2009), rather than

previously homogenous ones. In the modern organisation, the extent of diversity is

such that there are no opposites, but rather a continuum of different ways of being. This

seems a feasible way to imagine the organisation reality.

The management of diversity is said to involve strategic, structural, cultural and

personnel considerations (Cao, Clarke & Lehaney, 1999; Cos, 1993; Friday & Friday,

2003; Jackson & Alvarez, 1992; Stockdale & Crosby, 2004), where group identities

need to be understood to enhance group processes as one important aim (Barreto et

al., 2009). Group identities will be many and varied. Where diversity is managed

effectively, organisational processes, such as performance appraisals, would be

expected to be designed and implemented in a manner which values not just

"masculine" qualities but is more reflective of a diverse range of competencies needed

to the run the same diverse organisations, within an inclusive culture enacted in a non-

gendered fashion. The inclusive culture suggests not opposites, but different parts of

the one whole (Fiaccadori, 2006). In this kind of culture, one would expect men and

women to be equally valued for their unique contributions (Carter, 1999), rather than a

culture that enacts behaviours and actions which may reflect negative stereotyping of



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women and lead to them being excluded, or set up against the "other" where their

identity as women is subversed (Butler, 1990).

1.2.5 How appreciating difference can work for women

An excellent example of diversity and thinking beyond valuing "masculinity" can be seen

in some interesting aviation studies which examined gender and performance in pilot

roles (McFadden, 1996). In one study, although women lacked visual spatial ability,

they became as skilled as men in time with training. In another study, although female

pilots were thought to have ―caused more crashes‖ on investigation they found that theywere younger and less experienced than male pilots (McFadden, 1996). It is clear from

studies such as this that being female was not the issue but a failure to appreciate all of

the factors within a role, such as the lack of experience between men and women.

Certainly, pilot studies using ability tests confirm the lack of gender difference between

males and females (Carretta, 1997; Carretta & Ree, 2000). These studies also highlight

firstly that taking a more creative approach to selecting women into traditionally male

roles led to a focus on recognising the needs of women in terms of the training offered

and in recognising their lack of experience in a traditional masculine role. The studies

also elucidate how ―performance‖ may be conceptualised and perceived from a gender

perspective. There is much evidence however which reveals many barriers to women‘s

advancement (Agars, 2004; Bajdo & Dickson, 2001; Kottke & Agars, 2005; Metz, 2005;

Post et al., 2009) and refutes ideas that lack of performance for example, is the reason.

One may look at the low representation of women at the top echelons and conclude

however they cannot perform as well as men. When taking a more objective



140

assessment of men‘s and women‘s abilities, little difference is evident (Carretta, 1997;

Alimo-Metcalfe, 1993). There is ample evidence of the barriers women face in

organisations based on subjective evaluations of women, some of which is presented in

the next subsection.

1.3 Women in Organisations

1.3.1 Overview of evidence of barriers women face in organisations

Research examining the barriers women face in organisations is wide-ranging and

generally falls into a number of themes: (a) sex-typing of managerial roles and the―think manager, think male‖ scenario (Schein, 1973); (b) the men‘s club phenomenon

(e.g., Coe, 1992; Simpson, 1997; Wajcman, 1998); (c) gender discrimination within

human resource management practices (Collinson, 1991); (d) evidence that women

receive less training and development opportunities than men in organisations

(Higginbotham, 2004; Payne, 2000; Tharenou & Conroy, 1994;); (e) research findings

that women perceive the overall development process more negatively than men do

(McDowall, Silvester & Rust, 2003) and finally (e) research around work-life balance

issues including potential stressors (eg. Peeters, de Jonge, Janssen & van der Linden,

2004). The themes present a wide range of barriers leading to men and women being

treated differently in organisations. Women may be seen as not conforming to their

gender or work roles (Carli & Eagly, 2001) and be penalised either in subtle or more

non-subtle ways, such that they do not progress as readily as males (Eagly, 2002) and

the barriers for women therefore remain. Evidence of this nature is indicative of a glass



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ceiling effect where the outcomes, although not tangible, are having differential effects

on men and women.

Work-life and flexible policies are said to improve women's situation in organisations, by

taking account of their unique experience as women. The next section outlines

research relating to work-life balance and how this, in various ways, impacts on women.

1.3.2 Work- life balance issues and women’s pr ogression

Work-life balance policies are one way that organisations seek to combat the lack ofprogression for women (Ogden et al., 2006; Scheman, 2009; Wang, Farme &

Walumbwa, 2007; Whittle, 2008; Yasbek, 2004). The concept is a broad one which is

an attempt to recognise the priorities between work and life (Duxbury & Higgins, 2001;

Guest, 2002). Organisations may espouse flexible working and policies, but a culture

can provide subtle yet strong cues to women to avoid taking advantage of flexible

working. For example, Liff and Ward (2001) found that women were reluctant to broach

issues about flexible working because of the strong ―presenteeism‖ culture to work long

hours. These effects occur even though policies exist within the organisations to take

account of the "reality" of work-life issues, for example, flexible working policies

(Doherty, 2004; Duff & Webley, 2004; Ogden et al., 2006). It is thought however that a

lack of women at the top may be another indication of work-life balance policies not

being effectively implemented. This stems from initiatives not being given priority from

men at the top who may have transactional leadership styles (focused on action), where

transformational leadership (focused on empowerment) has been found to be important



142

for this purpose (Wang et al., 2007) as transformational leaders behave in ways which

inspire and motivate employees to focus on fairness and equality (De Cremer & Tyler,

2007; De Cremer et al., 2005). Because of the complexity of today‘s organisations and

the diversity of its members, however, more complex leadership skills may be required

including both transactional and transformational styles (Burns, 1978). Certainly

financial and other institutions have changed but it may be that leadership ideas have

remained static as some authors note eg. (Regini et al., 1999).

1.3.3 Women in senior positions and how men and women are evaluated

In terms of the specifics of how men and women are evaluated, evidence has

persistently shown that where the same competencies are being judged, men will be

favoured over women (Agars, 2004; Eagly, 2002, 2004). For example, in a recent study

within a financial services organisation, male leaders were assessed as more

successful even when the male and female leaders demonstrated an equivalent level of

social and emotional intelligence competencies (Rankin, 2002). Research such as this

obviously poses a problem for women who are trying to break the glass ceiling for

example, to reach the highest levels and points to lack of equivalence, or different

standards being applied to men and women.

1.3.3.1 Authentic leadership and organisational culture

Women may be discounted as potential top leaders through other means. For example,

the relatively recent ―authentic leadership‖ model is a type of leadership where one can

be ―oneself‖ (Endrissat, Muller & Kaudela-Baum, 2007). However, where organisations



143

implicitly encourage or reward masculine behaviours or attributes, it is feasible that it is

only males who are ―allowed‖ to be oneself, as glass ceiling effects may prevent women

from enacting a more authentic style. Women in some organisation cultures such as

financial services may be strongly socialised to adopt a more masculine way of being,

bearing in mind the strong effect that organisational culture has on individuals to

conform (Schein, 1985). Organisational cultures may therefore implicitly deny, through

subtle sanctions, what they see as stereotypically feminine attributes (Eagly, 2002) and

therefore a masculine culture is perpetuated. Authentic leadership may become a

model which is adopted as important for organisations, but bearing in mind theconstruction of the leadership concept itself as masculine (Eagly et al., 2003),

masculine cultures, unfriendly to women, may render women incapable of enacting this

style due to the conformity exacted upon them so their authenticity is denied and

identity subversed (Butler, 1990). In terms of the authentic model of leadership

therefore, women become deemed ineffective.14

1.4 Differences between men and women, the changing social and organisational context and consequences for women

That there are some differences between men and women of course cannot be denied

and there is ample research on this, including evidence of status differences between

the sexes (Ridgeway, 1988; Yoder, 1991). However, social aspects about women‘s

roles are changeable and supported by a context (eg. society), whilst biological factors

are not (Eagly, 2002; Shields, 2007). For example, roles for men and women have

changed dramatically in recent times (Caven, 2006; Eagly, 2002; Hochschild, 1979) yet

14 Leadership theories are often written about by men, so hegemonic, in nature (Parker, 2001).



144

it has been noted by some authors that women are still expected to do the ―caring‖ role

within organisations (Fischer & Smith, 2006). One study found for example that women

solicitors left their roles because they were assigned mundane administrative duties and

they tired of these (Duff & Webley, 2004). Duff & Webley clearly showed that women

may be expected to perform ―domestic‖ duties in the office but that women do not go

along with this expectation. This study showed that women are forced to leave because

of expectations of them to conform to their social role, even where they are in highly

professional roles such as a solicitor. These women felt it was easier to leave rather

than challenge the effect of the organisational culture and norms to conform to theirsocial role. Eagly‘s (2002) review using role congruity (between females and

leadership) points to much research which finds sanctions for women not conforming to

social roles resulting in prejudice and disadvantage for women.

The next section turns to ―emotion‖, an aspect of ―difference‖ rarely considered in

research, and even less so as the basis of being evaluated, but which may impact

negatively on women at work.

1.5 Emotion at work

Both men and women, depending on the context of the situation, may perceive

emotions displayed in a working situation differently and according to whether a man or

a woman is displaying emotion. This subsection outlines some of the evidence relating

to differences between men and women and in particular how both groups are

stereotyped according to being viewed negatively as a result. The implications for



145

women and being appraised or evaluated are also discussed.

1.5.1 Women and emotions at work

Women have, for centuries, been said to be ―emotional‖ whereas men as ―unemotional‖

(Fischer & Smith, 2006). This seems curious as men and women obviously experience

emotions and is part of being human (Shields, 1987). Emotions are universal but it

seems that ―emotions‖ when displayed by women are thought of more negatively than

when men display emotions. Emotions are gendered in this respect, men as

―passionate‖ and women as ―emotional‖ (Shields, 2007). The important questionthough, as Shields asks, is ―under what conditions does gender matter?‖ and ―What is

at stake in those situations? Clearly, in organisations where women are being

evaluated, it is extremely important.

Whereas 20 years ago, gender was assumed to be a ―stable and trait -like component of

identity‖ (Shields, 1987; 2000), recently gender has been construed as an ongo ing

enactment. However, the ideas about emotions and their stability may still be present.

Where a traditional view of organisations remains which values masculinity the

assumptions relating to emotions being gendered and part of one‘s identity may also

remain. The potential for negative stereotyping of women then becomes possible.

1.5.2 How women are stereotyped according to their emotions

The concept of emotion or being emotional in relation to women appears to mean

something different when talking of emotions in relation to men. Where ―anger‖ is a



146

negative emotion which can cause distress for people, ― being emotional‖ is something

only ascribed to women (Shields, 2007). In addition, where women get angry, this is

perceived differently to when men are angry (Shields, 2007). This is captured in the

comment that ―When the ‗womanly‘ art of living up to private emotional conventions

goes public, it attaches itself to a different profit-and-loss statement‖ (Shields, 2007). In

other words, men and women may display emotions in public, but there are different

values attached. Where organisations value masculinity (or engender a transactional or

―heroic‖ culture, Hatcher, 2003), it seems feasible that emotionality by women will be

seen in a negative light and they may be evaluated accordingly. Emotional displays bywomen in organisations may not therefore be condoned in the traditional view.

Shields (2007) in her analysis of emotions and gender clearly points out how historical

views about traits and abilities were dominant and created gender hierarchies. She

further illuminates how emotion was used, to, what she calls, legitimate ―systems of

subordination‖ (p. 92). These generalised assumptions where women are stereotyped

in emotional terms are still alive and can be illustrated most markedly by Shields (2000)

again, in a case described by her: The Virginia Military Institute ―VMI‖ case (p. 3). In

that case, a military organisation lost the right to prevent admission of women, the

women being seen by the institute as ―more emotional, less aggressive, suffer more

from fear of failure, and cannot withstand stress as well‖ (ibid., p. 3). Shields considers

that where organisations are concerned, women in general will be stereotyped owing to

the gendered nature of organisations and emotions. In this respect, organisational

culture provides norms and spaces that ―allow‖ men to express their emotions. Women



147

on the other hand need to be constrained and controlled and are therefore subordinated

by their emotional displays. The system of legitimisation (Shields, 2007) is therefore

maintained. Stereotyping is the mechanism which allows this to occur.

1.5.3 How gender stereotyping of emotions operates

The operation of gender stereotyping of emotional displays works in a similar way to

other stereotyping, ie. inferences are made because of lack of information (Fiske, 1998;

also see Study 1 for discussion). The operation of this sort of stereotyping is

demonstrated in an interesting study by Robin, Johnson and Shields (1998) which

showed the effect of distance in time between events and the relationship with judging

emotions. This study used a game condition where participants had to make

judgements about emotion where emotional displays of others showed an influence of

gender stereotypes. Where reports and perceptions of events more closely matched

stereotypes, distance and time were factors. This is of course the same way that other

stereotyping works (Fiske, 1998).

1.6 Summary

The introduction provided the framework for the study including how women are

stereotyped within masculine cultures. Women may be seen through the gender lens

rather than as competent individuals (Eagly, 2002). Other biases and stereotyping

operate against women, especially, as some consider, in financial services which are

generally thought of as "masculine". This is despite the sector being generally staffed

by women (EHRC, 2009). It is strange therefore that so few women are at the top as



148

the EHRC study showed. Indeed, it is a mystery. As stereotyping leads to inequitable

results, and the ERHC (2009) found this to be an explanation for so few women at the

top (including working practices that disadvantages and marginalises women), it is

useful to examine senior women's experiences of these organisations and gain insights

to their experience of being evaluated, especially as this HR process (and here is meant

the annual, objective, performance appraisal event) is still favoured and valued by

organisations, regardless of the criticism it receives.

1.7 Rationale for the research

This research focuses on senior women in traditionally male-typed positions in financial

services organisations in the UK. In this way, these women are at the centre of the

investigation as we know so little about their experience in these organisations. Men

and women may fare unequally in these organisations in terms of being evaluated

(informally "judged", in this respect). Research shows that different contexts are

important for how women experience organisations. It is particularly important therefore

that we understand women's experiences in "masculine"-typed organisations, and

especially in non-traditionally feminine roles where stereotyping may apply to the role

and the gender of the person within (Eagly, 2001).

Women may choose to leave the organisations although glass ceiling theory would

suggest their choosing may not totally be women‘s own choice, but rather are forced

due to the unfavourable cultures as some research suggests (eg. Caven, 2006; Liff &

Ward, 2001; Ogden et al., 2006). Women‘s experience with organisational processes



149

(including being appraised or evaluated) may be a factor in both scenarios. However,

we know little about their experiences, and especially senior women in this sector.

Understanding these senior women‘s perspectives is the most reasonable response to

understand some of the current issues for these women. As well as examining women

being evaluated, and within the particular culture of financial services, which will provide

valuable insights (bearing in mind the effect this has), the study also examines emotion,

an aspect that has been rarely considered in the literature as one where men and

women may fare unequally, with implications for senior women being evaluated inorganisations.

This is important for occupational psychologists and in turn practitioners who may be

tasked with understanding the particular issues that senior women face, especially with

the myriad of issues involved.

1.8 Research aim

This study sought to examine the experiences of a sample of senior women participants

in financial services organisations, and in particular, how they are evaluated either

informally or formally (i.e., through a performance appraisal process). (See Appendix D

for a full list of interview questions).



150

2. Method

2.1 Study Design

Study 2 uses qualitative methodology within a broadly social constructionist and feminist

framework. Thematic analysis was used to explore the themes that emerged from

semi-structured interview data. The thematic analysis followed the Braun and Clark

(2006) method of analysis.

2.2 Participants and recruitment of participants

The sample consisted of 8 females who were senior managers within global financial

institutions and whose peers were predominantly male. The participants' details were

obtained from various sources. By necessity participants were selected using a mixture

of purposeful and snowball sampling. Firstly, a commercial database, to which the

author has access, was consulted which contains contact information for senior

executives and decision makers of organisations within the UK and Ireland. Two

directories were used to identify all of the financial institutions within the UK using the

search term ―banks and financial institutions". The Yellow Pages directory was also

consulted for the same purpose to ensure that all institutions were identified. The

reasons for this were that the author expected the sample size to be quite small.

In addition, personal networks (the Financial Services Research Forum) and online

networks (e.g., ―Zoom‖) were used to identify women who fit the criteria (see below).



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The professions of ―HR‖ and ―Training‖ were not included in the sample. It was obvious

from the database that although these positions were predominantly held by women,

they also represented a non male-dominant profession in occupational segregation

terms (Anker, 1997), where some roles are considered to be held predominantly by a

particular gender.

Women who hold the senior positions at or near to the glass ceiling in financial

institutions can be said to form a small minority (Meyerson & Fletcher, 2000). They

have often competed with men for these roles, making them the sample of interest forStudy 2. In addition, because financial institutions generally have strong internal career

structures (recruiting predominantly at entry-level), this sample provides a wealth of

insights into not only these women‘s own experience but useful perceptions and insights

about other women and men in senior positions. These women also had experienced

being an appraisee and appraiser with opportunities to observe this process from both

positions.

2.3 Participant Profile

Table 1 shows the demographic data collected from the 8 participants. All of the

participants had completed a number of appraisals for others (some quite large), and

varying amounts of having appraisals as an appraisee. Some of the participants had

commenced their career within their current organisations; some had been employed in

other financial institutions, whilst others had embarked on careers prior to their financial

one. Only one of the participants had commenced their working life in an occupation



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not related to financial services or business.

Table 1Profile of the participants

Information Participant number (―Px‖)

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8

Time in currentrole

9months

2 years 2 years 3 years 2 years 3 years 3 years 8 year

Functional role Finance Operations Operations Operations Operations IT/Operations IT/Operations GenerManag

Domesticsituation / caringresponsibilities

Married.2children

SingleNone

Married,no children

Married / None

SingleNone

Married,children

MarriedNone

MarrieChildre

Age 47 35 42 40 29 47 47 62

The issue of sample size was an important consideration also. The author wished to

sample from across the UK, but only in non-traditionally masculine roles, and expected

the sample to be small. For example, and in light of these issues, Morse‘s (2000 ) article

on ―Determining sample size‖ was useful for understanding the scope of the research

area, the number of participants needed, and making a decision to consider the

broadness and narrowness of the topic (Morse, 2000) and questions (Braun & Kitzinger,

2001; Clarke & Kitzinger, 2004; Braun & Clarke 2006).

2.4 Procedure

This subsection provides details of communication with participants, as well as the

interview procedure and development of the research questions.



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between the two diverse cultures (a hospital and a financial institution). As well as

having practical experience in working in both settings, the author also consulted some

literature to highlight how the different cultures may operate (eg. Cohen & Liani, 2009;

Hamlin, 2002; Lane, 1999; Miller, 2007). The piloting was also useful for timing

purposes. Also, owing to the limited time availability of the participants as mentioned

above, the questions needed to focus on the relevant areas of the research. Following

the piloting and transcription of these questions, adjustments were made to the final list

of questions. The full interview schedule and interview questions appear in Appendix

D).

2.4.3 Interview procedure

The interviews were between 45 minutes and 1 hour in length. Six of the interviews

were conducted face-to-face and two by telephone. The reasons for this were time

constraints of the women (one was only able to be interviewed in her parked car) and

logistics. These women travelled extensively, or were based in other parts of the UK.

The author consulted various research, which compared face-to-face and telephone

interviews to ascertain, for example, reliabilities between the two methods (Leeuw,

1992; Rhode, Lewinsohn & Seeley, 1997), which found excellent inter-rater reliability

between these two methods. Other research has shown similar reliabilities between

telephone and face-to-face interviews for selection purposes (Silvester, Anderson,

Haddleton, Cunningham-Snell & Gibb, 2000).



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Following consideration of this research, and considering the semi-structured nature of

the interview (using the same transcript) and more importantly, the time-limited nature of

the interviews, the author felt that the data quality would be fairly similar between the

two methods.

2.5 Semi-structured interviews

Semi-structured interviews were used for this study as they allow for a focused, yet

flexible two-way approach to communication, allowing for questions to be created during

the interview by both interviewer and participant (Fielding, 1993; Silverman, 2001;Valentine, 1997). This method was considered most appropriate for this sample of

women and research design.

2.6 Analysis of data

Thematic analysis was undertaken for this study and is considered theoretically flexible

(Braun & Clarke, 2006). It involves the analysis and reporting of patterns or themes

within a data set and can be used to interpret the research topic (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

There are 6 overall phases within thematic analysis shown in Table 2:



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Table 2Stage of analysis within thematic analysis

Analysis phase Description of the process

1. Familiarising yourself with your data Transcribing data (if necessary), reading and re-reading thedata, noting down initial ideas.

2. Generating initial codes Coding interesting features of the data in a systematic fashionacross the entire data set, collating data relevant to each code.

3. Searching for themes Collating codes into potential themes, gathering all datarelevant to each potential theme.

4. Reviewing themes Checking if the themes work in relation to the coded extracts(Level 1) and the entire data set (Level 2), generating athematic ―map‖ of the analysis.

5. Defining and namingthemes

Ongoing analysis to refine the specifics of each theme, and theoverall story the analysis tells, generating clear definitions andnames for each theme.

6. Producing the report Selection of vivid, compelling extract examples, final analysis ofselected extracts, relating back of the analysis to the researchquestion and literature, producing a scholarly report of theanalysis.

Source: Braun and Clark 2006 (p. 87)

A number of decisions were made prior to analysing the data and is recommended by

Braun and Clark (2006). These were decisions around whether to use an inductive

(data-driven) or theoretical approach, what counted as a theme, how and whether to

identify semantic or latent themes and the usefulness of these to the interpretation.

Epistemological considerations relating to the data, method used, and the ultimate value

of any eventual findings (Braun & Clark, 2006) were also considered. The entire data

set was read and re-read in light of these issues prior to and during the analysis.

To guard against anecdotalism, several techniques were used as recommended by

Silverman (2001) and comprised line-by-line analysis of all of the data, constant

comparative and deviant-case analysis of segments of data. Data was therefore treated



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in a comprehensive manner, where all aspects of the themes were included (Silverman,

2001).

2.7 Epistemological considerations which influenced the method and analysis for Study 2

The author considered the epistemology for the study carefully, especially in terms of

the assumptions made about the research context and the participants, the "reality" for

these women. Because of the hegemonic nature of organisational writing generally (eg.

Bierama, 2009), and the statistic of so few women at the top of financial servicesorganisations, the author wanted to understand women's experience within this reality.

As organisations have a certain "type" of quality in cultural terms (eg. Morgan, 1986), it

is this "reality" the author was looking to understand the women's experiences (reality)

from within these organisations, considered to be masculine. Social construction is

concerned with identifying patterns, and organisational norms provide the blueprint

(culture) for people to behave within them (Schein, 1973).

Thematic analysis is flexible, and can be an essentialist or realist method, which reports

experiences, meanings, and the reality of participants, or it can be a constructionist

method, which examines the ways in which events, realities, meanings, and

experiences and so on, are the effects of a range of discourses operating within society.

The thematic analysis method is also characterised by theories, such as critical realism

(e.g., Willig, 1999), which acknowledges the ways individuals make meaning of their

experience and in turn, the ways the broader social context impinges on those



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meanings, while retaining focus on the material and other limits of ―reality‖. In this way,

and as Braun and Clark (2006) suggest, thematic analysis can be used to ―reflect reality

and to unpick or unravel the surface of "reality‘‖ (p. 4). Thematic analysis was the

chosen approach for this analysis as the women‘s experience of being evaluated or

judged is found and delivered through processes within an organisation‘s culture which

is a microcosm of society‘s (Thomas & Plaut, 2008). The flexibility of thematic analysis

was useful as it allowed the exploration in the analysis, between women's own

experiences (within a masculine culture and discourse), and also identifying patterns

across the data, in social construction terms. Putting women at the centre of theanalysis required an examination of reality from their perspective, using semi-structured

interviews (flexibility) hence the broadly feminist and social constructionist framework.

2.8 Themes within thematic analysis

A theme within thematic analysis is defined by Braun and Clark (2006) as one which

has ―captured something important about the data in relation to the research question

and represents some level of patterned response or meaning within the data set‖ (p.

82). They also stress, however, that researcher judgement is required to determine a

theme (Braun & Clarke, 2006). A theme is not based on quantity, but rather, the

importance of the theme to the overall research question (Braun & Clarke, 2006). For

this research, a theme was considered important if it related to aspects of gender,

culture, evaluation, performance, and indicated women's experience within their

organisation (either positively or negatively). The themes were therefore focused on the

broad parameters set by the research question (taking a largely inductive approach to



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later analysis).

2.9 Procedure of data analysis

2.9.1 Transcription of data

The author transcribed all of the material from the interviews as they were completed.

This was done to ensure that the author was physically close to the data (Bird, 2005;

Riessman, 1992) in that the data had been listened to several times prior to analysis

being commenced (Step 1). The transcription produced 347 pages of data.

Following transcription of all of the interviews, the full interview transcript was sent to

each participant to ensure that it was an accurate representation of what the

participants had said (Moustakas, 1994).

2.9.2 Coding of data

Coding was undertaken by hand rather than using a computer-based system as it was

felt that a more reflexive process would follow using a manual approach (being slower

to undertake), where ―reflection‖ is considered a ―long considerative, analytic, critical

evaluative thought‖, as well as ―being there‖ (Lisle, 2000, p.113). Codes serve to

categorise what otherwise appear to be discrete events, and help with later steps of

summarising into themes (Charmaz, 1983).

The analysis commenced by reading through one participant‘s interview and making

initial notes in the margin about themes that were immediately obvious. This was



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followed by a line-by-line analysis and ―initial codes‖ were entered manually onto the

transcript, for example, where a line of text indicated something important about the

research question, a note was made by hand in the margin of the page of interview text

data (see Appendix E for example). Any linkages with other codes and themes were

also noted (Step 1).

2.9.3 Data management

Once the transcripts were analysed, to assist the management of the data and latent

patterns, the author entered the data into a spreadsheet. Columns were created asfollows:

Participant numberPage numberLine numberCode numberExtractInitial codeThemeSubtheme 1, 2, 3Links

Individual extracts from the Word document transcripts were cut and pasted into the

―extract‖ column of the Excel spreadsheet along with the identifying information also

entered onto the spreadsheet columns above. This allowed the author to refer back to

the original transcript as required. Much of the text around the research question

information was retained for data integrity (Silverman, 2001).

Once the data was entered into Excel under the initial ―theme‖ headings, this data was

printed out. The text extracts and related code identification (participant number, line



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number, etc.) were cut from the printed pages and sorted into piles. This allowed for

easy movement between piles as required.

The ―mechanical‖ process (Krippendorf, 1980) of entering the data in a spreadsheet to

be later analysed further for coding, was commenced some time after much

interpretative work had started.

Initial codes were entered into a spreadsheet and sorted alphabetically, with duplicates

removed and some codes were renamed. A total of 1,546 codes were initially assigned.Examples of these initial (sorted) codes are shown in Table 3. below:

Table 3Examples of Initial Codes (Alphabetically Sorted)

Accepts control of emotion regardless of whatcaused it

Accepts culture

Accepts men are emotional

Accepts reality of culture

Accepts status quo

Accepts that men and women evaluateddifferently

Achieved goals

Achieving to gain things

Acknowledgement of legal position

Acknowledges another woman would be nice

Acknowledges diversity is gender-based

This list of initial codes was then used to assign an initial theme (Step 2), and also

assign an initial code in the spreadsheet as to whether the code was ―latent‖. The initial



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theme was analysed and used to develop the ―subtheme‖ information. The subtheme

information was used to develop the ―label‖ (Moustakas, 1994). For example, the

development of the theme ―Authenticity‖ is shown in Table 4 below, along with the initial

code from which it is derived (handwritten into the original transcribed interview text),

the subtheme which relates to the initial theme, and the original extract, all as entered

into the Excel spreadsheet:

Table 4Development of "Authenticity" Theme

Initial code Initial theme Subtheme

Deniesfemaleness

Authenticity I mean, those are the practical things. We had somehilarious training when I was at [bank 1] about handbagsand shoes, and those- oh, I always wear heels as well, Idon't like to be shorter than men. So it‘s-it‘s all of thosesorts of things.

Does notemulate menway of doingthings

AuthenticityI learned long ago that what you can't do is try to act likeor speak like someone else. And actually as a woman inan industry where the senior people are predominantly orhave been predominantly male, you have to be reallycareful not to say ‗So-and-so's successful so I'll conduct ameeting the way he conducts a meeting‘, because youcan‘t do it. I learned a long time ago you really have todo things the way that sits right with yourself

Example ofsomeone trueto values

AuthenticityRita Chakrabarti, well she‘s the massively inspirationalfigure, she‘s massive, and I think the reason she‘ssuccessful is because she‘s totally true to her values, Idon‘t know her personally, it‘s just my perception, so sheseems to be totally true to her values, she seems to beincredibly calm all the time which I find it amazing and theway she argues her case is absolutely incredible, shenever raises her voice, she never gets down to apersonal level, so I think it‘s really strong personality, it‘slike her brand, this is her, this is how she is,

Fitting in withmacho cultureby denyingfemininity

Authenticity Culture Because otherwise I look quite young, you know, and it‘s

just those sorts of things and-and wearing jewellery andmaking sure that you're not wearing anything that‘s too-you don‘t wear anything that‘s showing too much flesh,those sorts of things, so definitely aware of those sorts ofthings. I also tend to lower my voice and speak quiteslowly, and that sort of- I think that helps.



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Human Authenticity Ability toexpress

Because there are things that you‘re going to see that will just make you go, ‗oh, no‘, because there are elements ofit that are not human, but it‘s-it‘s the way it is, it's themarket, it's money and it's- you know, if you don‘t like it Ithink you should just be honest and do something that,you know, maybe makes you feel less horrid.

Ignores

dominance byusing differentapproach

Authenticity Progression

They can bluster and, sitting behind a desk, display a lotof the body language of dominance or whatever. Butactually you can dominate through your ability to debate,to be logical, to take them to the next step until they can‘tactually come back with any rebuttal. So, there are waysto deal with some macho behaviour. That‘s one thing Isuppose I‘ve learned along the way.

Table 5 below illustrates how the theme Authenticity was labelled.

Table 5How the Theme "Authenticity" Was Labelled:

1. Initial major theme (derived from initial codes) Authenticity

2. Summary of subthemes Ability to express, admired in others, culture, denied,desired, gender aspects, ideal, other culture, prevented,progression, success

3. Final label for the major theme ―Authenticity‖ How women are able to experience authenticity

As shown in Table 5 above, the initial major theme was identified as ―Authenticity‖,

derived from the initial codes (Table 4 above). This code was then analysed to derive

subthemes (2, Table 5). Finally, the subthemes and text were re-read to arrive at the

final label, ―How women are able to experience authenticity‖. This general process was

followed for labelling of themes.

2.9.4 Table of themes and Subthemes derived from the data analysis

A full table of themes and subthemes as outlined above is shown in Appendix H. The

table also includes the identifying information relating to the location of the extracts, and



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the number of occasions each theme appeared in the transcripts. This information was

initially used in the production of the thematic maps used throughout the section on

―Findings‖.

The themes were reviewed a number of times (Step 4) using both the spreadsheet

information where information was easily manipulated by changing the name of the

theme where it did not appear to fit, and writing the theme names on post-it notes to

develop the thematic map. For example, the following codes were changed from:

Major theme Subtheme Initial code

Authenticity Ability to express Human

to

Major theme Subtheme Initial code

Experience of being female Ability to express herself Human

Using both the spreadsheet information and the post-it notes to develop the maps

enabled the ―overall story‖ (Step 5) to be developed, as well as identifying clearly the

subthemes within the major themes. Once the overall thematic map was finalised, the

major themes and subthemes were checked against the original spreadsheet, which

was checked against the transcripts to ensure the theme was adequately captured.

2.9.5 Confidentiality and protocol relating to transcribed data

Throughout the transcript extracts, [square brackets] were used to insert information to

protect the women‘s confidentiality or to enhance the meaning. Bearing in mind the

small sample, this was extremely important to consider, and it was expressed to the



165

participants that this would be the case.

The next section reports on the findings of the analysis. The section firstly gives an

overview of all of the themes derived from the transcripts and which appear in the

thematic map, also illustrated in that section. The analysis continues further to give an

interpretative reading of some sub-themes within the major themes.



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3. Data analysis

The following section reports on the thematic qualitative data analysis. The overall

thematic map developed from the data is outlined, explaining the major themes that

emerged from the analysis. The analysis for the relevant themes in relation to the

research aim is then presented.

3.1 Explanation and overview of the thematic map

Following the approach advocated by Braun and Clark (2006) and as outlined in the

methodology section, the author produced a final thematic map of the major themes to

address the overall research aim and is shown below in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Final thematic map



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The green boxes contain the major themes and the latent themes are in yellow boxes.

The remaining themes are in White boxes and remain for completeness.

As shown in Figure 2 above, seven major themes were derived, two latent. The themes

impact on the women as employees and, particularly, their experience of being a

woman within a financial institution. The epistemological assumptions provide the

framework for the analysis. Each major theme (green) comprises a web of sub-themes

(not shown above, but are in the individual thematic maps which follow). Major sub-

themes are in blue (individual maps).

Organisational culture is a major latent theme (yellow) that appears in many of the other

themes and sub-themes, and the latent effect is on how men and women are evaluated

(in the women‘s view), the women‘s experience of being an employee and ultimately her

progression within financial organisations. Progression is affected by the ―decisions‖

made by the women and the emphasis on the term is deliberate: her decisions are

affected by the organisational culture. Women's progression importantly is ultimately as

a result of their experience, particularly within a male-dominated environment, as they

see it.

The following subsections now turn to the analysis of the two selected major themes –

―How men and women are evaluated in the organisation‖ and ―Experience of being a

woman in a financial institution‖. Individual thematic maps relating to these themes and

their related subthemes are shown at the beginning of each of the following subsections



168

within this section. The major theme headings are underlined and sub-themes which

relate are in italics.

In some of the individual maps, there are grey boxes which contain the elements that

form to make up the (blue) major sub-themes (these elements are included in the

analysis text, not as separate headings). The term "element" refers to the initial

categories derived from the initial coding of the data (see Appendix A).

The analysis of the first major theme and its associated sub-theme follows:3.2 Analysis of selected themes

3.2.1 The experience of being women within a male-dominated15 environment

Figure 3Thematic map relating to the theme: ―The experience of being a woman within a male- dominated environment‖

15 The term "male-dominated" is the term used in the literature, eg. Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani (1995). The term is also used by the

women themselves in the interviews. For example, see P6, p182. This is despite the financial services sector actually beingdominated by women (see EHRC, and also Study 1).



169

This first theme in Figure 3 relates to the various mechanisms which impact on women‘s

experience of being a female employee within a male-dominated environment. The

term ―male-dominated environment‖ derives overall from the women‘s views. This

major theme is also linked (in the overall thematic map) to how women are evaluated in

their organisations. The women‘s experiences are as a result of the realities of their

lives—work and family issues are a major subtheme. The impact of the organisational

culture plays its part through its paradox of the espoused and enacted practice

dichotomy, especially related to how she experiences her work-life issues. The

individual thematic map relating to ―The experience of being a woman within a 'male-

dominated' environment‖ and its subthemes are shown above.

The women experienced the latent effect of the organisational culture in terms of its

espoused and enacted practices. Some of the women talked in semantic terms of

"culture".

... I feel that I could be more successful now.... I think in general

within senior women are not given all the opportunities that men

are. They’re not discriminated against but because we work in

very male- dominated cultures they're just not given the

opportunities ... we don’t think or look like men and yet most of

us are managed by men, the organisation and people inevitably

tend to sort of recruit in their own image ... the women in this

organisation are not proactively managed upwards, they’re not,

― Have they got the right leadership training, have they been

given the right stretch assignments ‖ , it probably applies to a lot

of men as well, but ... and incident ally I think it’s the same with

[bank] you know, [bank] and women and [bank] and women, it's

not just a [bank ] thing, it’s a general gender point.



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P5, line 15, page 6, code 38

The espoused nature of the organisation‘s culture is evident in ―women are not given all

the opportunities men are ‖. These organisations after all, operate mostly with diversity

policies, which espouse recognising differences between men and women. However,

this participant is clear in this statement about opportunities not afforded to women.

The participant‘s voice points markedly to how women are treated compared to men in

a discriminatory way. The participant recognises its origins though. This commences at

recruitment where, as she describes, firstly it‘s a male-dominated culture, and secondly

―most of us are managed by men ‖ , and also ―people inevitably tend to sort of recruit in

their own image ‖ (meaning men). The statements together provide a clear view of a

culture that may be difficult to be enacted in a way other than a masculine one where

these values are recognised. This participant also recognises this stating that it‘s the

―general gender point‖ in the sector as a whole, that men and women are treated

differently. More interesting though, she refrains from wanting to acknowledge clearly

that discrimination exists—‖they’re [women] not discriminated against ‖. She justifies the

discrimination and appears to accept or resign herself to it—‖because we work in very

male-dominated culture, they are just not given the opportunities ‖ (emphasis the

author‘s own). The lack of opportunities for women is justified by the nature of culture

within which they are situated. In this sense, this participant‘s understanding of

discrimination appears in a sense confused, as if the justification cancels out the effect.

The phrase about the culture is a signpost to women not to expect anything else apart

from discriminatory behaviour, but the women don‘t recognise it as such— it is just the

way it is, appears to be the unsaid statement. However, in their eyes, it is not



171

discrimination. It is clear that they experience the culture as discriminatory, it is enacted

in a way which does not allow women the same opportunities as men, yet they are

reluctant to name it as such. The effect of the organisation culture may be such that the

women either believe that nothing can be done, for example, by internalising this idea, a

kind of "learned helpless", or they may have witnessed events where the outcomes are

such that they decide it is not worth the effort.

3.2.2 How women experience balancing work and family

This major sub-theme (blue box, see in Figure 3 above) examines how womenexperience balancing work and family. Some of the women in this study had children

and some not. The women with children had described their experience about the

impact of having children on their careers. However, women without children also

noticed this about other women and commented about the reality of women with

children within the financial services industry, as they saw it. This is exemplified clearly

in the extract below:

This is not a good industry if you have got children.


Once again, this is a clear statement and points to the enactment of an unfair culture,

but it is specific about its effect on women with children. For women who either join or

are thinking of having children, the view is quite a stark one and acts as a sign that the

two don‘t mix. Women will not fare well if you have children.



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There are however other views around work-life balance expressed by these women:

It’s probably also being a little bit more happy with your lot if you

like, if you're able to accommodate family and job and, you

know, you're happy that you’ve got the balance right, you might

just not want to over-stress one aspect at the expense of

another, there's more to balance out really, it’s a matter of how

supportive the partner is I think, ultimately we do the bigger

burden with childcare...


Although it is framed in more positive terms, it is not entirely. The women have to

accept or resign themselves with being ―happy with their lot ‖ , as this participant says.

Women consider that having a supportive partner plays a large part in being able to

manage their work-life balance issues and puts the onus on the woman and her partner

rather than the organisation:

I always have to prove that I don’t get any special treatment

because that was the deal then and they were- so I had to stay

late, when I stayed late till midnight, whatever, I had to stay late

regardless so there was absolutely no- I couldn’t pull anything

like that to say, ―Oh you know, I’ve got a kid therefore I’m going

home ‖ , it would not wash at all and that was actually quite hard,

that was really hard so I had a husband that works shifts so we

managed that between us.

P4, Page 11, Line 6



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In this view, the impact of the espoused yet enacted organisation is again raised.

Where organisations have diversity policies, women should not need to worry about the

reality of their working lives as these policies ―recognise differences‖. However, these

women point out the clear enacted nature of the organisation they are working in.

The above participant outlines the reality of work-life balance issues for women with

children. She also highlights the supportive partner as a factor in being able to balance

work and home responsibilities. There is no mention of diversity or other support as a

factor in the management of her home and work life. This participant also expressesthe view that even where there are flexible working opportunities offered, women do not

take advantage of them owing to the strong norm of presenteeism and ―resentment‖

from others as she sees it. The enacted nature of the culture has a strong effect on

how these women balance their work and life and there is little support. Also, there is

antagonism along with it: I always have to prove that I don’t get any special treatment

because that was the deal. The ―special treatment" refers to flexible working and

specifically as a woman. It is as if the organisation wants to "treat everyone the same".

The point of flexible working however is to engender an organisation which supports

"Special treatment", to name it as this. The participant says she works till midnight so

there is no sense of there being any flexibility – indeed, she made the deal not to.

Others in the organisation do not recognise the realities of women‘s lives so this aspect

of support for the women to take advantage of flexible working is clearly not managed.

One would expect these aspects of culture to be managed through its enactment of



174

suitable policies and processes; otherwise one may think what is the point of having

whole departments dedicated to this purpose? It is interesting that the women do not

recognise this or mention support available in the organisation, apart from husbands,

and points to them in some sort of denial, or accept that‘s the way it is, partly because

the organisation‘s (masculine) cultur e is set up to support the men within them. The

organisations may pride themselves on "treating everyone the same", which seems

rather misguided as not all people in organisations are equal. Flexible working and

equal opportunities is a kind of legal "special treatment" designed to support those who

have been unfairly treated in the past. However, financial services organisations do nottake on board the issues seriously enough meaning that women are denied the same

opportunities that men are. Stereotyping leads to people being viewed through the

same lens but with a different result. Unfortunately, the result for women means they

are penalised. The denial of "special treatment" (a fair opportunity to progress), also

suggests the dominant making decisions about the dominated, or the "other". Although

it may seem the woman in the extract above is going along with the culture, she is

sacrificing herself to work to "prove" that she is like everyone else. By doing this, she is

making even more of a sacrifice to prove the point.

Women with children in these organisations are also stereotyped as the participant

below clearly illustrates:



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... and if you elect to do the flexible working thing you are

absolutely as night follows day ruling yourself out of being seen

to be ineligible for all sorts of senior roles and unfortunately you

then get stereotyped so I am, you know, believed to be talented.

successful, you know, driven, noisy, all think rest of it, but I ’ m

also critically seen as a woman with [xxx] children who is

juggling a lot of other things and therefore not surprisingly I'm

not seen as somebody who could move to the next stage of

leadership


Like the participant above (P4, p.167), this participant (P6) also knows that flexible

working is not an option. In fact, she is quite emphatic that even though there may be

flexible working in place, the reality is that promotion will not follow if these practices are

used. There is no mistaking this, and the certainty of her belief is matched with an

unambiguous analogy to express this reality—‖as night follows day ‖. Also like P4

(p.167), there is a sense of antagonism in the statement. Instead of work-life balance

being an acceptable mechanism to support women with children, taking advantage of

the practice leads to a stalled career. The main factor seems to be that children are

salient in any decision about promotion, regardless of how brilliant a woman is, indeed it

is critical . There is also the suggestion from the participant herself of accepting this

rejection for promotion on the basis of her external reality—―it is not surprising ‖. This is

another "deal". It gives a sense of how the culture works. It is as if these women are

willing to play along. Maybe that is why they get ahead. The view that non-

performance factors are perceived by (male?) evaluators as the basis for promotion is

highlighted. The above participant also highlights the mutually exclusive way that



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women with children are perceived—negative stereotyping is felt to be the ―cause‖ and

this appears to negate any chances of being promoted. In this way, taking advantage of

flexible working is seen as immediately taking oneself out of the career track for women.

However, not all women are equal:

Well I think you know, I don’t really know is the answer, the

senior women in this organisation are a mixture of childless and

women with children, I don’t think it’s fair to say that the childless

ones are doing better, although there would be an

understanding that if you were in your mid-40s without children

say your male colleagues would probably imagine you were

more committed because you know, they tha- that’s a whole

working mother thing —I think that does have a sort of subliminal

effect on people thinking ― Well she ’ s never going to be able to,

you know, stay here all night, or she’s never going to be able to

step in because she’s got a child on sports day‖ ...


The participant above points again to the clear stereotyping that operates for women

with children (i.e., the perceptions about, and expectations of, male colleagues about

women with children). The subjective evaluation of women by men is clear; women are

seen as more committed where they don‘t have children. The eff ect of being

stereotyped is also clear where the participant expresses the web of beliefs prevailing in

organisations about women, with or without children, based on the mere fact of being a

woman. The participant does not consider that ―childless ones are doing better‖ . The

term "subliminal " is used and expresses the feeling of the enacted (glass ceiling?)

versus the espoused culture. Maybe it is the "invisibility" of the glass ceiling. One thing



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may be said and done (espoused), but the enacted culture sees the women being

viewed as not being able to progress, even develop in her role. The feeling is also

clear, she is never going to ... ―step in ‖ . This represents a feeling of futility about women

with children. The rest of the story about women via this stereotyping effect is

conjectured leading to beliefs about women, which it is easy to see, would lead to

various roles and opportunities being denied to them. It also demonstrates through the

women‘s views, how the stereotyping plays out and highlights the belief system

involved. Although the view is from the woman‘s point of view, the effects of the men‘s

views apply to them. That the participant considers that women without children are notnecessarily ―doing better ‖ leads to a feeling that women are viewed negatively as far as

climbing the corporate ladder is concerned.

The following extract is from a woman without children. However, even where women

do not have children, the issue of children and women is such that a participant who

does not have children, thinks about, or is reminded about children. It affects her

experience such that where women are concerned, having or not having children is a

salient factor:

I can’t because it’s not socially acceptable or work acceptable to

do that but yet if I have a child I c- that would be acceptable, do

you know what I mean. It does irritate, I don’t think about it a lot,

but it does irritate me that my lifestyle decisions, my life

decisions are not seen, it seems, as important as someone who

chooses children and also, you know, I do find that my current

boss did- and again, this is an assumption thing, did sort of say

―Well you don’t have children, did you not want any‖?



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It is clear that as far as women are concerned, decisions made in relation to them are

made with children as a factor. The participant‘s manager mentions the issue of

children, even though the participant doesn‘t have children, so that women are firstly

perceived as being with or without children. The participant‘s experience of being

viewed in this manner is clearly one of irritation, although she hesitates at the

expression of any form of open dissatisfaction to say that she doesn‘t think about it a lot.

The subjective and gendered nature of views about women is clear from theparticipant‘s point of view. Although it is a simple statement asking about children, the

effect on the experience on the woman is clear and more importantly, suggests the idea

that even women managers are enacting a culture that appears to be made for men,

and where women are seen through a ―gendered‖ lens. The feeling of checking-upon

on this participant‘s intentions about children could be taken to check first if she is a

―normal‖ [woman], ―did you not want any ?‖, or to check that where she were to say

―yes‖, something ominous may be decided by the manager.

The final participant expresses the real constraints for women in these organisations

and the eventual effect that the enacted culture has on women in terms of work-life

balance:



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Well, it is- it is women’s choice but it’s women’s choice because

they say ―Hey, I can’t be bothered with this‖ , you know, because

why do I think this male-dominated culture is going to acc- is

going to acknowledge my talents and give me the breaks to get

to the top. In practice it’s difficult, they don’t let me do flexible

working, I'm having a baby, I can't see my managers being very

supportive of this, there are no women at the top of this

organisation, I think I’ll drop out and become an entrepreneur, or

go into some other industry [xxx]. Most women who drop out

don’t drop out to go and become full -time mothers, they drop out

to go and do something where they’re gonna feel they’re gonna

have more control over their over their work and their

advancement, is the interesting thing.

P6, page 28, line 17, code 154

This participant emphatically traces, albeit hypothetically, the difficult time some women

have within these organisations. She points out that yes, women do choose to leave

(emphasis is author‘s own); however their choices are constrained by firstly the male -

dominated organisational culture, which prevents flexible working, having children is not

supported and there are few women role models at the top. Women do leave, and this

participant speaks probably from her long experience within the organisation. At some

point, women decide to leave to have more control over their own progression. The

extract also points to women‘s aspirations as demonstrating they are ambitious—they

are leaving to further these ambitions—they are not leaving because of their caretaking

responsibilities. The question is raised as to how these women are supported, if they

are prevented from taking up flexible working as well as how performance appraisal and

development processes work. This participant provides an answer, acknowledging the



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―male-dominated culture ‖ within which she works, and clearly acknowledges the glass

ceiling – they won't give me the breaks to get to the top . In practice , could be changed

to, the enacted culture . The latent effect is obvious, and the participant hints as much,

that it is the male-dominated culture.

The participant also expresses some underlying feeling that the decision to leave may

come about after some realisation. It‘s as if she expressing her beliefs about

meritocracy but then it changes – ―why do I think the [culture] is going to acknowledge

my talents ‖ and speaks as if she once thought that it would, or is led to believe it would(via the espoused culture?) but then realises it is not possible. There is the clear

underlying assumption that women are not considered as promotion prospects,

especially if they have children. This presents a clear difference between men and

women in the organisations and points to different rules for both and a culture which

supports men to reach the top. It may not even be support, but rather the women go

along with the espoused culture, making deals not to actually take advantage of them –

in practice , it doesn't pay. This also suggests that the organisation will be replete with

rules for evaluating them differently too.



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3.2.3 How men and women are evaluated within the organisation

Figure 4Thematic map relating to the major theme ―How men and women are evaluated within t he

organisation‖

This next major theme (green, Figure 4) relates to how both men and women are

evaluated within the organisation and the individual thematic is shown above in Figure

4. Evaluation is often used interchangeably in the literature with the term ―appraisal‖,

but is felt to be a more useful term to differentiate the performance appraisal process,

both of which could lead to progression. For the purpose of this study, performance

appraisal is predominantly related to the women‘s experience of an actual performance

appraisal process, whilst the term ―evaluation‖ for the purposes of this theme involves

both formal and informal appraisal processes and is mainly concerned with the

participant‘s views of how men and women are viewed informally, and therefore

evaluated (either formally or informally).



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Some of the participants felt that they are judged differently from men, and they also

acknowledged the subjectivity of evaluation being inherent in how people are

perceived—the same behaviours amount to different standards, men as positively and

women as negatively evaluated:

I think there's lots of assumptions about men and women in

terms of how they're evaluated. I think sometimes you can

observe what objectively looks like very similar behaviour in men

and women and yet it’s described differently. In men ...

s omeone who’s forward and direct, someone who is asserting

themselves in a conversation. ... The same behaviour from a

woman might be described as being pushy and just wanting to

get herself inserted in the conversation. I ’ve heard those things

happen [performance review] ... conversations where women

were described in terms of what they used to be —meaning that

they were once 25 and someone used to know them. You don’t

hear that said about men. The view sometimes of women is

more of a girlish view, a younger view, even though they might be 40 now. ... they’re still talked about as they once were.


The participant points to assumptions made about both women and men, more

particularly in terms of how they are evaluated. The participant is highlighting how

behaviours are viewed differently depending on whether the observer is a man or a

woman. The actual behaviour ―objectively ‖ is the same but that women are evaluated

negatively for the same behaviours. Someone who is ―forward and direct ‖ is ―assertive ‖

(positive) whilst the same behaviour is ―pushy ‖ and ―wanting to get herself inserted in

the conversation ‖. The contrast in views is clear about men and women, where women



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are viewed negatively. The participant provides an insight to how men view women in

organisations, and points to conversations she has actually overhead where women are

viewed, as she calls it, in a ―backward-looking ‖ way, about what women were (author‘s

own emphasis) like. This is suggestive of the men somehow wishing women were still

the way they were, in a subordinate position? It also suggests some disdain for these

senior women who are trying to advance, who have possibly renounced their authentic

nature as women (to act more like "leaders"), and actually provides a clue as to the

nature of the glass ceiling. Men are "wishing" the women away, escaping from the

reality of the new world by retreating into a fantasy world of how women used to be.The extract above provides how negative stereotyping and bias operates for women,

especially women who are trying to progress.

The next participant provides a further hypothetical, yet very telling vignette about how

this bias may enter into conversations about women and being promoted:

I have observed ... the only analogy I'm going to give you, but –

so you’ve got Fred ... the manager and Fred's got two very

talented people ... both ... working incredibly wel l, there’s Jill and

... Bob ... h e’s known for a long time ... come into his team and is

just doing a great job, really outperforming ... and, Jill, she’s

arrived recently and has really surprised ... about her

capabilities, both very, very bright over-achieving types and ... at

the end of the year ... he cha ts to his manager, maybe, ―So, how

are Bob and Jill doing?‖, and it’s ... ―Bob’s really doing a

fantastic job, he’s surprised us, I think he’s absolutely - we

should be looking at him for the next role, he’s absolutely on for



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the next challenge and I’m backing him all the way‖ . ―How’s Jill

doing? ‖ , you know, ―Jill’s done a fantastic job, doing very well,

really, has really surprised us, I think, let’s see how she goes but

I think she’s doing extremely well‖ and that’s the sort of featu re I

see. ... ―She’s doing a great job, let’s see how she goes‖, ... Bob.

Fantastic job, why don ’t we give him a shot at the nex t one, and

that I think is the subliminal approach.


The participant above is relaying the situation where a man and a woman are being

considered for a promotion. It is provided as an analogy which gives the idea that is

somehow more real than not and may mirror a similar situation that has occurred. The

situation clearly points out how men and women are viewed as far as their performance

is concerned and how they are evaluated on it. Although in the participant‘s story the

two hypothetical people are similar in terms of their achievement and drive, so

―objectively ‖ they are very similar, the chance is taken on the man. The men are viewed

in a more positive light, with the manager "backing him all the way ". The man is trusted.

Both the man and woman are described in positive terms, but the negative effect is on

the woman—there is no trust, but "let's see how she goes" . Bearing in mind the

likelihood of a man and woman being considered for a promotion is likely to be rare at

these top levels, it is easy to see, along with the previous extract, how women are

denied the opportunity at the last hurdle. The risk is taken on the man. The participant

uses the term again, ie. the ―subliminal approach ‖, and is referring to the bias that is

present in the minds of managers when considering men and women for promotions.

They are being appraised or evaluated, but it is highly subjective. The situation in the

vignette reflects the trust placed in the men over women where there is a promotion to



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be had, and also elucidates the kind of decision-making about promoting men and

women: men are positively and women negatively stereotyped leading to a stalling of

the woman's career.

The comments in the above extracts (P8 and P6) which imply by hypothesis or actual

observations that men are treated differently were also expressed by other participants.

Although the participants (except one) stated that they thought women were judged

differently, they also seemed to acknowledge and accept that this was the case.

Where women did question whether women were treated differently, sometimes they

contradicted themselves or were not clear. In the next extract, the author begins with

the question ―to what extent would you say men and women are evaluated differently, if

at all?" :

P1 not ostensibly, not in my experience. -ostensibly they are

except when it comes for ... new opportunities so you will still

hear it if it’s, ―Oh who’s going to be count ry manager in Kenya,

you can’t do it because she’s a woman‖ ... and they’ll say it’s not

because of us, it’s because of the regulators ... which is all just

rubbish ... Quite frankly. So you’ll see it -see it in that sense, you

will see it in the sense ... of ... if you’re being evaluated ... for

suitability for the top board role the fact that you’re different from

the existing characteristics of the people on the board would be

seen not necessarily as a good thing- you need to be seen as

becoming more like them, whereas ... that’s a ... mis-judgement

because ... you don’t want to become a clone of - a 50 year old

males that are on the board, you’ve got different things to add



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and that’s the whole- ... point, you know, so you get quite a lot of

feedback at this level which would be ― Well, if you were just a bit

more forceful ‖ ... I’m not trying to be you, I’m trying to be me, so

you get evaluated through ... what is perceived traditionally as

being successful characteristics at the top level-


The participant, like the extract above, mirrors the same situation when men and

women are being considered for top jobs. They are viewed differently. However, the

participant answers the question initially as ―ostensibly not ‖. This is the "espoused

culture" at work, and she has internalised the effect by espousing that there is no

discrimination in terms of how men and women are evaluated. There is a clue as to the

women's denial of discriminatory behaviour against them. She also provides several

scenarios of how women are informally evaluated daily, and which may cumulatively

lead to bias against women—the glass ceiling. The word ―ostensibly ‖ suggests this

participant does not want to believe men and women are treated differently. It also

suggests the latent effect of the enacted culture. The word also leaves room for doubt.

It could also possibly refer to the organisation‘s ―espoused culture‖, saying they have

diversity and other policies, many of which these organisations have, which say they

treat people fairly. The participant provides both hypothetical comments made by

managers about women in the organisation, as well as actual examples of her own

experience. The examples provide a sense of the subtle gender discrimination that

Barreto (2009) talks about. Although hypothetical, the examples are telling. The overall

feeling by the participant is of women being viewed negatively, negative in the sense

that the answer is ―no‖ to women where there is an interesting overseas job or more



188

field ‖, especially in today‘s organisations, which are not industrial entities such as

factories (the traditional, mechanistic organisation) with everyone seated at their

machines ensuring that every single minute is to be accounted for, but rather more fluid

and flexible. It seems like the wrong yardstick to use to determine the equality between

men and women—hours worked. Yet it is something that sprang to this participant‘s

mind in terms of the difference between men and women and speaks something of the

long hours culture which is corroborated in other participants‘ views and research (e.g.,

Liff & Ward, 2001). The participant seems aware that this aspect of the culture is the

main thing to think about in terms of men and women in that they are being watched ormonitored about the hours worked and knowing that you can work the long hours

means that equality has been achieved.

The women‘s denial of discrimination is once again evident in this participant‘s extract

and appears in many of the transcripts. The issue of the women wanting to see

objectivity is also evident although much clearer in the above account. Objectivity is in

the form of hours worked so that if this happens, there can‘t be ―anything systematic

going on‖ . This cry for fairness is expressed. Not only are women denying flexible

working options, but are working hours beyond the normal call of duty as expressed in

another extract (till midnight). Women know they need to do this. However, even doing

this still does not equate to fairness for them.

Other participants point to ―objectivity‖ being present in some of the systems—‖it must

be fair‖ appears to be the answer to their hidden doubts. It is as if they are asking, ―It is



189

fair ... isn't it?‖ The women know that subjectivity exists in their evaluation of them, but

somehow believe fairness will win out. However, the above participant hints at the

doubt, yet for some reason states clearly "I don't think there's anything systematic here".

As in the extract above, P6 wanting to know the world plays fair, as they probably do, by

working equal hours. The denial is evident, and it seems as if there may be some other

―fairness‖ expected, by not denigrating the organisation. They are playing fair, so the

organisation must be. This could be the force of the espousal of fair practices within the

organisations expressed by the women, yet the enacted culture is more evident. The

women's external voices express this but the external reality of the organisation'senacted culture may confuse women's perspectives.

... so I think that perspective you get evaluated through the

levels of what is perceived traditionally as being successful

characteristics at the top level and those are different

characteristics sometimes than women possess or want to

possess but not ostensibly, I don’t think they have a different

stamp versus what I- haven’t observed.

P1, line 27, page 9

The above reply above relates to the question ―to what extent men and women are

evaluated differently, that can be in any respect really …‖ and hints at women being

viewed negatively against the ―traditional ‖, ―successful characteristics ‖—although not

stated, this would relate to masculine characteristics of being tough, and so on. The

participant then alludes to women being ―different‖ – however, similar to other

participants, this participant does not commit herself to a clear statement that men and

women are evaluated differently—the end of the statement ―I don’t think they have a



190

different stamp …‖, the participant observes, attests to this. The women view men and

women being evaluated differently, but refrain from calling this discrimination or maybe

wanting to see that it is, justifying the difference in evaluation in various ways. The

above participant, although acknowledging that women are judged against traditional

criteria, doesn‘t view this as being discriminatory towards women and appears once

again as a form of denial.

3.2.4 Men and women are evaluated differently in terms of their emotions

Figure 5Thematic map relating to the subtheme ―Men and women are evaluated differently in terms of their emotions‖

This is a major subtheme (blue) and relates in particular to how men and women at

work are evaluated in emotional terms and the individual thematic map appears above



191

in Figure 5. The actions and consequences of both men and women are viewed at a

latent or interpretative level (Boyatzis, 1998), rather than the women expressing that the

organisational culture accounts for how they are evaluated in emotional terms. As a

result of the culture (as a microcosm of society), women stereotype both men and

women in terms of emotions. Women are controlled by sanctions imposed on

emotional display and there are double standards about emotions in the form of

different rules for men and women. The subtheme is an aspect of the major theme

―How men and women are evaluated within the organisation ‖.

The women participants expressed views that pointed to differential evaluation of

women relative to men in terms of emotions at work. The following initial extract is clear

in the view:

I think we get massively judged on our emotional responses


This statement was made as a response to the question ―To what extent … men and

women are evaluated differently …?‖. Without hesitation, the participant replies (as

recorded), and there is no sense of uncertainty in this. The reply stands as it is above

to the question asked and the participant is emphatic in her use of language—womenare ―massively judged ‖ . The term ― judged ‖ used is interesting as a change from

―evaluated ‖ (the term used in the author's question) and suggests a stronger emphasis

about being evaluated in terms of emotions.



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Women and men may be evaluated or judged either because they express the same

emotions, or because women‘s emotions may be viewed as negative. The next

participant highlights a double-standard as far as men and women are concerned in

being evaluated in emotional terms. Where women are angry, they are being

emotional, but where a man is, ―he‘s making a point‖. So there are different standards

for men for the same kind of emotions expressed. If women are judged negatively

where and when they display any emotions, they will either be perceived as not being

―tough‖, and therefore being judged as not being capable of undertaking leadership

roles (where one participant was given feedback to this effect for a board role, P1), orwill be perceived to be aggressive, and be evaluated negatively as some research

shows, where either role or gender incongruity comes into play (Eagly, 2002). The

participant below illustrates this standard and highlights how women are prevented from

acting in the same way as men:

It’s a double- , you know, it’s a- it’s a whereas if a man does he's

making a point. But like the conversation earlier today these

men who were raising these voices that was not seen as a

problem until I pointed it out to them. I didn’t raise my voice

back but I’m sure if I had they would have felt it was

unacceptable, so I do think that is something that women who,

and I’m going back to the gender point, women who exhibit

emotion, a male emotion, be seen as losing control and I

wouldn’t say all men are never seen like that, but I think it’s more

accepted if a man does it.




193

The participant refers to the ―double-‖ standard she expresses as being used in the

situation she had experienced in a meeting on the day the interview with the author was

held. She points to the men raising their voices in the meeting, but felt unable to also

raise her voice knowing it would be unacceptable and seen as ―losing control ‖.

Although she concedes that not all ―men are never seen like that ‖, she also considers

that it‘s more accepted for men to be angry and show their emotion. In this way,

women‘s emotions are controlled but not men‘s, with implicit norms for behaviour for

men and women, with different standards for each, even in a highly volatile meeting,

such as the one the participant describes. However, even these high-achieving women,and with no doubt well-developed interpersonal skills to have reached these high levels,

find the situation in their organisations difficult as far their emotions are concerned:

Yes, anger. I have to really keep it under control, yeah. I-I

mean, I'm better at standing back now and reading the situation,

but I do struggle with because I'm quite fiery, I struggle with it

every day and I know I have to keep it- keep a lid on it, I can let

it out sometimes though, I'm allowed to let it out in appropriate

situations


This participant expresses the difficulty, indeed the ―struggle‖ every day—she has a

fiery personality (so could be tough?), yet she is not allowed to express this, and

explains this as being allowed to ―let it out in appropriate situations ‖. Although both men

and women would be required to act "appropriately", acting "professionally", the nature

of the extract suggests that "letting it out " applies to women. She has to "keep it under

control ". The suggestion is that this is not the usual professionalism required which, at



194

these higher levels, women maybe be practised at, but something deeper, occurs often,

and affects how she feels. The extract suggests rules are applied as sometimes she

fails to comply, "I'm allowed".

Another participant expresses the ―rules‖ around women and emotions—they are not

―supposed ‖ to get angry. However, neither are they to be openly upset:

I just don’t think you can- I think you can be openly angry or

aggressive about something but I don’t think you can be openly

upset about something. And I think people would be a bit more

surprised if women get angry than if men get angry. It’s a bit

more, I won’t say unusual but it’s a bit more—I don’t know, we’re

not supposed to get angry, we’re not supposed to- I don’t know

what were supposed to do, but we’re not supposed to get angry

and I don’t think men have the- men don’t have the cycle of

emotions that we have every month, cause it ’ s always, I know

exactly when I’m most likely when I’m going to have an

emotional reaction to something and it's all a cyclical effect.

Men don’t have that hormonal change, they just have

testosterone all the time. I definitely think there’s something in

that.


This also tells of women‘s emotions being controlled, but also expresses some

confusion—she doesn‘t know what ―we’re‖ supposed to do. The participant also uses a

stereotypical view of women to explain why women do get emotional, in that ―men don’t

have the cycle of emotions that we have every month ‖, as well as a stereotypical view of

men – ―they just have testosterone all the time ‖ . The underlining by the author



195

expresses a justification and acceptance of men‘s behaviour and is in a sense fatalistic.

There is no sense that things can change if there are stereotypical biological

(essentialist) explanations for differences between men and women.

The negative judgement of women in emotional terms can be clearly seen when a

participant describes a situation where she had a very difficult time with a junior

(temporary) colleague who she originally was trying to help, but who in the end was

quite seriously undermining her position (an emotional situation), and where the

participant describes herself as becoming very ―emotional‖. Instead of her manager being supportive, she ―recorded‖ the emotional situation in a performance appraisal.

Her manager also gave the stark warning that the emotions she felt did not warrant her

seeking help from the HR department and neither would it have benefitted her, telling

her that if she had gone to HR, ― it would have been on her file ‖. The situation certainly

warranted an emotional outburst (the first in the very long time she had been

employed), yet the consequences were clearly laid out to her in no uncertain terms. It

would be difficult not to be emotional in such situations. One would expect that where a

situation warrants, then support would be expected—what would be the point of a

support mechanism if not needed for non-regular events such as these—especially from

a senior director being treated like an over-reactive junior who may not be expected to

have learned the unwritten politics—it speaks of a reactive and "monitoring" culture

where on hearing someone had been emotional (a woman) is warned as if it was a

crime of the most heinous organisational sort. Bearing in mind banks do dismiss staff

on the basis of poor performance appraisal ratings, the warning is even more serious.



196

Support would be expected if not from the manager, then from the HR department.

However, neither of these routes seemed to be available. The emotional outburst

became a situation of being ―monitored‖, and recorded in a performance appraisal

instead. The informal interaction in this instance became embedded into the formal

system, with negative effects on the woman concerned. The purpose of the

performance appraisal system is indicated as one which is not to support or develop

staff, but rather to provide a "legitimacy" (by the HR department) to control women.

This action accords with Bierama's (2009) ideas that HR professionals are in a dilemma

as they are required to meet the expectations of the managers they serve.

3.3 Summary of the thematic analysis

Overall, this thematic analysis shows how the women experience being appraised or

evaluated within financial services organisations. It shows the latent effect of how the

organisational culture operates from their perspective, including how it influences their

experience on them as employees in their organisations. The women overall consider

that men and women are evaluated differently, although at the same time they justify

this in different ways. The accounts also show the strong relationship of the culture on

how these women are stereotyped by managers, especially where there are issues of

progression or development. The women provide accounts of how they are evaluated

subjectively, but at the same time, they are wanting to see the objectivity and believe in

the "meritocracy". The effect of the latent organisational culture as the espoused voice

of the women is clear, but it is in contrast to the enacted practices which leads to a

paradoxical situation for women. The issue of children is a salient factor in being



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evaluated. The further latent effect of the organisational culture (both espoused and

actual) is exposed in its impact on the women. There also appear to be different rules

for men and women, and they are appraised or evaluated strongly on their emotions.

As the women stereotype themselves and other women this helps construct an

organisation to enact its masculinist ideals to discriminate against women. Women

however deny any discriminatory behaviour even when they themselves describe clear

discriminatory behaviour. The women justify this by denying gender issues, or they see

it differently, accepting the differences as part of the culture.

The next section discusses these findings, especially in relation to the research

literature, and some in light of the findings from Study 1. The section also includes

ideas for further research.



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4. Discussion of data analysis and findings

4.1 Overview

Study 2 set out to explore the views and experiences of a sample of senior women

within financial institutions in the UK as they applied to being evaluated or appraised.

The women occupied roles where they have competed with males (i.e., not traditionally

thought of as ―feminised‖ occupations) and who were on the way to or very close to the

glass ceiling level. The epistemology for this study was a feminist and socially

constructionist one, and focused on the production of knowledge where women were

central to the analysis. This section discusses the study‘s findings in relation to the

research aim, assessing the findings against the available and relevant literature, and

against the findings of Study 1.

Two major themes from the analysis were ―How men and women are evaluated in the

organisation‖ and ―Experience of being an employee in a financial institution‖.

Organisational culture was a latent major theme and appeared in many of the other

themes and sub-themes affecting how men and women are evaluated, women‘s

experience of being a female employee.

4.2 Masculine organisational culture and the systems of maintenance

The nature of the organisational cultures are maintained through various systems but

also is co-created by the women themselves. The women in these organisations

express the espoused nature of the organisation in terms of it being "fair" for instance,

yet the reality is there are few women at the top (EHRC, 2009). If the organisations are



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indeed fair and meritocratic (where objectivity is used as the basis for evaluation and

not subjectivity), then surely we would have more women at the top? The women are

bought into the idea though that their organisations are fair. The women use

stereotypical terms for example which serves to differentiate them from men and the

unwillingness to ―see‖ discrimination as an explanation may act as an impetus for any

current and future lack of culture change needed within financial services organisations

(EHRC, 2009). The women themselves are therefore complicit in maintaining the

masculine cultures by not challenging them.

The women are also "bought into" the idea that it is just the way they are, and seem to

promote the idea. The women are therefore socially constructing the idea that these

organisations are somehow outside of scrutiny and the rules of fairness do not apply to

them. They admit that these organisations are "not a place for women with children".

They have internalised the espousal of fairness, yet openly provide insights into the

discriminatory nature of some of the practices. They may feel it is too dangerous to

upset the status quo. Organisation culture acts as the ―glue‖ for how the people behave

within them. The organisational cultures of the various women in these accounts impact

on the women indirectly, ie. latent, and elements of the organisation's culture are

apparent within the women's accounts. Bearing in mind the strong effect that

organisational cultures have on members (Hofstede, 1980; Schein, 1985), this is not

surprising. In general, the women failed to mention performance appraisal, either as a

formal or informal mechanism, as part of their progression. Instead, the impact of the

organisation culture operates such that the glass ceiling effect is highlighted, via the



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constraints on the women‘s behaviour. The rules for men and women are highlighted

illuminating the effect of the glass ceiling and results in the latent effect of the culture on

the progression of women.

4.3 The organisational culture as a "Glass ceiling" that women unwittingly co-create

Glass ceiling effects were illuminated within the accounts of the women in various ways.

As women co-create the culture by denying discrimination exists (in the face of clear

evidence against this), the women themselves also act to maintain glass ceiling effects.

One way to challenge the glass ceiling is by challenging the very cultures that maintainthem. Recognising that discrimination exists in organisations is surely the first step in

doing this. Despite the existence of glass ceiling effects, the most interesting finding is

that the women themselves, although espousing fair practices, in the context of many of

the organisations having diversity policies, either implicitly or explicitly, were reluctant to

accept that discrimination exists. This was the case even where the women gave clear

examples of differences between how men and women were treated. The women

appear to accept the status quo and put any differences in treatment between men and

women as being ―just the way it is in financial services‖. The acceptance was telling,

especially bearing in mind these are senior women (leaders) who would be required to

create an organisational culture, an aspect of leadership endeavours, and lead the way

for other women following in their footsteps. This is not a criticism of the women

themselves, but the organisational cultures may be so strong that they don‘t feel able to

challenge the cultures. Holvino (1998) recommends an organisational development

remedy to engender a culture of fairness which values diversity, but of course women



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need a "safe" space to air their views. Currently, the women use a kind of defence

mechanism of denial that any discrimination exists at all. In this way they are denying

their authenticity and the organisation culture (and the women as part of engendering it)

serves to deny the identities of the women also (Butler, 1990). The women enjoin

therefore in "essentialising" women in a dichotomous way (Alcoff, 2008; Fiaccadori,

2006), as well as their identities (as the "Other") through their actions (Fairclough, 2001;

Butler, 1993).

We do not know of course why women deny discrimination but is worthy of furtherresearch to understand why women express sometimes clear evidence of unfair

practice, but are not willing to admit discrimination exists. As women in senior positions,

and bearing in mind that many authors express that organisational culture change is

needed for real change to happen (Hoobler, 2005; Stockdale & Crosby, 2004), Study 2

shows that women know there are differences in how men and women are treated, yet

they do not want to recognise that there is any discriminatory behavior. They may

unwittingly be perpetuating glass ceiling effects yet feel they have no choice. This

presents a dilemma for them. That they are operating within, what is well-known as a

"tough", a culture which does not support them (although they may not recognise this as

such) may lead them deny this aspect via cognitive dissonance (Freyd & DePrince,

2001) allowing them to hold these seemingly incompatible beliefs simultaneously as

cognitive dissonance theory predicts (Festinger, 1957).



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The importance and the elucidation of the effect of the espoused and enacted

organisational culture is highlighted in this research. Saying one thing whilst doing

another does not help cultures change, and indeed has shown to have negative

consequences in procedural justice and psychological contract terms (Irving, Bobocel &

Montes, 2004), although a recent meta-analysis shows organisational trust and

commitment mediates breaches of the contract (Cantisano, Domínguez & Depolo,

2008). These women may be committed in that sense and may be a factor in their

"denial". Certainly, "deals" are made, as some of the participants express (eg.

Participant 4, p. 173).

Women leave the organisations but the "story" may be constructed around women

leaving for child-rearing and family responsibilities. Women and maybe society buy into

this, according to Fairclough (2001), who posits that communication (and media) is a

powerful force in constructing ideas about society and institutions. Women in the media

for example are reported as not supporting family friendly issues in the workplace (The

Guardian Online , 2009; 2010), policies as a "necessary evil‖, and "humiliating".

Societies and institutions in Fairclough's view are therefore connected. There is little

research evidence in the literature of how the enacted organisational culture operates,

although there is evidence of work-life policies, for example, being precluded from being

taken up by women (Liff & Ward, 2001). These are important issues to consider how

work-life issues are socially constructed both within and external to organisations so

that we can understand how, in Fairclough's terms, they influence each other. More

qualitative research in this area would be useful.



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It is interesting to note the findings of Study 1 which used archived performance

appraisal data (1999-2000) and provides answer to the "what" question in a financial

services organisation. Women received higher performance ratings than men in all

three years, yet women were not represented in higher grades. This mirrors the same

situation today. Women are not represented in the top echelons. It is not of course

possible to equate ―high‖ levels between both Study 1 and Study 2. Certainly though,

the high grades were the top grades represented within the organisation in Study 1, and

the organisation literature stated at the time they acted upon them. There was certainly

legitimacy and "validity" therefore for the high ratings, stating that these would be linkedto a high grade. Study 1 also found a very different pattern of results between men and

women, and points to different ―objective‖ rules for men and women. Study 2 finds

subjectivity was evident within the women's experiences of being evaluated and also

different rules applied to them. The existence of a glass ceiling cannot be denied when

viewing the two studies together and the implications for women progressing within

these organisations. In both objective and subjective terms, different rules apply.

Women however believe in the meritocracy of these objective systems but it may not be

until the women reach the higher levels that their realisation cannot be sustained any

longer. But still, instead of admitting discrimination, they may leave. Is this because

they have dealt with the "counter-stereotypical" issues (Rudman & Phelan, 2008) for too

long, but they do not realise this until later?

Women experience being evaluated negatively in many situations, including the

different rules for men and women about how emotions are displayed. Study 1 supports



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the findings by highlighting the different objective evidence of a performance appraisal

system. This study used archived data, yet today, the situation remains as the EHRC

(2009) study showed – women remain in lower levels. Study 2 however showed that

women may tire of being treated unfavourably and may leave because of this, rather

than a popular view that they leave because of child-rearing responsibilities.

4.4 The implications for objective performance appraisal and other systems

As women are evaluated within the organisations on subjective bases, most of these

experiences fall outside of any objective performance appraisal or evaluation system.The views of male colleagues are evident in these women‘s experiences of their

organisations. Women are evaluated negatively in many respects.

Participants in the LIff and Ward (2001) study found that the culture operated such that

progression lay outside of any formal system (Liff & Ward, 2001). This study accords

with this research. The implications for women getting ahead on their merits appears to

be compromised both as a function of the organisational cultures, but also because the

women themselves appear to go along with these cultures. Further research is needed

to understand why and how women are complicit in this. This is best achieved within a

feminist framework, yet there are few resources the author could find which could

clearly frame an organisational/feminist epistemological perspective to understand

these issues further. Alcoff (2008) points out that we must "avoid buying into the neuter

... universal thesis ... that covers ... androcentrism with a blindfold" (p.1). That much of

the writing on organisations is couched in hegemonic terms (Parker, 2001), more work



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may need to be done to introduce a feminism which, as Alcoff (2008) says, does not

construe women in a set way. By leaving women out of the equation in current writing

on organisations, this already puts women in an invisible space (Butler, 1990) where it

is difficult for them to be heard.

It is also useful to consider the role of an organisation's function such as the HR

department in the maintenance of masculine-oriented organisational cultures and the

systems that they enact. Staff in HR departments in general work with management

and also produce and implement policies, such as diversity, performance appraisal, etc.(Fletcher, 2004). One recent feminist commentator considers for example that HR

professionals may foster masculine philosophies and critiques human resource

development's (HRD) practices and what she considers is the ―negative effect on

women and recipients‖ (p. 68) where the practice of (HRD), although having humanistic

roots, has "co-opted into hegemonic practices of management which she sees as

preventing change" (Bierama, 2009, p. 69). Bearing in mind that diversity initiatives,

often enacted by HR departments (although to be useful should be ―mainstream‖, that

is, implemented at every level of the organisation (Stockdale & Crosby, 2009)), are

usually implemented to combat discrimination through various mechanisms, eg.

policies, this study calls into question how this is being undertaken in financial services

organisations where, for example, work-life policies are talked about (the women in this

study know they have them), but the people responsible do not implement them

effectively. Considering the spotlight on financial services and the lack of women in the

upper echelons, the failure of these organisations to implement women-friendly



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strategies and policies is clear from the statistic of so few women at the top (EHRC,

2009). However, as so many HR practitioners are women, I share Bierama's view of

the irony of the field's perpetuation of masculine, rational philosophies and practices and

that the field aligns itself with the masculine ideal to "build HRD's credibility among the

management elite" (p. 70). This also puts the HR field in a position where challenging

the status quo in masculine-dominated industries as financial services is not realistic.16

This study also shows that, although the popular (constructed) and feasible "story" may

be that women leave because of child-caring responsibilities, this research shows thatthis may not be the case, and highlights glass ceiling effects at many levels which may

influence the women such that they may leave. What we don‘t know is, at what stage(s)

do women think of leaving? It may be they realise the paradoxical situations they are in,

but takes a long time. The women may be thwarted at various stages. Certainly, there

was an age effect in this research17, as there was also in Study 1. Further research

around the temporal and cognitive aspects around women's experiences and their

careers, in particular within financial services would provide insights into this.

16 Interestingly, the author notes that the work-life balance topic has virtually disappeared from the HR agenda during 2009 on theCIPD website. Bierama (2009) also noted that in her analysis of 600 Academy of HR Development conference articles from 1996-2000, the research excluded equity, and very few studies promoted diversity, women's voices and experience were ignored andgender was rarely used as a category of analysis. Bierama (2009) in the same article also cites Swanson as suggesting "unisexresearch" as a way of avoiding bias, and Bierama calls this editorial view as a "prime example of masculinist rationality and anexhibit of a powerful elite White male telling us what should, and should not count for knowledge‖ (p. 71). Bierama sees Swanson'seditorial as "indicative of HRD's general apathy towards power dynamics and their influence on organisational life or interest incritique. Bierama (2009) also notes that HRD is in a "no-win" situation as the practitioners are required to serve two distinctlycontradictory groups - employees and management, so that they abandon ethical principles in favour of managerial expectations.

17 The age effect was apparent in a separate analysis of the "younger" and "older" women. The younger women were more

idealistic, and explained in detail the "objectiveness" of the performance appraisal system, said it worked, for example, and did not,



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finding by the EHRC (2009) that there are many unfair practices in financial services

resulting from stereotyping of women. The women's ideas about their organisations

were positive and have bought into the espousing of fairness, but the reality is different,

as the EHRC study shows. As Bierama (2009) states, these ideas may serve to keep

the status quo of organisation cultures static.

4.5 The enacted organisation culture and effect on women with or without children

The enacted cultures of financial services appear to be one which sees women through

the ―gender lens‖ rather than the ―competence lens‖ (Bem, 1993; Bem, Eagly & Bem,1994; Howard & Hollander 2000). Eagly's (2002) review of studies using role congruity

of prejudice towards women leaders, posits that women are penalised whether they do

or do not conform to their social role (where women do not act like ―females‖). In a

similar vein, the warmth v competence model (Cuddy, Fiske & Glick, 2008) finds that

women are not perceived as both (Cuddy et al., 2008). Certainly, the evidence in this

study supports aspects of this research. For example, the women (who are ―leaders‖)

are viewed firstly as a ―mother‖ (warm?), even where they are very competent, and

have received high performance ratings. Even where women do not have children,

Study 2 found that the women reported their managers as commenting or enquiring

about children. It is as if women are being assessed on their qualities as women first,

(can they conform to the masculine model?) then competence. This equates to Eagly's

role congruity where women are viewed through the gender lens rather than the

competence lens.



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There is research evidence of organisations, although having flexible working policies,

do not implement them effectively. Another ERHC study conducted in 2008, for

example, found that employees in managerial jobs in a number of countries reviewed

were less likely to request reduced hours, and when they did, they were less likely to

succeed. The Liff and Ward study (2001) also found women were reluctant to take up

flexible working policies. Some of the women in Study 2 were of the view that the

financial services sector was not a good place for women with children. However,

media reports about high profile women reported as rejecting flexible working as

"humiliating" (eg. The Guardian Online , 2009; 2010) serve to foster the idea that womendo not need support. This reflects the idea that "caring" is an anathema to "power", and

may be another factor in women's denial of discrimination. They may want to construct

a "power" image (Fairclough, 2001). The truth is, some women simply cannot manage

without some support. The women in this study mention husbands as their main

support and that the reality of taking up flexible working is non-existent if women want to

progress. Men and women do have different lives and responsibilities, and not taking

account of this reality is denying women the opportunity to progress, the very thing that

flexible working was designed to counter the effects of. However, there is a real

resistance by the organisations to support women, even though they espouse it.

Bierama (2009) points to HR development practitioners as not effective in supporting

the policies women need to progress. As the developers and implementers of policy,

yet having to conform to managerial expectations as she states, women are in a no-win

situation. It is no wonder they leave. It is only when women may have been with

organisations for a number of years the lack of support becomes more obvious.



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It would be useful for researchers to explore further the temporal aspects of flexible

working, ie. who needs the support when, to what extent, etc. Organisations may be

foolish to not take account of younger generations who may require flexible working for

all sorts of reasons. Where flexible working is denied only, say, for women with

children, this would be a cause for concern.

4.6 How men and women are evaluated and the implications of this for women

The enacted organisational culture is also played out where women are viewed and

evaluated differently to men. The women in this study, although appearing to denydiscrimination, provided clear scenarios where it was clear that men and women are

evaluated differently. Many of the women's accounts refer to conversations overheard,

relay their own direct experience, or used hypothetical vignettes to illustrate points

where clear differences exist between how men and women are evaluated. All the

women were based within a context where many have had long careers within the

financial services industry.

Women are seen as a different entity, the "other", to be viewed differently, with different

rules to be applied because they are women. The strong norm to ―become like men‖ is

clear and this begs the question of what other factors women are evaluated on, and

how the evaluation takes place. It is clear that the culture is masculine, which is

interesting as the financial services itself is predominantly female-dominated (EHRC,

2009). The culture will then guide how policies are designed and implemented. HRD

are part of this. Bierama (2009) would doubt this would be done to women's advantage



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as HR professionals are "forced" to act for management, with a "rational" management

philosophy were women are held up to the "ideal" of men. Any derivation from this will

see women as "irrational" (Bierama, 2009).

4.7 Women being evaluated on their emotions and how this might impact on them

Women are judged on their emotions, expressed clearly from some participants. There

was also evidence of women being sanctioned for displaying emotions—indeed, one

woman‘s (understandable) emotional outburst was ―recorded in a performance

appraisal form‖. This could no doubt have extreme consequences in terms ofprogression, not only because women are judged negatively, but also, where women

are aware of being judged on emotional terms. Women in their accounts expressed

how they need to keep their emotion in check. This study provided evidence of the

women‘s emotions being controlled, and women being sanctioned for displaying

emotions. This is rather like Hanson‘s ―pathologising‖ of women (with a problem), and

Foucault‘s ―monitoring‖, where behaviours are examined and documented (Foucault,

1977; Hanson, 2001). Where emotions are likely to run high in these organisations

(they are described as being ―tough‖), and bearing in mind the evidence from one

participant in a meeting where men were raising their voices, this leaves one to ponder

on just how women do make a point in these situations? These high-achieving women

find it difficult. Clearly they are not able to by raising their voice, or by doing so in the

same way that men do. In this way, emotions are controlled.



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Where implementing a more proactive diversity strategy, research such as this leading

to practitioner awareness would appear to be beneficial, especially as there may be

implications for women being evaluated negatively on issues, which are not currently

part of the formal appraisal process or generally recognised in the literature as part of

the performance appraisal repertoire.

Women also used stereotypical terminology to describe men‘s and women‘s emotions—

even they thought that women were ―more emotional‖ and that men‘s emotions meant

that the men were not emotional. This would seem to suggest that how these womendescribed their experiences is tinged with social constructions (Fairclough, 2001) and

popular notions of how men and women behave (Olsson & Walker, 2003; Wharton,

1992; Willig, 1999). Shields (2007) for example refers to the work of Richards (2002) as

―… the repeating circulation of ―folk‖ knowledge to scientific psychology and back again

(p. 94)‖. In some way the women in this study reproduce social constructions of men

and women in this way (Fairclough, 2001), enabling a co-creation of a cultural divide

between them such that women are seen as emotional. Taking a gendered view of the

organisational culture is one way to examine and challenge these views and may lead

to the real organisational change required to combat the glass ceiling, as some authors

note (Barreto et al., 2009) by taking an organisational development approach to change

(Holvino, 1998). As some authors note, the literature on organisational theories is

generally viewed through a hegemonic lens rather than a gendered one, where women

are rendered invisible (Zack, 2005). Certainly, research on emotions is largely ignored

in the literature as far as organisations are concerned, yet negative implications for



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women for expressing emotions may occur. It is an area largely unexamined in terms of

women in terms of being evaluated unfairly, procedural justice or the reasons why

women leave. However, the author shares the concerns of Eagly (1995) regarding the

controversy of comparing men and women in psychological studies, but also her call to

―consider the role that their research plays in discourse on the status of women in

society‖ (p. 145) and raise the further caution, especially in organisational studies, lest

the hegemonic lens becomes a straightjacket to further improvement for the status of

women in organisations.

4.8 The paradoxes created and possible impacts

The women in this study by denying that discrimination exists within their organisations

are paradoxical. Some of the women were positive about diversity policies, yet also

described clearly how differently men and women were treated. It is as if they don‘t

notice. The women provide accounts of how they are evaluated which are subjective

and cut across many of their experiences. Their interactions are perceived as

dichotomous with subliminal or hidden agendas. The effect of the espoused and

enacted culture may be evident in their perception of a two-tier system of the culture.

Where enacted and espoused cultures are analogous, this can be expected to affect the

women such that they may, in procedural justice terms, not trust the organisation‘s

cultures. The women sense that there are other things going on.



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4.9 Summary of data analysis and findings

Two major themes were discussed within the study: ―How men and women are

evaluated (within a male-dominated culture)‖ and ―How men and women are evaluated

within the organisation‖. Some of their associated sub-themes were also analysed.

The author assumes the women to be competent, viewed through a ―competence lens‖

rather than a ―gender lens‖. The women after all are high-achieving women in very

senior positions in these organisations. Women operated within male-dominated

cultures such that their progression is affected. The latent effect of the organisation

culture may work to prevent women from being ―authentic‖ and also to affect how theyare viewed, appraised and evaluated in organisations. Women denied discrimination

exists, whilst at the same time, describing discriminatory behaviour. In this way, they

appear co-create a culture which maintains the status quo. The women's reaction could

be a "learned helplessness", where they know nothing will change, or a reaction to

reduce any cognitive dissonance around what they realise is a paradoxical situation for

them, operating within a culture which espouses one thing but enacts another. Women

are evaluated negatively on their emotions.



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5. Implications for research and practice

There are several implications for research and practice from Study 2 as follows:

1. It appears that there is a dichotomy in terms of whether senior women, as champions

of culture change, should focus on gender or not. Holvino (1998) points to

organisational development as a way of engendering change, and senior leaders are at

the helm of cultural change efforts. The HR professional, as the arbiters and conduits in

organisations would appear to be extremely important as the agents of change and

practice. As Bierama points out though, HRD

"preserve power relations in a manner that marginalises women ... ". Further,

"This masculine epistemology is manifested in HRD‘s performative value system

that effectively devalues, ignores, and silences non-dominant groups, preserving

patriarchal power in both theory and practice."

Certainly, there are ―gendered‖ practices occurring in some of the organisations as the

women explained and experienced them. Researchers might therefore want to take a

gendered view when examining aspects of importance that relate to women‘s

progression in organisations which will support practice. It is therefore imperative that

epistemological frameworks which focus on an inclusive agenda would appear to be

extremely important in any research endeavours (Hick, Kershner & Farrell, 2009), if we

are to understand firstly, then make effective interventions to change. There are

contests as to which research and epistemological frameworks are best suited. If we

have still inequality after almost 30 years of equality legislation, surely a new Equality



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Bill as is being discussed, is still bound to fail unless we firstly understand, from the

women's perspective, their issues in the workplace. Bias is, for example, an issue in

designing and implementing performance appraisal and other HR systems, and a result

of stereotyping, as the EHRC (2009) study showed, is at the heart of inequality yet a

search of the CIPD website, revealed the term to be absent in terms of an issue within

HR processes (see Appendix G).

2. As men and women are better represented in the lower ranks in organisations, it

would appear that both groups would benefit from understanding how the dominantculture affects the subordinate one. This would raise consciousness and is an

important step in seriously making changes to the status quo. Considering the evidence

in this study that women are treated differently to men, and bearing in mind the women's

reticence at openly acknowledging ―discrimination‖, leadership courses would be wise to

include equality aspects within their training. Certainly, it has been suggested by one

author to include these types of issues in MBA courses as this is a missing aspect

(Simpson & Ituma, 2009). Considering the plurality of perspectives (not just gender)

within global organisations, this would seem feasible, and to also consider the issue

from Black women‘s perspectives on leadership (e.g., Parker, 2001) to engender a

more inclusive standpoint, often talked about but with little understanding of how to go

about this. Certainly, including aspects of inequality in management education,

including the importance of an epistemology that engenders inclusiveness would be one

way of engendering change and appear to be extremely important to really tackle these

issues.



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3. There are implications for Occupational Psychology (OP) practitioners. Interestingly,

after an e-mail to almost the whole of the UK occupational psychology population during

this research, there was extremely little response (two) as to who was involved in

implementing performance appraisal systems. It seems to be on the back-burner as far

as practitioner implementations go and there were few insights to be gained from

discussions with other occupational psychology colleagues working with performance

appraisal systems, apart from psychometric ones. This research is a call to

practitioners to put performance appraisal back on the agenda, and from a gendered

perspective. The women in this study themselves recognised that men and women aretreated differently. Until we understand women‘s experiences and the effect the

organisational culture has on women, we will never get to grips with understanding their

experiences from their own perspective, obviously necessary as the targets of lack of

representation at the top of financial services organisations (EHRC, 2009).

Organisational theories are couched in hegemonic knowledge and discourse (Parker,

2001), and it is important for OPs to explore beyond this dominant discourse to

understand women‘s own perspectives about systems such as performance appraisals

which, if designed and implemented effectively, are thought to assist with motivation,

development and progression (Fletcher, 2001; 2004; Milkovich & Wigdor, 1991). As

OPs provide information for HR practitioners who are at the coal-face of organisational

implementation, this needs to be done with the needs of organisations in mind (i.e.,

addressing the inequalities that still remain), but without maybe, what Hick, Kershner &

Farrell (2009) calls, ―clever simulations‖ of scientific methods (p. 17).



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4. Even though there is legislation in place, organisations need to support flexible

working as a strategic business measure to support the development of women. This

fits with the espoused nature of the support for women in these organisations. Men and

women have different career needs and authors point out the complexity of women‘s

lives and the implications for understanding women‘s career issues (eg. Fitzgerald,

Fassinger & Betz, 1995). Where women are main child-carers, flexible working was

introduced to effect protection for women. However, policies may not be being

implemented to facilitate the complexity of women‘s lives. Considering the CIPD

promotes itself as "... well placed to contribute to the development of public policyacross the spectrum of workplace and employment issues" (CMI, 2008), it is surprising

to see work-life balance off the CIPD's agenda in recent years (apart from Ireland).



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6. Limitations

1. These women were interviewed about their retrospective experiences. As with other

studies using this method, the data can suffer from the memory processes inherent from

seeking views of participants after the event (Silverman, 2001).

2. The methodology precluded an exploration of issues such as decision-making

processes, for example, temporal aspects of when and how the women changed their

aspirations.

3. The study was conducted from with a broadly feminist and social constructionist

framework. This enabled women to be at the centre of the analysis and understand

how women construct their experience. Other frameworks would give valuable insights

into a complex area, from different stakeholder perspectives.



220

7. Conclusions

The present study reveals two major themes relating to how women are evaluated in

financial services organisations. This study has shown how the organisational culture

impacts on the women in terms of being appraised or evaluated. It also shows how

women trust their organisations in the meritocracy of it policies and systems in relating

to being evaluated or appraised, but worryingly they are not willing to admit, even after

providing evidence, that unfair practices and paradoxes between espoused and enacted

organisational practices serve to subordinate women's voices. This could inevitably

lead to women ―leaving‖ as is so often reported, but it seems that the glass ceiling playsa part in this. More worryingly, the women themselves play a part in this.

Given the low proportion of women at top levels in financial services organisations, it

seems there is much work to do to change organisational cultures, including the women

themselves so that equality may be achieved. The issue of women being evaluated

negatively outside of any formal appraisal system, including how their emotions play a

part, would appear to be important. However, media reports of women not supporting

flexible working, and reports of the glass ceiling being shattered within the wider society,

may mean that this is difficult to do. Espousing equality may be the route these

organisations take.



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Overall conclusions of the thesis

The overall conclusions from both of these studies show that there are different rules for

White men, women and minority ethnic groups. Firstly, although women do not receive

lower ratings than men, they fare worse in terms of the link with the relationship to them

progressing, where women are represented in less complex roles, and where women

are not represented within higher grades. The independent variables in study revealed

a different pattern for men and women and indicated different rules for both. The results

in Study 1 also imply that decision-making outside of a formal appraisal process may be

more important for progression. An "objective" process may be communicated within

the organisation which serves a rhetorical and even a compliance purpose in the event

of a complaint. It is only the longitudinal element of Study 1 that provided the real

picture of the link between performance ratings and progression. In addition, the

women interviewed in Study 2 provided insights into the different rules which applied to

them in their experience of their organisations, including how they were evaluated in

comparison to men, including the different rules about how they were evaluated,

including, being evaluated on their emotions.

As far as BME staff are concerned, Black staff appear to fare worse than other groups

as the predictors explained a larger amount of the variance in the dependent variable

(mean grade) than either Asian or White staff. There also appears to be a relationship

with being in a BME group and being awarded a high performance rating but not a low

rating. These results indicate some different rules for different ethnic groups. As the

functions staff worked in consisted of either complex or non-complex roles, occupational



222

segregation effects (Anker, 1997) may limit the opportunities for women and minority

ethnic staff (Deutsch & Silber, 2005; Meyer & Maes, 1983; Miller, 2007; Ogden et al.,

2006). It therefore appears that demography may be a factor in terms of organisational

decision-making as far as being evaluated goes. Regardless of performance ratings,

women and BME staff occupied the lower grades and were represented in different

roles than White men. Black staff were significantly more affected. The cumulative

differences are seen with a different pattern of results for Black staff and women. There

are indications of different paths for White men, and BME staff and women.

The evidence in this thesis elucidates how the organisational culture works in terms of

the espoused and enacted nature of the organisational culture in relation to women

being evaluated and also the common rhetoric around "equality" and the view that some

think the glass ceiling has been smashed (eg. Barretto, 2009). For example, that

women receive higher performance ratings as shown in Study 1 highlights the espoused

nature (―we are fair as we give high ratings to women‖) but contrasts with women not

represented in higher grades (the enacted result of the culture). Women however co-

create the organisational culture by denying that discriminatory behaviour exists, even

in the face of their own clear evidence to the contrary. However, that seemingly

"objective" performance ratings are higher may cloud the issue and is deserving of

further research. BME staff may feel similarly. Further longitudinal research would be

useful as to the impact of organisation's culture on different demographic groups and

their experience. Certainly this has been called for (Stauffer & Buckley, 2005).



223

The research and anecdotal evidence is that women leave because of child-caring

responsibilities or that they are less committed (Caven, 2006). The evidence in this

study provides that this is not the complete picture. They may, but only after some

reflection of how the organisational culture affects them throughout their career. This

study leaves the way open for more research to be done in this important area where

women may ―trust‖ organisations, but after a while realise that they will not progress

after all. Yes, they do leave, but not, as human capital theory predicts (choice, failure),

but there are influences which force them to make this ―choice‖. Unfortunately though,

the anecdotal evidence may become fixed in the minds of organisational membersleading them towards assumptions about women and therefore not take diversity

initiatives seriously, or to understand and investigate the issues further.

Some of the significant results in Study 1 had small effect sizes, so that any conclusions

should be approached with caution. However, the strongest results related to the

different predictors which accounted for the grade over a three year period, and

illuminated the different rules which apply to men and women, and between some BME

groups (eg. less predictors for "White" staff). The implications for organisations to

address these issues are clear, especially with evidence of differential progression of

some groups.

This thesis adds to existing knowledge by elucidating why senior women in financial

services do not reach the top and also highlights the difference between some BME

groups and White staff in their progression found within the results of Study 1. The



224

findings should be of interest to stakeholders within the sector who have a genuine

desire to foster fair organisational cultures and understand the real concerns which face

demographic groups, for example, different rules applying, in order to enhance all

groups' career aspirations towards reaching the top echelons in an equitable manner.



225

Overall implications for practice

There are several implications for practitioners from Study 1 and Study 2, including

organisational culture, occupational segregation, glass ceiling, psychological contract,

diversity, career derailment (women may choose to leave, but their aspirations may be

thwarted) and work-life balance not realised. The implications for retention of staff, and

the oft-mentioned "employee engagement" cannot be overstated. There seems to be

little understanding of how unfair systems impact on engagement. The implications for

working with organisations to change cultures, supporting women to do this, is clear.

This may involve ―glass ceiling‖ coaching, with both men and women leaders.

As performance appraisal is a system enacted by an organisation‘s culture, an

organisational development approach as advocated by Holvino (1998), for example,

should be considered where an adequate ―diagnosis‖ is made (including the cultural

stage of resistance to diversity) if organisations wish to seriously address BME groups'

as well as women's progression and move from rhetoric to action, truly "engaging"

organisational members. As one author puts it, people are not naive observers. It may

be however that OD is still rather more to do with implementation (training, workshops),

rather than an initial and appropriate diagnosis for a specific ―condition‖. This kind of

specificity to progress the changes, currently espoused by the government (eg. ―More

women in boardrooms‖, (Sparrow & Asthana, 2010)) would appear to benefit

organisations.



226

There are organisational implications in the training systems for organisations. Recent

research in cognitive psychology shows that stereotype reduction is a real possibility

(Sassenberg & Moskowitz, 2005). We may firstly though need to reach the stage of

being able to speak about bias, stereotyping and discrimination first, before

organisational cultures face up to hearing that they may indeed use negative

stereotyping and may also systematically discriminate on an unfair basis. Certainly,

organisations need to understand how these factors impact on various issues leading to

occupational segregation, glass ceiling effects, etc. and should be part of the OD

approach Holvino (1998) recommends. Developments in cognitive psychology researchsuch as Sassenberg & Moskowitz (2005) for example, shows that automatic stereotype

activation can be overcome, but only after extensive training.



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APPENDICES (STUDY 1 AND 2)



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Appendix A

Full list of variables used for Study 1

Variables in SPSSVariable name Sort Define

uniqid98 Nominal IDOpr98cod Ordinal 1 O Outstanding

2 H High Achievement3 G Good4 I Improvement required5 U Unacceptable

sktot98** Ordinal Skills total (reverse scored)grcode98 Ordinal Grade

1=Manager2=Non Manager

Grade code for 98 and 99 from appraisal forms. Grade code 00 must come fromdatabase because example shows no grade, yet can ascertain the grade8 code.

dateg98 Nominal Date of gradegradeyrs Ordinal Number of years in grade as at 2000 (year of database)stren98 Ordinal No. of strengthsdev98 Ordinal No. of developmentsmgen98 Nominal Manager gender

1=Male2=Female

uniqid99 Nominal IDppf99 Ordinalopr99cod Ordinal 1 O Outstanding

2 H High Achievement3 G Good4 I Improvement required5 U Unacceptable

sktot99 Ordinal Skills total (reverse scored)grcode99 Ordinal Grade

1=Manager2=Non Manager

dateg99 Nominal NAstren99 Ordinal No. of strengthsdev99 Ordinal No. of developmentsmgen99 Nominal Manager gender

0 Not able to stay from data1=Male2=Female

uniqid00 Nominalgradecode Ordinal Grade

1=Manager

2=Non Managermgen00 Nominal Manager gender0 Not able to stay from data1=Male2=Female

ppf00 Ordinal NAopr00 Ordinal 1 Sig above level required

2 Consistently better than level required3 Consistently achieved level required4 Not consistently achieved level required



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5 Significantly below level requiredstr00 Ordinal No. of strengthsdev00 Ordinal No. of developmentsidles Nominal ID Les HSBCdptcode Nominal 1-400 or thereabouts

Dept code – seedeptid Nominal Name and place of department

Dept IDdeptname Nominal Dept namedeptfunc Nominal Dept function

1 Branches2 HO departments (see which they are)3 Operations4 Contracted out

totmbr Scale Total members of staff in a dept/branchtotfbr Scale Total females in dept/branchtotminbr Scale Total minority in dept/branchethcen Nominal Ethnicity census (11)

1 Asian any other background2 Asian Bangladeshi3 Asian Indian

4 Asian Pakistan5 Black African6 Black any other black background7 Black Carribean8 Chinese or other Chinese9 White British or Irish

stgen Nominal Staff gender0 Not able to stay from data1 Male2 Female

disab Nominal Disability0 Does not have a disability1 Has a disability

contr Nominal Contract1 FT2 PT

age Ordinal AgeContinuous variables

servc Ordinal Service (Tenure)Continuous

educlvl Ordinal Education level1 O level or GCSE2 A level3 Degree or prof qual

degcl Ordinal Degree class1 1st hons2 2.1 hons

3 2.2 hons4 2nd hons5 3rd hons6 Ord7 Pass

degpl Ordinal Degree placeidminaz Nominalstaffgen Nominal Staff gender

Staff gender0 Not able to stay from data



230

1 Male2 Female

race Nominal RaceB=BlackW=White

smplm Scale Sample malesmplf Scale Sample female

smplmin Scale Sample minoritytotstfbr Scale Total staff in a branch/deptempcent Ordinal EM Percent of EM in branch/depthilocode Nominal Hi-lo – proportion of minority in branch

1 High nos EM 10% and over2 Low nos EM 9% and under

Grade years newStren98/99/00newDev 98/99/00 newAge newService newEthnicbw 1=Black

2=White

New ethcn 1 =Asian2=Black3=Chinese4=White

Proportion offemales in branch

Total in branch divided by females

Grade 8 all 1 Non man so22 Non manager so33 Non manager so44 Non manager so5

5 Manager M936 Manager M947 Manager M958 Manager M96

Propfrange 1= 0-10 percent females in branch2 =11-20 percent females in branch3 =21-30 percent females in branch4 =31-40 percent females in branch5 =41-50 percent females in branch6 =51-60 percent females in branch7 =61-70 percent females in branch8 =71-80 percent females in branch9 =81-100 percent females in branch



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Appendix BPrint screen of tables of contents from International Journal of Selection andAssessment (2000-2009)

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Appendix CDear Participant

Thank you for agreeing to take part in this research.

This is a doctoral project and I am conducting interviews with a sample of female seniorexecutives.

The interview will be around two hours maximum and ideally a face-to-face interviewwould be best for this purpose. However, telephone interviews can be considered ifmore convenient. The interview will need to be audio tape-recorded and will betranscribed verbatim and analysed. The transcript and analysed interview data will of

course be sent to you if you so wish.The interviews are conducted under strictest British Psychological Society ethicalstandards and confidentiality is assured.

These interviews form the qualitative component of the research (I have alreadycompleted the quantitative component within a large financial institution) examining yourexperiences of various aspects of influences in your career, including performanceappraisal, feedback and development issues arising from this.

I attach a consent form to be completed and signed. This can either be digitally signedand emailed to [email protected], or faxed to 020 8257 2202.

If you would like any further information, please contact me on 07967 561 573 or emailme on [email protected].

Kind regardsBarbara LondB.Com., BSc., MSc., LLB

mailto:[email protected]










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PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM

I have read the information relating to this research and I agree to the fair and lawfulprocessing of information for the purposes of analysis and research in line with the DataProtection Act 1988.

I agree to the interview being audio tape-recorded. I understand that the researcherusing data collected will not use the data which makes the information identifiable to meand that I will not be identified in any way in anything that is written or reported aboutthe research.I also understand that the interview can be terminated by me at any stage.

Signed: ……………………………………………. Date: ………………………………………………..



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Appendix D

Full interview schedule

Script and questions

Thanks again for participating in this study xxx.As I said in the email, the purpose of the interview is to also explore yourthoughts (perceptions and experiences) around what has impacted on them interms of your career progression, what makes things difficult and what hashelped, bearing in mind they are in a male-dominated sector or profession.So it‘s a semi-structured interview.Also, as stated in the consent form, you can stop the interview at any time.

I firstly meant to ask you how long you‘ve been in your current role. History – influences on career, what has helped, what has hindered Tell me about your career?

What has influenced you?How have you made choices?What about performance appraisal process, how has that worked for you?

From your experience, do you think men and women have different experiencesof the performance appraisal process?Has anything hampered your progression? [internalised/or external factors]What could have made you even more successful?How has it been working a profession/sector predominantly staffed by males?How have you coped (or not)?Do you know women who have/have not family, what differences are therebetween them and you?What is the culture like where you currently work? How does it make you feel?

Training and development What sort of training and development have you received from an organisation?/ OR so you‘ve given me information on training and development received.

Was this linked or did it follow from performance appraisal?Do you have a mentor? How does that work? Has this helped you in yourcareer?How do you network? Are they male, female, both? Location?

Why do you think you are as successful as you are today?Successful men and women Can you think of other senior female managers that you know who are successful inother sectors? Why do you think that is? Is it different from banking?Can you describe other females who have not reached the upper echelons in banking and why you think that is?What about females in other sectors who are unsuccessful and why you think that is.To what extent would you say men and women are evaluated differently?To what extent do ‗diversity‘ efforts in banking make a difference? To what extent have you thought about ‗gender‘ and how to get round the supposeddifferences.



274

How does gender work in the top echelons in banking? How do you feel about it?[gender or getting the job done]

Emotion Have you ever been ‗emotional‘ at work? How have you expressed that? Were you

viewed differently as a result? Has this changed over time, or have you changed overtime?To what extent would you say men and women are evaluated differently in emotionalterms?To what extent are men emotional at work? How does this work?How does emotion link with your sector and/or profession? How does that work`/

Solo status How do you feel about being one of a few women in your sector/profession?

Do you think that women are treated with stricter standards than men?Do you think men are treated differently?



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Appendix E

Scanned page showing manual coding of interview



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18Appendix F

Table of themes and sub-themes

Ptcpno.

Line PgNo.

CodeNo.

Initial code Major theme Sub theme 1

1 8 1 1 Training Training1 10 1 2 Idea how to get back Progression Strategy1 18 1 3 Less role within

bankingProgression Strategy

1 21 1 4 Corporate big boys Men and women Culture1 27 1 5 Looking after Caring Personality/trait

1 28 1 6 Persuaded Progression External influence1 30 1 7 Functions worked in Profile info1 38 1 8 Culture of the UK UK Culture1 1 2 9 Looked after Caring Personality/trait1 1 2 10 Functions worked in Profile info1 3 2 11 Functions worked in Profile info

1 3 2 12 Relationships Relationships1 4 2 13 Putting up with Culture Adapting1 7 2 14 Putting up with Culture Adapting1 10 2 15 Settling down Aspiration Changed to less

1 10 2 16 Controlled Emotion at work Controlled1 14 2 17 Next phase Progression Aspiration1 18 2 18 How she is Personality/Trait1 22 2 19 Mentoring Mentoring How it works1 24 2 20 Putting up with Culture Adapting1 26 2 21 Support Progression External influence1 28 2 22 Lot of factors have

helpedProgression Various

1 34 2 23 Success Success1 35 2 24 Slowing down Aspiration Changed

1 37 2 25 Different strategy now1 1 3 26 Negative evaluation Evaluation How it works1 10 3 27 performance appraisal

ProcessPerformance Appraisal How it works

1 12 3 28 People followprocesses

Espoused practice

1 15 3 29 Her experience offeedback

Feedback. Experience offeedback

1 20 3 30 Good feedback Feedback. Positive1 21 3 31 Doesn't mind negative

feedbackFeedback Negative feedback

1 23 3 32 Hardy Personality/Trait1 24 3 33 Formal appraisal not as

important as regularfeedback

Performance Appraisal Experience of pa

1 25 3 34 Focus on corporate line Actual practice

1 27 3 35 Relationships important Relationships Important

18Missing cells indicate



277

1 28 3 36 Relationship withmanager

Relationships Experience ofmanager

1 29 3 37 Openness toconstructive criticism

Feedback. Open to criticism



1 31 3 39 Nature of feedback Feedback. Nature of

1 31 3 40 Human Relationships Human1 32 3 41 Learning Important Learning Important1 33 3 42 Nature of feedback Feedback. Nature of1 35 3 43 Criticism as learning Feedback Negative feedback1 40 3 44 Her view of other

women and menMen and women Her view

1 40 3 45 Her view of women Men and women Her view1 42 3 46 Her view of men Men and women Her view1 1 4 47 Her view of women Men and women Her view1 5 4 48 Her view of men Men and women Her view1 6 4 49 Her view of women Men and women Her view1 8 4 50 Advantages and

disadvantagesExperience oforganisation

1 12 4 51 Her view of men Men and women Her view1 13 4 52 Husband advice Experience of being

femaleHusband as support

1 23 4 53 Corporate line Culture1 26 4 54 Representation of

women in bankDiversity How it works

1 27 4 55 Keen to promote Espoused practice Status quo supported1 31 4 56 Doesn't worry about

genderGender

1 31 4 57 Workforce percentages Workforce1 34 4 58 Advantage of being

minorityExperience of beingfemale

Advantage

1 36 4 59 Enjoys being the

minority

Experience of being

female

Advantage

1 41 4 60 People remember you Experience of beingfemale

Advantage

1 44 4 61 Uses feminine wiles Experience of beingfemale

Advantage

1 3 5 62 Denial Culture Denied1 3 5 63 Being female can get

things doneExperience of beingfemale

Advantage

1 5 5 64 Men are different withwomen

Men and women Her view

1 10 5 65 Environment Culture1 11 5 66 Corporate line Culture1 12 5 67 Diversity in terms of

nationalities in bankDiversity How it works

1 15 5 68 Diversity linked withsuccess

Diversity How it works

1 17 5 69 Culture as espoused Culture Espoused practice1 28 5 70 Women at the top and

childrenWork and family

1 31 5 71 Things have changedin terms of men


1 35 5 72 Work-life balancechallenges

Work and family Challenges



278

1 37 5 73 Gets on with things Tenacity Personality/Trait1 39 5 74 UK culture and children UK culture Children1 40 5 75 Has outside help Work and family External support1 42 5 76 Women with children View of women Work and family1 42 5 77 Women with children View of women Work and family1 6 6 78 Training early stages Training

1 6 6 79 Training now Training1 8 6 80 Questions success Progression Her view of success1 16 6 81 Wants to appear as if

training not neededHow she operates

1 22 6 82 Current view of herself1 35 6 83 Helping others Personality/Trait1 41 6 84 Espoused v actual

cultureCulture Espoused practice

1 41 6 85 Women notprogressing

View of women Progression

1 8 7 86 Women and networking Networking Women andnetworking

1 11 7 87 Networking her view Networking How it works1 11 7 88 Interpretation of

networking

Networking Men and women

1 11 7 89 Self promotion Personality/Trait1 16 7 90 Networking Networking How it works1 25 7 91 Other women similar Experience of being

femaleOther women

1 29 7 92 Dealing with peopleimportant

Organisationl objective

1 33 7 93 Women similar View of women1 2 8 94 Women have not

achieved due to selflimiting beliefs

Personality/Trait Perception of others

1 4 8 95 Work-life balancedoesn‘t exist

Work and family Cynical about wlb

1 7 8 96 Women self-limitthemselves

View of women

1 13 8 97 Acknowledges thechallenge of work-lifebalance

Work and family Espoused

1 16 8 98 Factors related toflexible working andwomen

Work and family Men and women

1 18 8 99 Managers role in notsupporting flexibleworking

Culture Status quo

1 19 8 100 men and women needflexibility

Men and women Career

1 20 8 101 Culture preventsflexible working

Culture Enacted

1 28 8 102 Factors which preventprogress

Progression

1 30 8 103 Flexible working Work and family1 32 8 104 Women as own worst

enemyPersonality/Trait Progression

1 34 8 105 Women lackconfidence

Personality/Trait Progression

1 40 8 106 Skills not as importantas other things

Progression Her view of success



279

1 41 8 107 Training not asimportant

Training Value

1 41 8 108 Women wait to benoticed


1 42 8 109 Women and selfpromotion


1 4 9 110 Women not chosen for

overseas assignments


1 7 9 111 Assumptions madeabout women

Experience of beingfemale

Assumptions

1 8 9 112 Excuses made to notsend women overseas

Development Thwarted

1 9 9 113 Women evaluatednegatively for top jobs

Evaluation Progression

1 12 9 114 Men at the top recruit intheir own image

Culture Status quo

1 16 9 115 Wanting to be authentic Authenticity Desired1 20 9 116 Women get feedback

to be more forceful fortop jobs

Evaluation Feedback

1 23 9 117 Wants to be authentic,

not like a man

Authenticity Desired

1 23 9 118 Lack of diversity at thetop influences feedbackgiven to women

Diversity Consequence of lackof

1 27 9 119 Denial of reality Culture Denied1 32 9 120 Espousing the culture Culture Espoused practice1 32 9 121 Example of diversity

effortDiversity How it works

1 32 9 122 Example of diversityeffort


1 36 9 123 Recruitment agencypromote status quo

Culture Status quo

1 7 10 124 Diversity at recruitmentlevel


1 13 10 125 Idea to promotediversity

Diversity. Her view

1 17 10 126 Culture is inclusive Culture Enacted1 21 10 127 Diversity as

multiculturalDiversity How it works

1 22 10 128 UK culture compared UK culture1 23 10 129 Culture of bank very

differentCulture

1 28 10 130 Espousing the culture Culture Espoused practice1 29 10 131 Diversity as a core

strengthDiversity Ideal of diversity

1 29 10 132 Diversity is a criticalsuccess factor

Diversity Ideal of diversity

1 36 10 133 Diversity at recruitmentlevel Diversity How it works

1 36 10 134 Recruiters part ofproblem

Diversity Status quo

1 40 10 135 Human Diversity and impact Her view1 1 11 136 Wants to be authentic. Authenticity Desired1 3 11 137 Diversity needed Diversity Desired1 4 11 138 Confusion around

communicationMen and women

1 5 11 139 Equality is expressed Men and women Her view



280

1 9 11 140 Wants to be dealt withas a woman


1 11 11 141 Confidence has grownwith seniority

Personality/Trait Change

1 13 11 142 Has reacted in the past Emotion Coping with culture1 15 11 143 Gets on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait1 16 11 144 Accepts status quo Culture Accepts1 18 11 145 Emotions controlled

around sexistcomments

Emotion controlled

1 27 11 146 UK culture is maledominated and notinclusive

UK culture Male dominated

1 28 11 147 Old boy network Culture Macho1 31 11 148 Bank culture not as bad

as othersCulture Rationalised

1 34 11 149 Excludes herself fromexternal networks

Networking External networks

1 36 11 150 Worse on the outside UK culture Compared1 37 11 151 Espousing the culture Culture Espoused practice

1 40 11 152 City has not changed Culture Not changed1 8 12 153 People should beauthentic

Authenticity Ideal

1 10 12 154 Whole person focus How she operates Authenticity1 12 12 155 Accepts control of

emotion regardless ofwhat caused it

Emotion Accepts

1 12 12 156 Emotions controlled. Emotion controlled1 13 12 157 Harsh on herself for

being emotionalEmotion controlled

1 13 12 158 Has reacted in the past Emotion Coping with culture1 13 12 159 Emotion was result of

being bulliedEmotion Justified emotion

1 14 12 160 Criticism as learning Feedback Negative feedback

1 22 12 161 Criticism acceptedregardless of whetherits feedback or justcriticism

Feedback Negative feedback

1 22 12 162 Accepted criticism aslearning

Learning Feedback

1 25 12 163 Accepts status quo Culture Accepts1 27 12 164 Enjoys feedback Feedback Her experience of1 32 12 165 Harsh feedback causes

upsetFeedback Men and women

1 36 12 166 Confidence takes time Personality/Trait Change1 43 12 167 Men tough with each

otherEmotion controlled

1 44 12 168 Accepts status quo Culture Accepts1 44 12 169 Culture as accepting of

harsh criticismCulture

1 1 13 170 Males dealing withpeople

Relationships Men and women

1 4 13 171 Males unaware ofeffect of feedback

Feedback. Men and women

1 5 13 172 Feedback effects Feedback1 9 13 173 Controlled emotions Emotion at work controlled1 10 13 174 UK culture. UK culture



281

1 11 13 175 Culture different here Culture1 15 13 176 Diversity Diversity How it works1 16 13 177 City culture is difficult Culture Difficult1 16 13 178 Espousing the culture Culture Espoused practice1 17 13 179 Acknowledges what

culture is likeCulture Accepts

1 18 13 180 Gets on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait1 19 13 181 Accepts status quo Culture Accepts1 22 13 182 Enjoys being the

minorityExperience of beingfemale

Advantage

1 25 13 183 Acknowledges anotherwoman would be nice

Diversity Gender

1 26 13 184 Women as competitors Experience of beingfemale

Other women

1 34 13 185 Other cultures inorganisations aproblem

Culture

1 38 13 186 Ways the genderdifference plays out

Men and women Experience of beingfemale

1 38 13 187 Difference between

men and women


1 1 14 188 How talk excludeswomen

Men and women Differences betweenmen and women

1 3 14 189 Acknowledges diversityis gender-based

Diversity Gender

1 5 14 190 Denial of reality Culture Denied2 19 1 1 IT a boys job Men and women2 33 1 2 Progression not linear Progression Her view of success2 37 1 3 Management

consultancy boys jobCulture Other organisation

2 37 1 4 Different experiences2 40 1 5 Multitasking Men and women2 43 1 6 Overseas assignment Development Nature of2 30 2 7 Did stuff she didn't like Tenacity Personality/Trait

2 31 2 8 Saw benefit of doingstuff she didn‘t like

Tenacity Personality/Trait

2 32 2 9 Gets on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait2 33 2 10 Was prepared when a

project came alongProgression Strategy

2 35 2 11 Male manager gaveher a chance

Development Chance given

2 37 2 12 Promotion following apiece of work andrelationship withmanager

Progression Example ofpromotion-self



2 42 2 14 New department Progression Lateral move2 44 2 15 Internal women'snetwork

Networking Internal

2 45 2 16 Progression followingrelationship at internalwomen‘s network

Progression Networking

2 4 3 17 Relationship led to achange in role

Relationships Progression

2 6 3 18 Informal progress Progression Her view of success2 18 3 19 Undermining role Women as helper



282

2 28 3 20 Strategic How she operates2 34 3 21 Self talk Undermining2 8 4 22 Training Training2 17 4 23 Self talk Undermining2 22 4 24 Strategic combined

with operationalHow she operates

2 7 5 25 HR role Role of HR dept Performanceappraisal

2 9 5 26 Corporate line Culture2 24 5 27 Enjoys fast pace and

changeMotivation

2 29 5 28 Type of person she is Personality/Trait2 30 5 29 Slowing down Aspiration Changed

2 25 6 30 Money was not amotivator

Motivation

2 28 6 31 Feminist Experience of beingfemale

2 33 6 32 Independence Personality/Trait2 33 6 33 Downplaying

2 37 6 34 Likes learning Learning Motivation2 37 6 35 Type of person she is Personality/Trait2 41 6 36 Really likes banking

nowMotivation

2 42 6 37 Drivers2 2 7 38 Realised variety was

good for progressionProgression Performance

Management2 3 7 39 Uses intuition to make

choices and decisionsHow she operates Decision making

2 3 8 40 Also uses logic Decision making Her process2 5 8 41 Men get scared of

women's intuitionEmotion Men and women

2 7 8 42 Understands men andlogical way they think


2 8 8 43 Uses men's way ofdoing things toadvantage

Men and women Uses masculine waysto advantage

2 10 8 44 Insight Dual thinking Decision making2 18 8 45 Relationships important Relationships Important2 22 8 46 Espousing the culture Culture Espoused practice2 24 8 47 Knows the actual

reality as against theespoused culture

Culture Awareness ofcontraction in culture

2 27 8 48 Acknowledges whatculture is like

Culture Accepts

2 29 8 49 Human nature is torelate to who you feelcomfortable with

Relationships Diversity lack of

2 31 8 50 Relationships. Relationships2 34 8 51 Giving to people what

they wantExperience of beingmanager

2 35 8 52 Helping. Personality/Trait2 37 8 53 Perceptions important Reality2 38 8 54 Devalues hard work?2 40 8 55 Ability important but

recognises the realityof perceptions

Perceptions important Progression



283

2 42 8 56 Relationships overrideability

Relationships Performance

2 45 8 57 Results plusrelationship


2 1 9 58 Human. Human2 1 9 59 Wants to link to own

kindRelationships Connecting

2 1 9 60 Clicked with a malemanager through MC

Relationships Example

2 7 9 61 Top people are difficultto penetrate

Culture of top culture at the top

2 8 9 62 Not humans at the top Culture at top Observation of culture2 11 9 63 Likes people who are

like herselfRelationships Her view of

relationships2 22 9 64 Top people distant Culture of top culture at the top2 22 9 65 Gets on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait2 28 9 66 Human. Human2 29 9 67 Relationships Relationships2 31 9 68 Regional culture Culture2 33 9 69 Connecting Relationships Her view of

relationships2 34 9 70 Woman coach Development Coaching2 35 9 71 Promotion followed

making a link withperson

Progression Example ofpromotion-self

2 36 9 72 Mentoring Mentoring How it works2 43 9 73 performance appraisal

ProcessPerformance Appraisal How it works

2 4 10 74 Measured oncompetencies linked toobjectives

Competency Performanceappraisal

2 8 10 75 Types of objectives Performance Appraisal How it works2 29 10 76 Knows the process

more than others

2 49 10 77 Woman had issueswith the P.A. process


2 5 11 78 Espoused Culture Espoused practice2 9 11 79 Compared to another

company currentcompany is good

Culture

2 9 11 80 Another company P.a.process not good

Performance Appraisal Experience

2 9 11 81 Relationships inanother company

Relationships Her view ofrelationships

2 18 11 82 As you get higher upyou have to accept thisparadox Paradox Culture

2 22 11 83 Denial of reality Culture Denied

2 22 11 84 Recognisesmeritocracy as notfeasible

Paradox Actual v espousedpractice

2 32 11 85 Denies men andwomen evaluateddifferently

Men and women Evaluation

2 32 11 86 Relationship. Relationships2 34 11 87 Denies hard work is

key2 37 11 88 Perceptions important Reality



284

2 39 11 89 Paradox of beingmeasured againstobjective competencies

Performance Appraisal Competencies

2 40 11 90 Old boy network Culture Macho2 41 11 91 Futility of objective

approachEspoused practice

2 44 11 92 Silenced even if you

have a problem

Culture Experience of being

female2 44 11 93 Futility about trying to

highlight problemsCulture Oppression

2 46 11 94 Denial of reality Culture Denied2 46 11 95 HR role as silencing Role of HR dept Performance

appraisal2 46 11 96 Gets on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait2 11 972 6 12 98 Relationship Relationships2 9 12 99 Trust Adapting2 15 12 100 Espoused Culture Espoused practice2 21 12 101 Denial of reality Culture Denied2 23 12 102 Keen to express how

objective the process is

Espoused practice

2 26 12 103 Acknowledges reality Workforce2 31 12 104 Workforce proportions Workforce2 35 12 105 The corporate line is

representative ofpopulation

Espoused culture

2 43 12 106 Adaptable andaccommodating?

Personality/Trait Status quo

2 12 107 Paradox of examiningthe objectivity when infact subjectivity is moreimportant

Performance Appraisal Men and women

2 1 13 108 Denial of reality Culture Denied2 1 13 109 Acknowledges power

deficit

Men and women Experience of being

female2 6 13 110 Males make hiring

decisionsMen and women Experience of being

female2 7 13 111 Old boys network Culture Macho2 10 13 112 Men‘s language Men and women Experience of being

female2 11 13 113 Acknowledges reality Culture Men and women2 13 13 114 Women as strangers

even though there are50% in the organisation


How it works

2 19 13 115 Networking Networking2 19 13 116 Relationships Relationships2 22 13 117 Networking Networking

2 26 13 118 The reality of how itworks Culture Actual practice

2 26 13 119 Power of the boys clubexplained

Culture Macho

2 30 13 120 Women don‘t play ball Experience of beingfemale

Other people's view

2 38 13 121 No plan to be CEO Aspiration Not as bigger

2 39 13 122 Given up on idea ofbeing CEO

Aspiration Career



285

2 45 13 123 Acknowledges reality Culture Accepts2 45 13 124 Futile to try and 'win' Culture Oppression2 4 14 125 Accepted her limit Personality/Trait Self aware2 11 14 126 Offered travel but

declined as thinkingabout relationship

Development declined

2 21 14 127 Offered travel butdeclined as thinkingabout relationship

Development declined

2 26 14 128 Assignment doesn‘tsound attractive

Development unwanted

2 27 14 129 Assignment location aconsideration forrelationship

Development Work and relationship

2 2 15 130 Gets on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait2 5 15 131 Travel and being

flexible to progressProgression Strategy

2 7 15 132 Likes the stimulation Motivation2 10 15 133 Does something

uninterestingTenacity Personality/Trait

2 12 15 134 Uses hindsight to makeinto positive Decision making Her process

2 12 15 135 Gets on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait2 19 15 136 Gets on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait2 24 15 137 City easier now Culture How it's changed2 25 15 138 How it's changed Culture-past Observation of culture2 27 15 139 Tough in the city Culture Difficult2 30 15 140 Few female graduates

in the pastGender

2 33 15 141 history of the maleculture

Culture-past Observation of culture

2 35 15 142 Men didn‘t do much inthe past

Culture-past Effect of past oncurrent

2 37 15 143 Gets on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait2 39 15 144 Old boys network-past Culture-past Effect of past on

current2 43 15 145 How to put up with it Culture Coping with culture2 43 15 146 Give as good as you

getCulture Fitting in

2 46 15 147 Understands men andhow to use toadvantage


2 46 15 148 Mentor Mentoring How it works2 47 15 149 Joined in Culture Coping with culture2 47 15 150 Joined in Culture Coping with culture2 1 16 151 Accepts status quo Culture Accepts2 7 16 152 How you need to be to

put up with it Culture

Coping with culture

2 8 16 153 How it's changed Culture-past Observation of culture2 9 16 154 history of the male

cultureCulture-past Observation of culture

2 13 16 155 Other banks same Culture Observation of culture2 15 16 156 Culture of profession-

pastCulture Observation of culture

2 17 16 157 How the city is/was Culture-past Observation of culture2 21 16 158 Got on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait



286

2 22 16 159 Accepts reality Culture Accepts2 24 16 160 How it's changed Culture-past Observation of culture2 26 16 161 Accepts reality Culture Accepts2 28 16 162 Espoused culture Culture Espoused practice2 28 16 163 HR role. Role of HR dept2 29 16 164 Easier for men Men and women Experience of being

female2 32 16 165 Use female advantage Experience of being

femalePositive

2 34 16 166 People remember you Experience of beingfemale

Positive

2 35 16 167 Work harder Personality/Trait2 36 16 168 Get on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait2 38 16 169 Minority position useful Experience of being

femalePositive

2 38 16 170 One of them-passedthe test


2 41 16 171 Political game Culture2 43 16 172 Accepted it Culture Adapted2 43 16 173 Control emotions Emotion at work controlled

2 44 16 174 Can see people whodon‘t accept the way itis

Culture

2 49 16 175 Building reputations Relationships2 9 17 176 Hard for women who

have childrenExperience of beingfemale

Work and family

2 18 17 177 Outside help importantfor women with children

Work and family External support

2 21 17 178 Flexible workingcauses resentment

Impact of being fair

2 24 17 179 Hard for women lowerin the organisation


Work and family

2 25 17 180 Money important forwomen with children

Work and family Reality of women'slife

2 29 17 181 Reality of family life atwork

Work and family

2 35 17 182 Problems of peoplewith children

Work and family Children a problem

2 38 17 183 Not child friendly Culture Work and family2 38 17 184 Women may be held

back from outsourcingchildcare


Work and family

2 38 17 185 Industry not good if youhave children


2 50 17 186 Impressionmanagement


2 1 18 187 View of flexible workingfor others

Flexible working

2 3 18 188 Culture changed Culture changed2 5 18 189 Husband as support Experience of being

femaleProgression

2 5 18 190 Women damaged byhaving children

View of women Work and family

2 8 18 191 Not child friendly Culture Work and family2 8 18 192 Reality of having

children and impact onwork




287

2 10 18 193 Women not coping View of women2 12 18 194 Choice between work

and familyWork and family Choices need to be

made2 23 18 195 Culture. Culture Observation of culture2 27 18 196 Trust Culture Trust2 30 18 197 Culture. Culture2 37 18 198 Diversity Diversity How it works2 46 18 199 Relationships important

to getting things doneRelationships Performance

2 4 19 200 Culture Culture2 5 19 201 Moving to a more data

driven cultureCulture How its changed

2 10 19 202 Culture affected byexternal events

Culture Observation of culture

2 39 19 203 How T&D works Development Operation of it2 39 19 204 Training quality Training Value2 1 20 205 Training quality Training Value2 7 20 206 Development outside of

PMDevelopment External

2 9 20 207 how T&D defined and

interesting

Development Operation of it

2 14 20 208 Taking developmentinto own hands

Development Proactive

2 25 20 209 Training quality Training Value2 27 20 210 Training is boring Training How it is2 33 20 211 Finds own coaches and

mentors DevelopmentCoaching andmentoring

2 4 21 212 Relationships andnetworking important toget ahead

Relationships Networking

2 7 21 213 Surprise at how longshe's there

Decision making Career

2 9 21 214 Work type workload2 10 21 215 Likes variety Motivation2 10 21 216 Motivated by Motivation2 13 21 217 External development Development External2 26 21 218 Networking

relationshipsNetworking

2 26 21 219 Self sufficient Personality/Trait2 30 21 220 Relationships important Relationships Important2 34 21 221 Mentoring informally

arrangedMentoring How it works

2 37 21 222 Does not like formalDevelopment

Coaching andmentoring

2 38 21 223 Self directed Personality/Trait2 40 21 224 Formal mentoring for

graduates DevelopmentCoaching andmentoring

2 2 22 225 Purpose of women'snetwork

Networking Internal

2 6 22 226 Networking Networking2 15 22 227 Networking and

purposeNetworking Purpose

2 21 22 228 Relationships-how sherelates


2 27 22 229 How she promotes theinternal network

Networking Internal

2 34 22 230 Strategy as self How she operates



288

directed2 36 22 231 Self promotion Personality/Trait2 39 22 232 UK culture not about

boastingUK culture

2 1 23 233 Females are reticent Diversity Culture2 11 23 234 Diversity Diversity How it works2 13 23 235 Men speak at women's

networkMen and women

2 17 23 236 HR processes Role of HR dept Performanceappraisal

2 18 23 237 What females are likein the bank

Perception of otherwomen

2 23 23 238 Younger people don‘tsell themselves


2 25 23 239 Personality Personality/Trait2 27 23 240 Self promotion-accepts

it's uncomfortablePersonality/Trait

2 32 23 241 Self promotion. Personality/Trait2 36 23 242 Female networking

helped next roleNetworking How it helped her

progress

2 40 23 243 Relationship worked Relationships2 43 23 244 How she finds a job Progression Decision making2 45 23 245 So women's networking

works like men'sNetworking How it works

2 2 24 246 Espoused systems Culture Espoused practice2 4 24 247 Espoused v actual

cultureCulture Espoused practice

2 5 24 248 Getting on is aboutrelationships


2 11 24 249 Purpose of women'snetwork

Networking Internal

2 15 24 250 Relationships andgetting things done


2 24 24 251 Networking works

beyond formaldevelopment

Networking How it works

2 25 24 252 Internal women'snetwork has given heropps


2 32 24 253 Women helped her Other women2 42 24 254 Diversity - they want it

to happenDiversity Desired

2 44 24 255 Women should helpeach other

View of women

2 45 24 256 Help each other Experience of beingfemale

Positive

2 1 25 257 Modest Personality/Trait Success2 4 25 258 Not traditionally

ambitiousPersonality/Trait Aspiration

2 9 25 259 Likes change Motivation2 10 25 260 How progression

actually worksProgression Actual practice

2 11 25 261 Gets on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait2 12 25 262 Accepts status quo Culture2 13 25 263 Personality Personality/Trait2 15 25 264 Toned down

personalityPersonality/Trait



289

2 27 25 265 Women controlled intobehaving a certain way

View of women

2 1 26 266 Being macho isadmired

Organisation's values

2 1 26 267 Women she would liketo work with

View of women

2 3 26 268 Likes the man's world

and accepts it

Culture Accepts

2 8 26 269 Wants to be feminine Authenticity Desired2 13 26 270 Culture Culture Observation of culture2 15 26 271 Wants to be feminine Authenticity Desired2 20 26 272 Praises femininity Authenticity Desired2 26 26 273 Women good at what

they doView of women

2 38 26 274 Gets on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait2 42 26 275 Emotion Emotion How it works2 44 26 276 Insight needed Experience of being

female2 44 26 277 Suggestion that women

not self awareUnsuccessful women

2 1 27 278 Subsume yourself andgive How she operates

2 3 27 279 People have a sense ofentitlement

View of others

2 5 27 280 Sitting back is not good Progression Personality/Trait2 8 27 281 Know yourself Personality/Trait Self awareness2 10 27 282 Does things she

doesn‘t like doing Tenacity Personality/Trait

2 12 27 283 Gets on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait2 15 27 284 Gets on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait2 17 27 285 Puts up with stuff Culture Adapting2 21 27 286 Detached2 26 27 287 Human Authenticity Ability to express2 28 27 288 Culture. Culture Observations of

culture2 29 27 289 Gets on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait2 30 27 290 Accepts status quo Culture Accepts2 35 27 291 perceptions important Reality2 37 27 292 Accepts that men and

women evaluateddifferently


2 38 27 293 Relationships important Relationships Important2 40 27 294 Knows reality of men

and women differencesMen and women Experience of being

female2 44 27 295 Denies gender

differencesMen and women Experience of being

female

2 1 28 296 Denial of reality Culture Denied2 4 28 297 Only had one male

bossExperience of manager

2 8 28 298 Relationships important Relationships Important2 12 28 299 Not about male and

femaleMen and women Experience of being

female2 12 28 300 Denies gender divide Men and women Experience of being

female



290

2 20 28 301 Networking importantnot diversity


2 22 28 302 Diversity in terms ofgroups of like-mindedpeople

Diversity Ideal

2 25 28 303 Networks as tacklingdiversity


2 28 28 304 Adding value isattempted throughnetworks


2 30 28 305 Diversity aboutrelationships withpeople who are thesame in networks

Diversity Ideal

2 31 28 306 Purpose not toinfluence policy

Networking Culture

2 33 28 307 Keep status quo Culture2 33 28 308 HR doesn‘t link with

policy and cultureRole of HR dept Performance

appraisal2 37 28 309 How diversity works Diversity Operation of it2 39 28 310 Status quo safe Culture Accepts2 39 28 311 Not political Culture Diversity2 39 28 312 Naïveté around how

politics is linked toculture

Culture Naive about culture

2 1 29 313 Denial of reality Culture Denied2 2 29 314 Diversity is not policy Diversity Her view2 3 29 315 Espoused systems Culture Espoused practice2 4 29 316 Flexible working Work and family2 5 29 317 Acknowledgement of

legal positionDiversity Compliance

2 5 29 318 Promotes currentorganisation

Espouses

2 12 29 319 Doesn‘t want positive

discrimination

Men and women

2 22 29 320 Thinks about gender Experience of beingfemale

Awareness of gender

2 31 29 321 Conscious of what shewears


Awareness of herself

2 34 29 322 Fitting in with machoculture by denyingfemininity

Authenticity Denied

2 36 29 323 Be more masculine Authenticity Gender2 1 30 324 Women voices are

annoyingView of women Evaluation

2 4 30 325 Keep the men happy Status quo supported2 6 30 326 Keeping it down Status quo supported

2 7 30 327 Controls behaviour2 8 30 328 Emotional by voice Emotion How it works2 9 30 329 Fitting in Culture Experience of being

female2 10 30 330 Denies femaleness Authenticity Denied2 11 30 331 Likes femaleness Experience of being

femalePositive

2 21 30 332 hard for women at top Perception at top2 26 30 333 Tough culture at top Culture Perception of top



291

2 29 30 334 Relationships notmentioned

Relationships

2 31 30 335 Family difficult Work and family Challenges2 36 30 336 Political Culture Observation of culture2 37 30 337 Playing the game gets

you to the topProgression Strategy

2 39 30 338 Accepts status quo Culture Accepts2 39 30 339 Accepts culture Culture Adapted2 39 30 340 Emotional labour2 12 31 341 Kept anger under

controlEmotion controlled

2 16 31 342 Controlled Emotion at work controlled2 17 31 343 Allowed to show

emotional sometimesEmotion controlled

2 25 31 344 Culture is emotional Culture Observation of culture2 32 31 345 Men showed emotional

over trivial mattersEmotion Men's emotions

2 33 31 346 Entitlement Personality/Trait2 39 31 347 Men showed emotional

over trivial mattersNetworking

2 40 31 348 Accepts men areemotional Men and women Emotion

2 1 32 349 Anger needs to becontrolled

Emotion at work controlled

2 9 32 350 Women seen ashysterical

View of women Personality/Trait

2 12 32 351 Passion Emotion Nature of2 17 32 352 Culture not volatile Culture Observation of culture2 22 32 353 Emotional controlled

environmentEmotion Culture

2 23 32 354 Little emotion here Emotion Unemotionalworkplace

2 29 32 355 Keep emotion out Emotion controlled2 30 32 356 Anger Emotion at work Nature of

2 33 32 357 Getting on with it isbest

Denial Futility

2 34 32 358 Weak emotion notgood

Emotion Nature of

2 35 32 359 Emotion as female trait Emotion Men and women2 37 32 360 Males don‘t show

weaker emotionEmotion Men's emotions

2 39 32 361 Emotion is controlled Emotion controlled2 40 32 362 Not much emotion Emotion Unemotional

workplace2 4 33 363 Enjoys minority status Experience of being

femalePositive

2 11 33 364 Gets on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait2 16 33 365 Women have to be

betterWomen andperformance

View of women

2 19 33 366 Myth of men andwomen and how theoperate

Men

2 20 33 367 Recognises the maleand female stereotypes


2 30 33 368 Women have to better Women andperformance

View of women



292

2 46 46 369 Doesn‘t have issueswith PERFORMANCEAPPRAISAL process


3 33 2 1 Lots of females Profession3 34 2 2 past experience males

and females treated thesame

Men and women Experience of beingfemale-past

3 36 2 3 Training. Training3 1 3 4 Job rotation helped Progression Example of progress3 3 3 5 Left once qualified3 12 3 6 Knew when to look to

enhance developmentDevelopment Proactive

3 15 3 7 Managementconsultant

Previous role

3 18 3 8 Overseas assignment Development Nature of3 25 3 9 Was able to take

opportunity whenphoned

Progression Promotion how itworks

3 27 3 10 Subjective success Success Defined3 5 4 11 Motivation-doing

something new

Motivation

3 26 4 12 Fan of p.a. process Performance Appraisal Her view of pa3 26 4 13 Why she likes p.a. Performance Appraisal Her view of pa3 29 4 14 Solo status Experience of being

female3 31 4 15 Honesty in expressing

own developmentneeds not benefitted

Feedback. Her behaviour

3 32 4 16 Traits/personality Personality/Trait Self aware3 33 4 17 High standards for self Personality/Trait3 1 5 18 Honesty in

development not goodDevelopment Her behaviour in past

appraisal meeting3 3 5 19 Intuition around p.a.

processPerformance Appraisal Her view of pa

3 4 5 20 Has a feeling-espousedv actual practice

Culture Performanceappraisal

3 6 5 21 Sort of like impressionmanagement, shenotices in others as astrategy

Perceptions of others

3 13 5 22 High rating did not leadto progression

Performance Appraisal Progression

3 15 5 23 Espoused v actualpractice

Culture Espoused practice

3 15 5 24 What is real purpose ofp.a.


3 16 5 25 Con… experience of p.a. process


3 18 5 26 Environment is macho Culture men andwomen

Men and women

3 20 5 27 Partners in MC males Culture-other3 22 5 28 MC partners Culture Other organisation3 22 5 29 Wives at home looking

after the houseMen and women Her view

3 24 5 30 Culture she didn‘t likeand influenced decisionnot to progress

Culture



293

3 25 5 31 Macho culture isn‘treally me

Culture Authenticity

3 26 5 32 Culture as macho Culture Observation of culture3 29 5 33 Current role treated as

an equal3 31 5 34 Contradiction - not

done as well as likedProgression Progression not as

quick as like

3 32 5 35 Feels that being honesthas been detrimental toprogress

Feedback Progression

3 33 5 36 Feelings re p.a.process that managersgive higher rating todifficult people


3 33 5 37 Lack of certainty of realpurpose of p.a. process


3 34 5 38 Suspicion about p.a. -espoused purpose vactual

Performance Appraisal Espoused practice

3 9 6 39 Espousedcompetencies

Competencies

3 14 6 40 Actual practice Practices3 15 6 41 Sales as a competency

only thing valuedCompetencies valued

3 20 6 42 Espoused practice Culture Espoused practice3 22 6 43 Making the deal Espoused practice3 26 6 44 Espoused practice Culture Espoused practice3 29 6 45 Sales mattered Competencies valued3 6 46 Personality important Personality/Trait Progression3 3 7 47 Espoused v actual

valuesCulture Espoused practice

3 11 7 48 Contradiction inespoused values madeher move on

Progression Culture

3 22 7 49 Confusion abouthonesty as she thoughtthat‘s what was neededto progress

Feedback Progression

3 22 7 50 Honesty has hamperedprogress

Progression Progressionhampered-self

3 2 8 51 No ambition to be CEO Aspiration Not as bigger

3 5 8 52 Happy if did get tohigher level

Aspiration Tentative

3 6 8 53 Looks for challengerather than the level of

job

Motivation

3 21 8 54 Consultancy

environment wasadverse macho culture

Culture Previous organisation

3 24 8 55 Lack of fit in machoculture in MC

Culture-past

3 30 8 56 Has always felt equalherself


3 30 8 57 UK culture different UK culture3 3 9 58 England and past

experienceUK culture



294

3 8 9 59 Younger professionwas reason morefemales and differentthan UK

3 13 9 60 Early good experienceof feeling equal

3 20 9 61 Feels her personality is

solo rather than gender

Personality/Trait

3 1 10 62 Sector makes adifference

Culture Other

3 13 10 63 Peer made decision notto work full time


How others work

3 16 10 64 Peer did not go onmaternity leave


How others work

3 26 10 65 Younger children moredifficult

Children

3 28 10 66 Older children make adifference to career

Work and family Older children easier

3 4 11 67 Drive and priorities howwomen resolve internalconflict


How others work

3 5 11 68 Internal conflict forwomen with children

Work and family Challenges

3 14 11 69 Some women at highlevel don‘t havechildren

Work and family

3 18 11 70 No children Women3 21 11 71 No children affects her

responsibilitiesExperience of beingfemale

Work and family

3 24 11 72 Current job malescommitted to families

Work and family Men

3 26 11 73 Swiss cultureinfluences the men

UK culture Compared

3 31 11 74 Swiss culture different UK culture Compared3 3 12 75 Swiss defined UK culture Compared

3 12 12 76 Balance Work and family3 20 12 77 Current culture not

machoCulture Observation of culture

3 23 12 78 Previous culture not somacho

Culture-other

3 25 12 79 Human Respect3 26 12 80 Polite Men and women3 28 12 81 Current culture human Culture Observation of culture3 35 12 82 Culture and developing Culture Development3 3 13 83 Current environment Culture3 4 13 84 Current culture

professionalCulture

3 8 13 85 Likes change Motivation

3 16 13 86 Formal training contenttechnical Training How it is

3 18 13 87 Internal training Training Internal3 23 13 88 Strategy course Training Example of course3 25 13 89 Training automatic for

people at certain levelsTraining How it works

3 1 14 90 360 degree appraisal Development Nature of3 12 14 91 Formal training as part

of jobTraining How it works



295

3 13 14 92 Technical Training Example of content3 14 14 93 CPD Development Nature of3 16 14 94 Internal training

automaticTraining Internal

3 18 14 95 No training to addressdevelopment issues

Training Development

3 20 14 96 Experience of p.a.development

Performance Appraisal Experience ofdevelopment from pa

3 22 14 97 No mentoring orcoaching Development

Coaching andmentoring

3 1 15 98 Networking seen asmeeting people


3 3 15 99 Informal networking Networking Informal3 6 15 100 Purpose of network Networking Purpose3 10 15 101 Purpose of network Networking Purpose3 30 15 102 Focus is on the job How she operates3 6 16 103 Putting up with Culture Adapting3 6 16 104 Positive Personality/Trait3 23 16 105 Putting up with Culture Adapting3 28 16 106 Lucky Success External attribution

3 1 17 107 Women becameruthless

Personality/Trait Authenticity

3 7 17 108 Success womenthemes

Success Women themes

3 8 17 109 Personality Personality/Trait3 18 17 110 Opportunists

successful womentheme

Successful women

3 28 17 111 Learning successfulwomen common theme

Learning

3 7 18 112 Focus on job How she operates3 15 18 113 Getting balance right

women/workMen and women Her view

3 19 18 114 Partner support

important

Progression Partner important to

progression3 19 18 115 Women with children

have burdenView of women Work and family

3 24 18 116 Does not think shetreats men and womendifferently

Men and women how she operates

3 4 19 117 Diversity-her view Diversity Her view3 6 19 118 Own merits Diversity Idealistic about

meritocracy3 10 19 119 Not positive

discriminationDiversity Her view

3 13 19 120 Idealistic aboutmeritocracy

Espoused culture Status quo

3 13 19 121 Doesn‘t know about the

reality3 19 19 122 Not aware of diversity

effortsDiversity

3 28 19 123 Gender not an issue Experience of beingfemale

Men and women

3 29 19 124 Men don‘t like reportingto her


3 31 19 125 Treats people asindividual

Authenticity



296

3 33 19 126 Focus on work How she operates3 1 20 127 Person as individual Authenticity3 1 20 128 Current job not an

issue3 10 20 129 Not aware of lack of

gender at topDiversity Not an issue

3 11 20 130 Thinks being at the top

bit commitment needed

Perception of top

3 15 20 131 Men more able to makecommitment

Culture Men and women

3 20 20 132 Emotion Emotion How it works3 21 20 133 Men-angry Emotion Men's emotions3 22 20 134 Emotion Emotion How it works3 23 20 135 Crying is hidden Emotion controlled3 24 20 136 Would like to get angry Emotion Desired3 28 20 137 Anger as positive

emotionEmotion at work Nature of

3 29 20 138 Upset as negative Emotion controlled3 30 20 139 Positive view of anger -

in controlEmotion How it works

3 31 20 140 Upset is a problem Emotion Consequence of3 33 20 141 Underestimates effect Emotion Her view3 35 20 142 Anger Emotion at work Nature of3 7 21 143 Men-angry Emotion Men's emotions3 8 21 144 Men don‘t understand

emotionsEmotion controlled

3 14 21 145 Anger-accepted Emotion at work Men's emotions3 16 21 146 Upset not accepted Emotion controlled3 17 21 147 Women viewed

negatively if they getangry

View of women Evaluation

3 18 21 148 control over emotion ofwomen

Emotion at work controlled

3 33 21 149 Solo woman Experience of beingfemale3 1 22 150 Emotions of women

controlledEmotion Men and women

3 8 22 151 Focus on job How she operates3 11 22 152 Women had to be men

in MCAuthenticity Other culture

3 19 22 153 Job focus as route tosuccess

Progression How it works-self

3 27 22 154 Emotion Emotion How it works3 27 22 155 Evaluation Men and women Evaluation3 28 22 156 Stricter standard for

womenEvaluation Experience

4 12 1 1 From outside UK Profile info

4 16 1 2 Function Profile info4 21 1 3 Progression as natural Progression4 5 2 4 American bank Culture Observation of culture4 26 2 5 Previous bank p.a.

formal 360Performance Appraisal Previous job

4 28 2 6 PA did not make animpression


4 29 2 7 Bonus given regardlessof performance

Performance Appraisal Experience of bonusnot linked to pa



297

4 6 3 8 How its changed Culture-past4 10 3 9 Current bank pa

process scale usedgood

Performance Appraisal How it works

4 13 3 10 PA ridiculous questions Performance Appraisal Her view of pa4 26 3 11 Process confusing Performance Appraisal Her view of pa4 2 4 12 PA process Performance Appraisal How it works

4 3 4 13 Espoused Culture Observation of culture4 7 4 14 Performed highly so

self assessment highaward


4 9 4 15 Espoused v actual Culture Espoused practice4 10 4 16 PA process confusing Performance Appraisal Experience of pa4 13 4 17 HR role Role of HR dept Performance

appraisal4 14 4 18 Purpose is a mystery Performance Appraisal Experience of pa4 23 4 19 Suspicion about

processPerformance Appraisal Experience of pa

4 23 4 20 Purpose Performance Appraisal How it works4 24 4 21 Espoused Culture Observation of culture

4 26 4 22 Actual purpose is aguess Performance Appraisal Experience of pa4 12 5 23 Relationships and men Relationships Men and women4 13 5 24 Macho culture. Culture macho4 21 5 25 Culture of investment

bankingCulture banking

4 24 5 26 Women get supported Experience of beingfemale

Espoused practice

4 26 5 27 Women paid less View of women Progression4 27 5 28 There are still issues Experience of being

femaleAwareness of genderissues

4 29 5 29 Emotion-women react Emotion Men and women4 30 5 30 Men argue the case Men and women How men operate4 2 6 31 Emotion and effect on

pa

Emotion Performance

Appraisal4 12 6 32 PA as a business

processPerformance Appraisal How it works

4 13 6 33 HR role mystery Role of HR dept4 16 6 34 PA purpose-unsure Performance Appraisal How it works4 18 6 35 PA - doesn‘t look

forward to itPerformance Appraisal Experience of pa

4 19 6 36 Informal chat better Performance Appraisal Experience of pa

4 26 6 37 Relationship Relationships4 3 7 38 My development Development4 7 7 39 Women network Networking Internal4 9 7 40 Purpose of network Networking Purpose

4 12 7 41 Promotion can happenby asking for it Progression Promotion how itworks-self4 22 7 42 Assumption made re

promotionProgression Promotion how it

works-self4 23 7 43 Promotion a mystery Progression Promotion4 26 7 44 Asked for last

promotionProgression Promotion how it

works4 27 7 45 Progression is self

directedProgression Promotion how it

works4 1 8 46 Promotion a mystery Progression Promotion



298

4 9 8 47 Women's mistakes View of women4 13 8 48 Likens work to home

relationship between mand w

Men and women Work and homesimilar gender divide

4 14 8 49 Strategy of askingworks


4 28 8 50 Women communication View of women Communication

4 9 9 51 Culture from book Culture4 17 9 52 Culture as harsh Culture harsh4 22 9 53 Culture outside

organisationCulture Observation of culture

4 1 10 54 How I used to be Personality/Trait Change4 3 10 55 Has hardened up to

culture CultureCoping with culture

4 4 10 56 Putting up with Culture Adapting4 5 10 57 Procedures have

helpedWork and family Diversity

4 6 10 58 How its changed Culture-past4 9 10 59 You learn to put up with Culture Adapted4 13 10 60 Coped with culture Culture Coping with culture

4 19 10 61 Position helps Personality/Trait4 22 10 62 Harden up Culture Coping with culture4 32 10 63 Situation changed

dramaticallyContext

4 1 11 64 Wanted to show shecould cope withchildren


Work and family

4 3 11 65 Hid children effect? Culture Work and family4 3 11 66 Acting as if no children Work and family Perception of how

other women handleit

4 4 11 67 Mistrust of women who'pull' things

Work and family Perception of howother women handleit

4 7 11 68 Supportive partner Progression Partner important toprogression4 11 11 69 Thinks it's changing Culture Future4 20 11 70 Example of colleague4 28 11 71 Balance difficult Work and family4 31 11 72 Children a life choice Work and family Choices need to be

made4 1 12 73 Grateful to have job Experience of being

femalePositive

4 1 12 74 Doesn‘t want to soundungrateful

4 15 12 75 Current bank is good Culture Observation of culture4 21 12 76 Culture currently Culture Observation of culture4 23 12 77 American bank worse Culture Observation of culture4 26 12 78 Compared European

bank and AmericanCulture Observation of culture

4 3 13 79 Training not good Training Value4 5 13 80 Training is compulsory

someTraining How it works

4 19 13 81 Definition ofdevelopment

Development Nature of

4 20 13 82 Managers don‘t need toget involved in network

Development



299

4 1 14 83 Career developmenthappens informally

Development Informal

4 7 14 84 Promotions areinformal

Progression Promotion how itworks

4 16 14 85 Mentoring Mentoring How it works4 17 14 86 Informal set up of

mentoring DevelopmentCoaching andmentoring

4 22 14 87 Mentoring-how it works Mentoring How it works4 31 14 88 Support is important to

successSuccess Factor

4 9 15 89 Guilty Work and family Experience of beingfemale

4 19 15 90 Personality important Personality/Trait Progression4 22 15 91 Example of someone

true to valuesAuthenticity

4 27 15 92 Controlled-admirable Emotion at work controlled4 32 15 93 Strong personality

helps youPersonality/Trait Progression

4 1 16 94 Standing out is good Experience of beingfemale

Positive

4 19 16 95 Example of someonewho wont get to the top


4 10 17 96 Graduates different Experience of beingfemale

4 19 17 97 Type of womanbankers marry

4 26 17 98 Myth of the city Culture Observation of culture4 26 17 99 Exclusive and elite Culture Observation of culture

4 15 18 100 Emotion is judged Emotion Evaluation4 25 18 101 Emotional with good

reasonEmotion Justified emotion

4 27 18 102 Emotion recorded in pa Emotion PerformanceAppraisal

4 29 18 103 HR role Role of HR dept Performanceappraisal4 5 19 104 HR role in pa Role of HR dept Performance

appraisal4 6 19 105 Cant show emotion

even if stressedEmotion at work controlled

4 20 19 106 Women are emotionand it's a disadvantage

Emotion Controlled

4 27 19 107 Men and women dothings differently

Men and women Emotion

4 1 20 108 Helping someonebackfired causedemotion

Emotion Personality/trait

4 2 20 109 Helping not alwaysgood

Personality/Trait Consequence

4 3 20 110 Emotional as a result ofhelping

Emotion How it works

4 7 20 111 Competition of womenin banking


Competition

4 9 20 112 Competition with men Experience of beingfemale

Competition

4 10 20 113 Women as competition Experience of beingfemale

Competition



300

4 17 20 114 Espousing diversityefforts


4 20 20 115 Diversity as networks Diversity How it works4 23 20 116 Task related to gay

people to raiseawareness

4 2 21 117 Network resulted in one

woman coming out

Networking How it worked

4 6 21 118 Coming out affectedher performance

Network Effect of

4 17 21 119 Women network isinclusive

View of women Networking

4 23 21 120 PA has diversityquestion


4 25 21 121 PA no reward Performance Appraisal How it works4 26 21 122 Espoused Culture Espoused practice4 6 22 123 Women have different

needsMen and women View of women

4 7 22 124 Doesn‘t want equality Men and women Her view4 16 22 125 Men and women

differentMen and women Differences between

men and women4 32 22 126 Sees PC as too gender

neutralImpact on female

4 6 23 127 Lost femininity becauseof PC thing

Diversity Culture

4 8 23 128 Misguided idea ofdiversity

Diversity Her view

4 10 23 129 Women strength View of women4 13 23 130 Don‘t need to become

menAuthenticity Gender

4 30 23 131 Top women havestrong personalities

Personality/Trait Top women

4 16 24 132 Recognition in diversityuseful

Diversity Her view

4 19 24 133 Cynicism arounddiversity and purpose Diversity Her view

4 1 25 134 Men don‘t emotionallyattached

Emotion Men and women

4 19 25 135 Male emotion not seenas emotional

Emotion Men's emotions

4 20 25 136 Angry not emotional Emotion at work Men's emotions4 22 25 137 Emotion and taking it

personallyEmotion Men and women

4 25 25 138 Feeling not resolved-woman thing

Emotion Women and emotion

4 2 26 139 Was more emotionalwhen younger

Emotion

4 4 26 140 Has changed Personality/Trait Emotion

4 9 26 141 Women keeping inside Emotion Controlled4 15 26 142 Long hours and

emotionEmotion

4 18 26 143 No link betweenemotion and career

Emotion How it works

4 26 26 144 Attention as onlywoman


Solo status

4 29 26 145 Naïve about women Diversity Doesn‘t understand 4 9 27 146 Diversity implications Diversity Her view



301

4 11 27 147 Helping Personality/Trait4 27 27 1484 1 28 149 doesn‘t understand

diversityDiversity Her view

5 11 1 1 Sudden decision Decision making Career5 18 1 2 Assessment for job

5 29 1 3 Travel. Progression Her view of success5 31 1 4 Training. Training5 36 1 5 What she likes Motivation5 6 2 6 Guidance

DevelopmentCoaching andmentoring

5 15 2 7 What she likes Motivation5 23 2 8 Hindsight re network Networking How it worked5 23 2 9 Network. Networking5 26 2 10 Value of network Networking Purpose5 28 2 11 What she did Experience-past5 33 2 12 Environment in past Culture-past5 34 2 13 Motivation to work Motivation5 36 2 14 Realisation Culture Actual practice

5 4 3 15 What she likes Motivation5 18 3 16 Enjoyed5 19 3 17 Challenge Motivation5 21 3 18 Travel. Progression Her view of success5 22 3 19 People important Relationships Important5 23 3 20 Motivation Motivation5 26 3 21 Advice Progression External5 31 3 22 Environment in past Culture-past5 33 3 23 Motivation Motivation5 35 3 24 Change5 36 3 25 Change5 3 4 26 Project Previous role5 6 4 27 Work situation

5 13 4 28 Motivation. Motivation5 19 4 29 Put up with a situation Culture Adapting5 34 4 30 Personality. Personality/Trait5 1 5 31 Reason for leaving Progression5 3 5 32 Personality Personality/Trait5 5 5 33 Network. Networking5 7 5 34 Relationship Relationships5 10 5 35 Motivation Motivation5 16 5 36 Relationships and

movingRelationships Progression

5 21 5 37 Relationship Relationships5 31 5 38 What she did Experience-past5 35 5 39 Motivation Motivation

5 37 5 40 Dislikes5 2 6 41 Change-beginning of

process5 3 6 42 Move Progression Move5 6 6 43 Course-external Training External5 10 6 44 Realisation Culture Actual practice5 13 6 45 Dilemma5 15 6 46 Difficulty5 17 6 47 Personality Tenacity Personality/Trait



302

5 18 6 48 Gets on with it Tenacity Personality/Trait5 19 6 49 Putting up with Culture Adapting5 20 6 50 Dilemma5 23 6 51 Move Progression Move5 24 6 52 Reflection about job Decision making Career5 26 6 53 Relationship Relationships

5 29 6 54 Job role Past role5 9 7 55 Reason given for nottaking her on

Progression External

5 25 7 56 Current boss Management5 30 7 57 Current situation5 33 7 58 Motivation. Motivation5 1 8 59 Mentor. Mentoring How it works5 2 8 60 Mentor role Mentoring How it works5 4 8 61 How mentoring works


5 5 8 62 Likes Motivation5 7 8 63 Mentor role Mentoring How it works5 8 8 64 Next move Progression Strategy

5 11 8 65 Relationship andmoving Relationships Progression5 13 8 66 Relationships. Relationships5 36 8 67 Impact of appraisal Performance Appraisal Experience of pa5 3 9 68 Culture. Culture5 6 9 69 Function Profile info5 8 9 70 Description of function Function5 10 9 71 Function and

relationship with peopleMen and women

5 16 9 72 Development in afunction


5 22 9 73 Performance meeting Performance Appraisal How it works5 28 9 74 How 1-1s work Performance Appraisal How it works5 31 9 75 1-1 purpose Performance Appraisal Development

5 37 9 76 P.A. process Performance Appraisal How it works5 7 10 77 How P.A. process is

definedPerformance Appraisal How it works

5 10 10 78 Purpose of PM PerformanceManagement

How it works

5 11 10 79 P.A. problem Performance Appraisal Experience of pa5 14 10 80 Promotions and how

they workProgression Promotion how it

works5 16 10 81 Reward high Reward Performance

Appraisal5 22 10 82 P.A. process Performance Appraisal How it works5 24 10 83 Competency Competencies5 25 10 84 Manager quality Experience of manager

5 28 10 85 Competencies Competencies5 33 10 86 Promotion. Progression Promotion5 34 10 87 Managers. Experience of manager5 38 10 88 Networks-definition Networking Purpose5 1 11 89 Networking-how she

finds itNetworking Her experience

5 2 11 90 Advice form hermanager

Progression External

5 4 11 91 Dictates to her



303

5 5 11 92 Decision out of herhands?

5 8 11 93 How promotion works Progression Actual practice5 10 11 94 Realisation-helped by

managerProgression External

5 14 11 95 Consequence wassoon

Progression How it works

5 16 11 96 P.A. process Performance Appraisal How it works5 17 11 97 P.A. process-what she

thinksPerformance Appraisal How it works

5 24 11 98 P.A. process-what shethinks


5 26 11 99 Competencies and linkto P.A.


5 28 11 100 P.A. and how itmotivates


5 31 11 101 P.A. as helpful formanager


5 33 11 102 P.A. process-documents


5 37 11 103 Move-took initiative

with

Progress Self directed

5 1 12 104 Manager attitude to 1-1s-male


5 7 12 105 Initiated developmentdiscussion-managernot interested


5 8 12 106 Reaction to manager Men and women5 9 12 107 Assumption of PM

processPerformanceManagement

Experience of pa

5 11 12 108 Consequences of badPM

PerformanceManagement

How it works

5 12 12 109 P.A. process andconsequence


5 13 12 110 Managers' PM style Performance appraisal Experience of pa

5 17 12 111 Promotion decision-self Progression Promotion-self5 20 12 112 Experience of PM Performance

ManagementExperience of pa

5 24 12 113 Feedback like interview Feedback5 27 12 114 Experience of PM Performance

ManagementExperience of pa

5 31 12 115 Have to ask Experience of manager5 32 12 116 Diversity ignored Diversity How it works5 32 12 117 Take responsibility for

yourselfPersonality/Trait

5 33 12 118 Personality important Personality/Trait Progression5 34 12 119 Manager

approach/styleCompetency

5 37 12 120 P.A. processexperience of Performance Appraisal Experience of pa

5 2 13 121 Experience of P.A.process


5 5 13 122 Process compared todifferent dept

Organisation

5 7 13 123 P.A. process how sheapproaches it

Performance Appraisal How it works for her

5 20 13 124 Salary is secret Salary



304

5 22 13 125 Example of malecolleague-he hasdifferent need forfeedback

Feedback Men and women

5 35 13 126 Compares her needwith a male

Feedback Men and women

5 5 14 127 Male colleague

experience of P.A.

Performance Appraisal Experience of another

with pa5 9 14 128 Self promotes Personality/Trait5 16 14 129 Justified the P.A.

process as it'sstructured

Performance Appraisal Espoused practice

5 19 14 130 Denial of reality of Mand F


5 29 14 131 Achieved goals Personality/Trait Progression5 35 14 132 Promotion Progression Promotion5 3 15 133 Not hampered in

progressionProgression Progression not

hampered5 5 15 134 Male colleague

expectation ofpromotion


5 9 15 135 Assumed whenyounger male wouldget promoted

Progression Perception of others

5 11 15 136 Denial of reality Culture Denied5 13 15 137 Networks helps her

compared to malecolleague

Networking Men and women

5 31 15 138 Overseas assignmentgot pulled due tobudget

Development Thwarted

5 5 16 139 Emotion at work Emotion How it works5 30 16 140 Realised what she

wantsProgression Decision making

5 32 16 141 People focus Realisation

5 35 16 142 Realisation. Culture Actual practice5 4 17 143 Feedback. Feedback. Nature of5 8 17 144 Self directed Personality/Trait5 13 17 145 Realisation. Culture Actual practice5 16 17 146 Ideal role Aspiration Ideal role

5 17 17 147 Development. Development Nature of5 20 17 148 Traders Organisational roles Function5 23 17 149 Ideal role Aspiration Ideal role

5 26 17 150 Motivation Motivation5 26 17 151 Traders Organisational roles Function5 28 17 152 Specialised roles Organisational roles

5 36 17 1535 17 1545 1 18 1555 17 18 156 Work unpredictable-

affects developmentDevelopment Nature of

5 20 18 157 Change5 23 18 158 Likes Motivation5 25 18 159 Uncertainty Current environment5 35 18 160 Uncertainty and effects Current environment Development



305

5 12 19 161 Espoused practice Culture Espoused practice5 12 19 162 Family issues

recognisedWork and family Positive about her

organisation5 18 19 163 How maternity works Work and family Espoused practice5 19 19 164 Espoused practice Culture Espoused practice5 24 19 165 Experience of a

colleague having baby-no support for return


Work and family

5 1 20 166 Improvement neededaround women andmaternity

Work and family Experience of beingfemale

5 2 20 167 Working balance Work and family5 6 20 168 Women and children Women and children Work and family5 7 20 169 How flexible working

operatesWork and family Espoused

5 8 20 170 Women and children Women and children Work and family5 9 20 171 Espoused practice Culture Espoused practice5 10 20 172 Flexible working Work and family5 13 20 173 Limit of flexible working Work and family Limits5 19 20 174 Networks Networking

5 24 20 175 Flexible working not just about women andchildren

Work and family Her view of flexibleworking

5 32 20 176 Her view of women andcommitment


5 37 20 177 Denial andcontradiction ofpractice

Culture Denied

5 37 20 178 Espoused practice Culture Espoused practice5 1 21 179 Networks help Networking Her experience5 10 21 180 Not all departments are

machoCulture Observation of culture

5 10 21 181 Culture of differentdepartments


5 16 21 182 People misperceivebanking


5 17 21 183 Culture of differentdepartments


5 20 21 184 Traders Organisational roles Function5 31 21 185 Put up with it Culture Adapting5 31 21 186 Has adapted within


5 33 21 187 Sector character Culture Other5 34 21 188 Male traits Men and women How men operate5 36 21 189 Advice to put up with it Culture External5 2 22 190 Realisation that culture

not goodCulture realisation

5 4 22 191 Puts up with culture Culture Adapting5 4 22 192 How she copes with


5 11 22 193 Traders Organisational roles Function5 12 22 194 Changed behaviour to

cope with traderExperience oforganisation

Adapted by changing

5 12 22 195 Trader has adapted Organisational roles Function5 22 22 196 Industry wont change Culture.5 1 23 197 Contradiction



306

5 8 23 198 Asking for stuff Progression How it works-self5 11 23 199 Culture. Culture Observation of culture5 12 23 200 Networks defined Networking Purpose5 23 23 201 Culture. Culture Observation of culture5 25 23 202 Effect of organisation

on personCulture

5 32 23 203 Like a family Culture Observation of culture5 37 23 204 Motivation Motivation5 1 24 205 Espoused practice Culture Espoused practice5 4 24 206 Trading Organisational roles Function5 5 24 207 P.A. how it works Performance Appraisal How it works5 7 24 208 P.A. process Performance Appraisal How it works5 8 24 209 Training-content Training Example of content5 9 24 210 Keep away from what

you don‘t like 5 13 24 211 Training Training5 20 24 212 Training and P.A. Training Link to PA5 24 24 213 PM Training Performance

Management5 25 24 214 Training-how it works Training How it works5 29 24 215 Training Training5 31 24 216 Espoused practice Culture Espoused practice5 33 24 217 Training leads to Training Value5 17 25 218 P.A. how it works Performance Appraisal How it works5 20 25 219 Training-effectiveness Training Value5 22 25 220 Training-content Training Example of content5 31 25 221 Training-impact Training Value5 34 25 222 Progression-how it

worksProgression Promotion how it

works5 36 25 223 Networks Networking5 36 25 224 Relationships Relationships5 1 26 225 Progression. Progression5 6 26 226 Change5 8 26 227 Training-progression Training Link to progression5 11 26 228 Training-information Training How it works5 23 26 229 Advised a graduate on

trainingTraining Her involvement

5 25 26 230 P.A. how it works Performance Appraisal How it works5 29 26 231 Training Training5 4 27 232 External networks Networking External networks5 11 27 233 Internal networks Networking Internal5 17 27 234 External networks Networking External networks5 28 27 235 Different person at

workPersonality/Trait

5 33 27 236 External networks Networking External networks5 5 28 237 Success Success What is it5 8 28 238 Women's intuition View of women5 9 28 239 Scared to admit uses

intuition not logicExperience of beingfemale

Conceals her way ofbeing

5 13 28 240 Disappointment5 18 28 241 Coping with

disappointmentPersonality/Trait

5 31 28 242 Advice given to her Progression External5 32 28 243 Strength Personality/Trait5 36 28 244 Luck Success External attribution



307

5 2 29 245 What she's like Personality/Trait5 13 29 246 What she's like Personality/Trait5 20 29 247 Slowing down? Aspiration Changed

5 20 29 248 Driven-like to reduce Personality/Trait5 22 29 249 Success reputation Success What it is5 26 29 250 Success as not

embedded intoidentity?

Success Identity

5 30 29 251 Modest about success Personality/Trait Success5 30 29 252 Personality Personality/Trait5 2 30 253 Example of other

successful womenPersonality/Trait Perception of others

5 12 30 254 Her view of successfulwomen


5 19 30 255 Luck which turned tosuccess

Success External attribution

5 21 30 256 External locus Personality/Trait External locus ofcontrol

5 23 30 257 Her view of other

women


5 27 30 258 Her view Admires differentwomen

5 28 30 259 Illness made friendview success differently

How women decide

5 28 30 260 Illness as catalyst forchange

How women decide

5 28 30 261 External locus ofcontrol

Personality/Trait External locus ofcontrol

5 1 31 262 View of other women-what they do

Perception of women

5 8 31 263 View of other women-external

Perception of women

5 8 31 264 View of other women-internal

Perception of women

5 10 31 265 Reflection Decision making Career5 11 31 266 View of other women-

relationships importantPerception of women

5 14 31 267 Realisation. Culture Actual practice5 16 31 268 False modesty5 18 31 2695 19 31 2705 28 31 271 Lack of success down

to people skillsRelationships

5 28 31 272 Relationships Relationships5 31 31 273 Her view of

consequence ofrelationship building


5 2 32 274 Network Networking5 4 32 275 Success Success What it is5 10 32 276 Rude=male Male traits Male traits5 10 32 277 Being nice is important Women's values5 13 32 278 Unsuccessful woman5 18 32 279 Relationships Relationships5 26 32 280 Friends are successful5 28 32 281 Lack of success down

to self doubtPersonality/Trait Success



308

5 30 32 282 Internal as important Networking Internal5 35 32 283 lack of success-down

to lack of hard workPersonality/Trait Success

5 24 33 284 Men and women notevaluated differently


5 15 34 285 Diversity Diversity How it works5 26 34 286 Diversity Diversity How it works5 32 34 287 Contradiction about

diversityDiversity Culture

5 33 34 288 Espoused practice Culture Espoused practice5 33 34 289 Diversity Diversity How it works5 37 34 290 Diversity defined as

encouraging differenceDiversity Her view

5 7 35 291 Personality as diversity Diversity Her view5 7 35 292 Diversity Diversity How it works5 29 35 293 Aspiration has changed Aspiration Changed

5 35 2945 6 36 295 Woman with baby

focusedWomen and children Work and family

5 12 36 296 Can combine work andfamily Work and family Positive about herorganisation5 18 36 297 Would like to see more

womenWomen

5 23 36 298 Emotion Emotion How it works5 27 36 299 Work personality Personality/Trait5 9 37 300 Emotion as loss of

controlEmotion controlled

5 10 37 301 Shameful of showingemotion

Emotion controlled

5 16 37 302 Worried about how judged showingemotion

Evaluation Emotion

5 19 37 303 Emotion and men Emotion Men

5 26 37 304 Men as controllingworkplace in terms ofemotion

Emotion controlled

5 31 37 305 Emotion as the mostnoticeable thing aboutmen and women


5 14 38 306 Culture differentdepartment


5 16 38 307 Function Profile info5 22 38 308 Minority an advantage Experience of being

femalePositive

5 4 39 309 Networks Networking5 21 39 310 Network-description Networking How it works

6 12 1 1 Training Training6 19 1 2 Change of culture Culture6 25 1 3 Old culture Culture-past6 30 1 4 Children Work and family6 32 1 5 Children in old culture Work and family Past culture6 35 1 6 How its changed Culture-past6 3 2 7 How it was Culture-past6 6 2 8 Children and effects Work and family



309

6 20 2 9 Impressionmanagement


6 23 2 10 Missed work Motivation Women at work6 29 2 11 Carried on with children Work and family How she handled it6 33 2 12 Work-self esteem Personality/Trait6 35 2 13 Missed money Motivation6 2 3 14 Work with children Work and family6 15 3 15 Networked to stay in

the loopNetworking How it worked

6 18 3 16 Lacked courage to takerole after being away

Personality/Trait Confidence-lack of

6 33 3 17 Kept up with things How she's changed6 33 3 18 Reinvented herself Personal change6 35 3 19 Known current boss for

yearsRelationships Example

6 36 3 20 Connection Relationships Her view ofrelationships

6 13 4 21 No P.A. 13 years Performance Appraisal Experience of pa6 16 4 22 Feelings on P.A. Performance Appraisal Experience of pa6 18 4 23 PA system has merit if

it worked properly

Performance Appraisal Ideal

6 21 4 24 How PA works Performance Appraisal How it works6 25 4 25 Doubts process of PA Performance Appraisal Experience6 31 4 26 PA process-how it

worksPerformance Appraisal How it works

6 8 5 27 One system-differentcultures


6 11 5 28 PA process-how itworks


6 16 5 29 Feeling on PA process Performance Appraisal Experience of pa6 19 5 30 Experience of PA

processPerformance Appraisal Experience of pa

6 23 5 31 Espoused v actual Culture Espoused practice6 27 5 32 PA not effective at

managing peoplePerformance Appraisal How it works

6 32 5 33 Experience of PAprocess


6 2 6 34 PA not used effectively Performance Appraisal How it works6 12 6 35 Organisational context Organisation6 14 6 36 Discrimination

acknowledgedExperience of beingfemale

Awareness of gender

6 15 6 37 Denial-knows not givenopps but deniesdiscrimination

Culture Denied

6 18 6 38 Why women not givenopps


Her view

6 18 6 39 Grateful? Experience of beingfemale

Positive

6 20 6 40 Women not managedup


6 24 6 41 Lack of opps in otherbanks


Other banks

6 27 6 42 Women not given opps View of women Progression6 31 6 43 Buzz words6 35 6 44 Lack of process to

develop womenDiversity Gender

6 1 7 45 Success Success What it is



310

6 8 7 46 Espoused v actual Culture Espoused practice6 12 7 47 Mother as salient factor Experience of being How it works6 13 7 48 Stereotyped because

of childrenExperience of beingfemale

Work and family

6 14 7 49 Not seen as a leaderbecause of children


How it works

6 21 7 50 Wants to do more Aspiration Has expanded

6 23 7 51 Wants recognition thatshe can do more


Not receivingrecognition

6 24 7 52 Appraisal not linked Performance Appraisal How it works6 27 7 53 Grateful? Experience of being

femalePositive

6 29 7 54 Wants to do more Aspiration Has expanded

6 30 7 55 Luck Success External attribution6 3 8 56 T&D and link with PA Performance Appraisal How it works6 5 8 57 T&D how it works T&D6 10 8 58 T&D quality T&D6 16 8 59 Process of promotion Progression Actual

6 18 8 60 Talent management-actual v espoused Actual practice Espoused nature of

6 20 8 61 Hopeful of some Progression to top6 22 8 62 T&D how it happens T&D6 24 8 63 T&D content Training Example of content6 28 8 64 PA and T&D no link Performance Appraisal How it works6 1 9 65 Poor rating means

you're outPerformance Appraisal How it works

6 4 9 66 No improvement forlow performers


6 9 9 67 Leadership Competency6 20 9 68 Senior women profile Experience of being

female6 22 9 69 Above is stereotyped Evaluation Men and women6 27 9 70 Children-effects of Work and family6 32 9 71 Denial. Culture Denied6 33 9 72 Few senior women Workforce6 35 9 73 Senior women with

children behave as ifthey don‘t

Work and family

6 1 10 74 Childcaresubcontracted


6 2 10 75 Senior women Women6 2 10 76 Flexible working Work and family6 9 10 77 Networks-how they

workNetworking How it works

6 9 10 78 Networks-informal Networking Informal

6 15 10 79 Purpose of network Networking Purpose6 20 10 80 Networks-content Networking How it works6 26 10 81 Network development

opportunityNetworking How it works

6 28 10 82 Network-believes in it Networking6 29 10 83 Network purpose Networking Purpose6 33 10 84 Network-no power

baseNetworking How it works

6 34 10 85 Network-example Networking How it works



311

6 36 10 86 Network-as navigatingway round


6 1 11 87 Network-external Networking External networks6 4 11 88 External-value is good

for outside workNetworking External networks

6 7 11 89 Connecting-value of Relationships Her view ofrelationships

6 8 11 90 Networking Networking6 8 11 91 Relationships Relationships6 9 11 92 External-value of Networking External networks6 12 11 93 External networking-

more useful laterNetworking External networks

6 13 11 94 Relationships-importantto achievement


6 16 11 95 Helping others Personality/Trait6 20 11 96 Value of connections Relationships Her view of

relationships6 20 11 97 Relationships Relationships6 25 11 98 Modest about success Personality/Trait Success6 27 11 99 Success factors Success Factors

6 31 11 100 Success Success What it is6 33 11 101 Personality Personality/Trait6 1 12 102 Uses women traits to

get what she wantsExperience of beingfemale

Positive

6 2 12 103 Consequence of usingwomen charm


Positive

6 4 12 104 Advantage of being awoman


Positive

6 4 12 105 Personality Personality/Trait6 5 12 106 Minority an advantage Experience of being6 6 12 107 Being a woman gets

resultsExperience of beingfemale

Positive

6 7 12 108 How she operates Experience of beingfemale

6 14 12 109 Other successfulwomen traits

Personality/Trait

6 15 12 110 Other successfulwomen personality


6 18 12 111 Different traits neededfor different sectors

Personality/Trait What personality isneeded

6 19 12 112 Politics Culture Observation of culture6 28 12 113 Other women similar Personality/Trait Perception of others6 31 12 114 Entrepreneurs different Competencies6 1 13 115 Innovation not needed Culture. Competencies6 4 13 116 Creativity not needed Competencies6 8 13 117 Innovation not

encouragedCulture Competencies

6 8 13 118 Innovation not neededin banking

Culture. Competencies

6 9 13 119 Innovation as culture ofstereotyping?


6 14 13 120 No senior women inmanagement positions


6 17 13 121 Women leave if theydon‘t reach manager levels


Gender andprogression



312

6 21 13 122 Executives more men Men and women How the organisationworks

6 23 13 123 Not all men prosper Men and women How men operate6 26 13 124 Top alien environment Perception of top6 29 13 125 What its like at the top Perception of top6 33 13 126 On the shelf means

lower earningsSuccess (objective) Salary

6 34 13 1276 1 14 1286 15 14 129 Relationships Relationships6 20 14 130 Example of men and

women evaluationEvaluation Men and women

6 29 14 131 Actual culture Culture Enacted6 34 14 132 Mans world Culture Observation of culture6 35 14 133 Women never equal View of women Equality6 14 1346 1 15 135 Risks not taken on

womenExperience of beingfemale

Gender andprogression

6 1 15 136 Women dangerous View of women6 7 15 137 View that diversity can

make a difference

Diversity Ideal

6 9 15 138 Lack of support ofdiversity

Diversity Culture

6 12 15 139 Not about culturechange

Culture

6 14 15 140 Diversity Diversity How it works6 17 15 1416 33 15 142 Diversity needs support

from topDiversity Ideal

6 2 16 143 Diversity-no supportfrom top


6 5 16 144 Caring needs to belinked to business case

Culture Ideal

6 5 16 145 Diversity has beenmissold

Diversity Her view

6 18 16 146 Women not present inmost boards


6 26 16 147 Leaking pipelines ofwomen

Diversity Experience of beingfemale

6 26 16 148 Women's progress Personality/Trait6 31 16 149 Women not looked

afterView of women Progression

6 7 17 150 Diversity doesn‘t work Diversity Her view6 9 17 151 Lack of women at

board level isdevastating for women

Diversity Culture

6 13 17 152 Tokenistic to have onewoman


Her view

6 14 17 153 How it should workfrom the bottom up

Culture Idealism

6 28 17 154 Women's choicedefined

View of women Constrained

6 29 17 155 Acceptance and reality Culture Adapting6 17 1566 1 18 157 Women have to have

controlExperience of beingfemale

View of women



313

6 5 18 158 Women prevented fromachieving.


6 7 18 159 Men should behave bynot shouting

Men and women How men operate

6 11 18 160 Men scared of women Men and women Experience of beingfemale

6 15 18 161 how men talk to women Men and women How men operate

6 17 18 1626 20 18 163 Women more

emotionalView of women Emotion

6 21 18 164 Equates emotion topassion

Emotion Nature of

6 23 18 1656 27 18 166 She got emotional Emotion Her experience6 27 18 1676 36 18 168 Men scared of women's

emotionsMen and women Emotion

6 1 19 1696 6 19 1706 12 19 171

6 19 19 172 Men and women judged differently inemotional terms


6 21 19 173 Women and emotion Emotion How it works6 29 19 1747 10 1 1 Current function Function7 37 1 2 Overseas assignment

early onDevelopment Nature of

7 42 1 3 Overseas assignmentearly


7 11 2 4 Small company wasfun

Past experience Motivation

7 14 2 5 Small company shemissed the big scale

Past experience Motivation

7 25 2 6 Network Networking7 26 2 7 Current function was

good moveProgression Move

7 34 2 8 P.A. influence to dosomething


7 37 2 9 P.A. influence negative Performance Appraisal How it works7 41 2 10 Manager was

threatenedExperience of manager

7 1 3 11 Development involvedself-awareness tounderstand


7 2 3 12 She found out thinkingstyle important inrelationships

Relationships Benefit

7 6 3 13 People makeassumptions and thiscauses problem


7 10 3 14 People telling her whatto do

Experience of manager

7 13 3 15 Experience of manager Management7 17 3 16 Progression-due to

managerProgression Example of promotion



314

7 18 3 17 Moves have been selfdirected

Progress Self directed

7 23 3 18 Move. Progress7 31 3 19 How she thought about

moveProgression Decision making

7 45 3 20 P.A. useful Performance Appraisal How it works7 47 3 21 P.A. two kinds Performance Appraisal How it works7 1 4 22 Measuring

performance not goodPerformance Appraisal How it works

7 2 4 23 Focus important How she operates7 7 4 24 Different experience

but same result7 13 4 25 Poor experience of PA Performance Appraisal Experience of pa7 17 4 26 Poor experience of PA Performance Appraisal Experience of pa7 27 4 27 Bad experience of

managerManagement

7 36 4 28 Appraisal purpose Performance Appraisal How it works7 39 4 29 Opinion of appraisal Performance Appraisal How it works7 43 4 30 Espoused and actual

purpose of p.a.Performance Appraisal How it works

7 43 4 31 P.A. process changedbut of concern Performance Appraisal How it works

7 46 4 32 Mistrust of p.a. process Performance Appraisal How it works7 47 4 33 Feeling about p.a.

processPerformance Appraisal How it works

7 4 5 34 Different purpose ofp.a. depending oncircumstances at time


7 16 5 35 Feeling about p.a.process


7 18 5 36 Female style Diversity Gender7 22 5 37 Opinion about what

happens in a p.a.meeting


7 23 5 38 Naïve about whathappens in p.a. whenevidence differs

Performance appraisal Experience of pa

7 29 5 39 Contradiction re aboverelating to men andwomen

Men and women Culture

7 30 5 40 Outcome and style Performance Appraisal Ideal purpose7 32 5 41 Investment banking

macho styleCulture Observation of culture

7 34 5 42 Macho style inherent inp.a. feedback

Feedback. Performanceappraisal

7 36 5 43 Experience of globalreviews

Performance Appraisal Diversity

7 37 5 44 Different culture andtheir experience


7 37 5 45 Judging differentcultures an issue forglobal reviews

Global culture

7 41 5 46 P.a. process is on stylenot outcome


7 41 5 477 45 5 48



315

7 6 6 49 Progression hamperedby past lack ofconfidence

Progression Progressionhampered-self

7 10 6 50 Wants to be authentic Authenticity Desired7 11 6 51 She was affected by

trying to be machoAuthenticity Gender

7 14 6 52 Husband as support

with progression

Experience of being

female

Progression

7 15 6 53 Self development assupport for progression

Development Progression

7 18 6 54 Once awareness raisedused to advantage


7 20 6 55 Self awareness Personality/Trait7 27 6 56 Manager experience Experience of manager7 30 6 57 Development-self Development Proactive7 34 6 58 Self awareness Personality/Trait7 38 6 59 Realisation about self Self awareness Personality/Trait

7 5 7 60 Age Age7 6 7 61 Hard to change Personality/Trait

7 7 7 62 Early guidance wouldhave helped Development How it's changed

7 12 7 63 Progress-self anddifficult

Progression Progression selfdirected

7 19 7 64 Lack of support at top Diversity at top How it works7 21 7 65 Difficulty at top Culture culture at the top7 26 7 66 Would like mentoring Mentoring Desired7 37 7 67 Sees bigger role as

possibleAspiration Tentative

7 37 7 68 Using network to helpprogress

Networking Progression

7 38 7 69 Promotion down tomanager

Progression How it works-external

7 45 7 70 Putting herself in

position for another role


7 1 8 71 Putting herself inposition for another role


7 2 8 72 Using network to helpprogress

Networking Progression

7 5 8 73 Networking andconsequences


7 6 8 74 Women andcompetition


Competition

7 16 8 75 Being different anadvantage


Advantage

7 18 8 76 Energy in not fightingdifference

Authenticity Culture

7 19 8 77 Consequence of notfighting the difference

Culture Consequence ofaccepting

7 24 8 78 Type of person she is Personality/Trait7 28 8 79 Humanistic Authenticity7 31 8 80 Being different

unnerves people CultureCounter cultural

7 32 8 81 Challenging the culturebut difficult Culture

Counter cultural

7 32 8 82 Doing things differentlychanges



316

7 37 8 83 Learnt to use differenceto advantage

Learning Experience of beingfemale

7 39 8 84 Asserted herselfeventually

Personality/Trait What doesn't work

7 45 8 85 Assertiveness doesn‘talways work


7 48 8 86 Assertiveness doesn‘t

always work


7 9 9 87 Women seen asgodlike who havechildren


7 11 9 88 Women with childrenon pedestal


7 17 9 89 Women with nochildren not takenaccount of in flexibility


7 21 9 90 Flexibility doesn‘t applyto women withoutchildren

Work and family

7 23 9 91 Feelings aroundwomen who have

children

Work and family

7 25 9 92 Feels disadvantagedfor not having children

Work and family

7 28 9 93 Assumed to wantchildren


Assumptions made

7 31 9 94 Assumed to wantchildren


Assumptions made

7 43 9 95 Children salient factorin organisation

Work and family

7 44 9 96 Feels irritated rewomen with children

Her view of women

7 2 10 97 Senior women havechildcare


7 6 10 98 Life circumstances not

just having childrenimportant

Work and family Experience of being

female

7 19 10 99 Training varies Training How it works7 22 10 100 Training quota system Training How it works7 26 10 101 Little development of

senior peopleDevelopment Nature of

7 31 10 102 Training like a machine Training How it works7 35 10 103 Personality-success Personality/Trait Progression7 37 10 104 Tenacity-success Personality/Trait7 4 11 105 Successful Success What it is7 6 11 106 Women in other

sectors adopt amasculine style-

success

Authenticity Success

7 8 11 107 Women not allowed tobe themselves

View of women Authenticity

7 11 11 108 Yearning to beauthentic


7 13 11 109 Women personality View of women7 15 11 110 Women who work for

themselves moreauthentic

View of women Authenticity



317

7 19 11 111 Admires women whocan be themselves

Authenticity Admired in others

7 19 11 1127 27 11 113 Admires women who

don‘t look to others tomake things happen

7 38 11 114 Women's personalityand making thingshappen


7 41 11 115 Women in corporateworld pushes women tobe masculine

Authenticity Gender

7 44 11 116 Rules of the game Culture Politics7 3 12 117 Women being

inauthentic to get to thetop

Authenticity Prevented

7 6 12 118 Being authentic hasbeen a battle

Authenticity Prevented

7 14 12 119 Not making it-womenhad a realisation


7 18 12 120 Success Success7 20 12 121 Measure of success Success What it is7 23 12 122 Achieving to gain

thingsSuccess Objective

7 24 12 123 Recognition thatcapable women dropout of the game


7 27 12 124 Some women's view ofsuccess is different

Success Defined

7 29 12 125 Women learn to dosomething different


How women operate

7 37 12 126 Having childrenchanges priorities


Work and family

7 40 12 127 Success criteria Success What it is

7 6 13 128 Men and women samecriteria differentlyapplied


7 14 13 129 Organisation not unfair-denial

Espoused culture Status quo

7 20 13 130 Diversity-her view Diversity Her view7 27 13 131 Diversity takes a long

timeDiversity Ideal

7 30 13 1327 31 13 133 Gender is problematic Experience of being

femaleHow it works

7 35 13 134 Cant change thatwomen have children

Work and family

7 39 13 135 Women take time out View of women

7 44 13 136 People are judged Evaluation How it works7 1 14 137 Recognises the bias Paradox7 3 14 138 Racial diversity

addressedDiversity How it works

7 9 14 139 Military style of control Culture Men and women7 18 14 140 Diversity at top Diversity How it works7 23 14 141 Hiring in people's own

imageCulture Diversity



318

7 25 14 142 Acknowledges diversityis hard work

Diversity Reality

7 26 14 143 Benefit of diversityefforts

Diversity Her view

7 29 14 144 Can be disastrous if notmanaged well

Diversity Her view

7 37 14 145 Promote inclusive men Diversity How it works

7 38 14 1467 43 14 147 Denial Culture Denied7 1 15 148 Networking works on

the outsideNetworking External networks

7 5 15 149 Paradox-networking ishow you get ahead


7 13 15 150 Used to be emotional Emotion Changed7 17 15 151 Took things personally Emotion Her experience7 21 15 152 Marriage and financial

situation helped tochange

Success Context

7 24 15 153 People cant handletears

Emotion controlled

7 26 15 154 Men find tears difficult Emotion controlled7 27 15 155 Anger acceptable Emotion at work Men's emotions7 28 15 156 Recognises that both

are emotions andlosing control

Emotion controlled

7 33 15 157 Anger accepted inindustry

Emotion at work Men's emotions

7 35 15 158 Culture admired Culture7 37 15 159 Angry women are

termed emotionalEmotion at work Women and emotion

7 43 15 160 Women raising voiceunacceptable

View of women Controlled

7 48 15 161 Men accepted Culture Status7 48 15 162

7 6 16 163 Only women anadvantage


Positive

7 7 16 164 Being only woman islonely


Negative

7 12 16 165 Other womencompetition


Competition

7 19 16 166 Women don‘t talkopenly


Other women

7 29 31 167 Keeping status quoeasier

Status quo supported

8 26 1 1 Gave her a chance Experience of beingfemale

Men and women

8 12 2 2 Introduced new service What she does8 14 2 3 She was given a

chanceExperience of beingfemale

Other women

8 15 2 4 Was trusted Experience of beingfemale

Positive

8 18 2 5 Learnt a lot Learning8 1 3 6 Emphatic about lack of

P.A. linkPerformance Appraisal How it works

8 3 3 7 No P.A. at one bank Performance Appraisal How it works8 5 3 8 Development via

assignmentsDevelopment Nature of



319

8 6 3 9 Lack of feedbackmeant things weregoing well

Feedback. Nature of

8 7 3 10 Sporadic P.A. inanother role

Performance Appraisal Experience of pa inanother role.

8 8 3 11 PERFORMANCEAPPRAISAL involved a

chat


8 9 3 12 Espoused practice Culture Espoused practice8 9 3 13 Bank believes in P.A. Performance Appraisal Espoused rhetoric

about benefit of pa8 9 3 14 P.A. at top levels

irrelevantPerformance Appraisal How it works at the

top8 15 3 158 2 4 16 Goals she has set Personality/Trait8 7 4 17 No external influence-

she has set goalsProgression How it works-self

8 18 4 18 has been givenchallenges


8 12 5 19 Greater good Humanistic Authentic8 15 5 20 Hard working Progression Personality/trait8 16 5 21 Still in line with

organisation8 23 5 22 Driver8 24 5 23 Learning is a main

driverLearning Motivation

8 2 6 24 Motivation Motivation8 3 6 258 5 6 26 Learns by being put in

a deep endLearning How she learns

8 11 6 27 Guidance but took herown meaning

Personality/Trait Self directed

8 14 6 28 Authentic Authenticity8 18 6 29 Does not emulate male

way of doing things

Authenticity Enabled by not

emulating masculinetraits8 20 6 30 Authentic Authenticity8 22 6 31 Not had ideas of next

moveProgression Career

8 1 7 32 Does not fit the mould Personality/Trait8 4 7 33 Distance has been an

advantage8 13 7 34 Husband as support Experience of being

femaleProgression

8 3 8 35 P.A. experience Performance Appraisal Experience of pa8 12 8 36 Conversation between

men and womenMen and women Difference between

men and women8 14 8 37 Women and men act

differently

Men and women Difference between

men and women8 18 8 38 Appraisee has the

influencePerformance Appraisal How it works

8 1 9 39 Thought about whatshe was doing

Decision making Career

8 9 9 40 Loyal Personality/Trait8 10 9 41 Human Loyal Progression8 12 9 42 Not ambitious in the

traditional sensePersonality/Trait Aspiration



320

8 17 9 43 Authentic Authenticity8 24 9 44 People used macho

style to get their wayAuthenticity Gender

8 6 10 45 Uses intellect to winarguments

How she operates Influencing

8 11 10 46 ignores dominance byusing different

approach

Authenticity Progression

8 14 10 47 Learned from machobehaviour

Diversity Experience of beingfemale

8 22 10 48 Desire to learn evenfrom someoneincompetent

Learning

8 22 10 49 Learning Learning8 8 11 50 Children Work and family8 10 11 51 Did not take maternity

leaveWork and family Experience of being

female8 13 11 52 Has always had

childcareWork and family External support

8 17 11 53 Advises her juniors toinvest in childcare

Children Childcare

8 21 11 54 Childcare as aninvestment

Work and family

8 4 12 55 Women withoutchildren different


8 13 12 56 Having children Experience of beingmanager

Work and family

8 10 13 57 Culture Culture Observation of culture8 11 13 58 Culture Culture Observation of culture8 16 13 59 How she operates Experience of being

female8 20 13 60 Culture Culture Observation of culture8 25 13 61 Culture Culture Observation of culture8 1 14 62 Culture as profit but

also caring culture


8 14 14 63 Strategic How she operates8 17 14 64 Culture as caring Culture Observation of culture8 4 15 65 Believes in

development but hadlittle herself


8 6 15 66 How she developed Development Progression8 8 15 67 Team development Development Nature of8 8 15 68 Team building Development Nature of8 15 15 69 Learning has been on

the jobLearning Her experience of

learning8 22 15 70 Asks questions Personality/Trait8 24 15 71 Has learned by asking

questionsLearning Progression

8 1 16 72 Operating style How she operates8 8 16 73 Guidance.


8 1 17 74 External networking Networking External networks8 2 17 75 Networking is important Networking Important8 3 17 76 Networking. Networking8 10 17 77 Why successful Success8 15 17 78 Success linked to

giving people what theySuccess Relationships



321

need

8 23 17 79 Women she knows View of women8 1 18 80 Describes herself as

entrepreneurialPersonality/Trait

8 4 18 81 Different skills inentrepreneurs

Competencies

8 8 18 82 Successful women inother sectors

Success Other sector

8 10 18 83 Other-centred Personality/Trait8 22 18 84 Knows lots of

successful women insmaller organisations

Women in otherorganisations

8 5 19 85 Women who give up View of women Progression8 10 19 86 Women who give up

who have had potentialView of women Progression

8 12 19 87 Need ability to seeyourself doingsomething new


8 17 19 88 Hard work Progression Personality/trait

8 19 19 89 Some women don’

tput in the hours Women

8 1 20 90 Diversity makes somedifference


8 16 20 91 Only woman asinspiring


Other women

8 18 20 92 Having role modelshelps


8 20 20 93 Diversity providesopportunities for peopleto be role models

Diversity Her view

8 22 20 94 Helps people to seesomeone like them

Progression Experience of beingfemale

8 26 20 95 Diversity benefits Diversity Her view

8 1 21 96 Diversity andawareness Diversity Her view

8 4 21 97 Observing otherwomen help with selfawareness


8 13 21 98 Diversity training Diversity How it works8 17 21 99 Diversity training alters

people's awarenessand sensitivity

Diversity Her view

8 1 22 100 Doesn’t think aboutgender

Gender

8 3 22 101 Focus on doing the job How she operates8 12 22 102 Women need to feel

they add valueView of women

8 15 22 103 Lack of gender comesfrom the top

Diversity Consequence of lackof

8 16 22 104 One woman is notenough

Diversity Her view

8 22 22 105 Emotion Emotion How it works8 23 22 106 Reflective Decision making8 1 23 107 Emotion Emotion How it works8 5 23 108 Emotion Emotion How it works



322

8 12 23 109 Assumptions aboutmen and women

Men and women Assumptions aboutmen and women

8 12 23 110 Evaluation of men andwomen


8 19 23 111 Women vieweddifferently than men fordoing same thing

View of women Men and women

8 22 23 112 Reviews done on menand women to ensurefairness


8 25 23 113 Women describednegatively in relation toage


How it works

8 2 24 114 Women viewednegatively


8 4 24 115 Women viewed interms of what theyhave lost


8 8 24 116 Raised awareness ofhow she knows orthinks about how

women are viewed

Men and women Awareness raised

8 12 24 117 Men angry Emotion Men's emotions8 15 24 118 Freedom? Men and women8 15 24 119 Women control their

emotionsView of women Emotion

8 22 24 120 Emotion and link tosector

Emotion Culture

8 24 24 121 Banks are aboutcustomers

Organisationl objective

8 1 25 122 So banks do tradeemotion

Emotion Organisation purpose

8 3 25 123 Female values Diversity Her view8 7 25 124 Customers is about

people who haveemotions. Organisationl objective



323

Appendix G

CIPD Website, search for "bias".

Full search results Handshakes could lead to 'religious bias' cases, employers told

Job interviewers should not necessarily expect all job interviewees to shake hands as it could causeoffence. Insisting on a handshake could leave the...

Press releasePublished: 02 July 2003Home

Recent cases - Labour Court decisions and recommendationsM ember resourceA summary of selected recent Irish Labour Court decisions and recommendations compiled by CIPDstaff.NewsUpdated: 06 May 2010Home

Recent cases - Equality Tribunal (Ireland)M ember resourceA summary of recent Irish Equality Tribunal cases compiled by CIPD staff.NewsUpdated: 21 April 2010Home

Employment law: key differences between Northern Ireland and Great BritainM ember resourceProvides an introductory review of the key differences in employment law between Northern Irelandand Great Britain. Includes a table comparing principal legislation and a list of relevant NorthernIreland codes of practice.Members factsheetUpdated: November 2009Home

News from government - Department of the Taoiseach - Ireland

http://www.cipd.co.uk/pressoffice/_articles/02072003085445.htm?IsSrchRes=1

http://www.cipd.co.uk/

http://www.cipd.co.uk/branch/ireland/emplawirlnd/_labourcourt.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/branch/ireland/emplawirlnd/_equalitytribunal.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/emplaw/general/employment-law-northern-ireland-great-britain.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/branch/Ireland/resources/_taoiseach.html?IsSrchRes=1

http://www.cipd.co.uk/branch/Ireland/resources/_taoiseach.html?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/emplaw/general/employment-law-northern-ireland-great-britain.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/branch/ireland/emplawirlnd/_equalitytribunal.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/branch/ireland/emplawirlnd/_labourcourt.htm?IsSrchRes=1





324

M ember resourceA summary of the latest news from the Department of the Taoiseach, Brian Cowen.NewsUpdated: 30 April 2010Home

Consistency in disciplinary proceduresI am involved in a debate at work with regards to consistency and lack of bias conducting investigative

interviews and any subsequent disciplinary hearings. Is it best practice to use the same interviewerthroughout, in order to strive for consistenc...Online discussionUpdated: 10 September 2006Home

Managing DiversityAs an HR specialit, what kind of business case would u bring up to convince management aboutmanaging diversity?Most people look at diversity as having people from different background, sex,age and so on within an organisation as being diverse set u...Online discussionUpdated: 21 February 2006Home

Sex discrimination, sexual orientation, gender reassignment and employmentGives a brief overview of the law, suggests good employment practices and includes the CIPDviewpoint.

FactsheetUpdated: October 2009Home

Interview candidates A-Z or random listingI read somewhere (?) that it is good practice to list interview candidates in random order rather thanalphabetically by surname.The reason given was that candidates with surnames that fall at the latterend of the alphabet are usually interviewed la...Online discussionUpdated: 23 July 2007Home

New momentum on equal pay presents challenge for UK organisationsSpeaking at a Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) event yesterday, equal payexpert, David Shonfield said: 'Equal pay has become a...Press releasePublished: 21 June 2002Home

Equal pay overviewIntroduces the legislation and gives recommendations on good practice. Includes the CIPD viewpoint.Author: SORET NickFactsheetUpdated: January 2010Home

No titleOnline discussionHome

Performance Management and AppraisalPacked with practical techniques and easy-to-use exercises, handouts and facilitators' notes, thistoolkit provides an effective way to train your managers efficiently and effectively.Author: Terry GillenToolkitBook published: February 2007

Home Ex-Forces discrimination?

I am interested to know peoples' views on the recruitment of ex-forces personnel into civilian jobs. Iam concerned that there might be an element of bias against such potential recruits in favour ofcandidates who have worked in a commercial and civ...Online discussionUpdated: 04 October 2006Home

Bullying in the workplaceI have a situation where 3 employees are claiming that they are being bullied by 4 other employees.


http://www.cipd.co.uk/community/subjects/subject/discussion.aspx?PostID=51504&IsSrchRes=1




http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/dvsequl/sexdisc/sexdiscrimination.htm?IsSrchRes=1






http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/dvsequl/equpay/eqpay.htm?IsSrchRes=1




http://www.cipd.co.uk/Bookstore/_catalogue/HRPractice/184398170X.htm?IsSrchRes=1









http://www.cipd.co.uk/Bookstore/_catalogue/HRPractice/184398170X.htm?IsSrchRes=1




http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/dvsequl/equpay/eqpay.htm?IsSrchRes=1






http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/dvsequl/sexdisc/sexdiscrimination.htm?IsSrchRes=1








325

Following an investigation into this claim the 4 employees also claimed they were being bullied by the3 employees originally making the complaint. ...Online discussionUpdated: 27 October 2005Home

Religious and political activitiesI am putting together our employee handbook. We currently have a statement in it which

says...Although we have no political or religious bias, we are not prepared to allow any political orreligious activities on our premises.Is this breaching the re...Online discussionUpdated: 08 June 2005Home

A framework for achievementDetails of the CIPD policy response to the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority consultation.CIPD comments on government proposalsPublished: 01 March 2005Home

Equal pay figures show there is still room for improvementMore needs to be done to explain to employers why carrying out equal pay audits makes goodbusiness sense, according to Dianah Worman, Diversity Adviser...Press releasePublished: 08 February 2005Home

Removing academic achievement from MCIPD listingsToday I was told that a policy decision was taken 'earlier this year' to remove all academicqualifications from member listings/records without disucssion with us. However, CIPD is keeping anote of all awards by the Queen, Justice of the Peace and...Online discussionUpdated: 01 June 2004Home

Interview notesI would be interested to know about best practice regarding interview notes. In my company there iscurrently no set format for interview notes and we are looking into setting up a standard form, whichenables us to show that our selection processes ...Online discussionUpdated: 30 August 2004Home

Full search results Diversity: an overview

Looks at diversity, its development and how it differs from equal opportunities. Outlines the businesscase for diversity and suggests ways to manage it. Includes the CIPD viewpoint.Author: CANNELL MikeFactsheetUpdated: February 2010Home

Coursework vs exams - time to change train?An article in the current (26 July) People Management (p9) questions the value of coursework as aresult of the internet - the latter allows students/learners the opportunity to download rafts of materialwithout always acknowledging the source. To s...Online discussionUpdated: 02 August 2007Home

Employee RepresentationHello I am about the start my management report for the final stage of the CIPD. I am looking atemployee representation as I am currently employed in an area where unions are the sole form ofconsultation.Does anyone have any experience of methods ...Online discussionUpdated: 01 June 2005Home

Performance management: an overviewConsiders the performance management process, how it works and outlines the tools it uses. Includesthe CIPD viewpoint.Author: CANNELL Mike




http://www.cipd.co.uk/about/_framework_achievement.htm?IsSrchRes=1








http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/dvsequl/general/divover.htm?IsSrchRes=1






http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/perfmangmt/general/perfman.htm?IsSrchRes=1

http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/perfmangmt/general/perfman.htm?IsSrchRes=1






http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/dvsequl/general/divover.htm?IsSrchRes=1








http://www.cipd.co.uk/about/_framework_achievement.htm?IsSrchRes=1






326

FactsheetUpdated: February 2010Home

Race, religion and employmentGives an overview of the legal position, suggestions for good employment practices and the CIPDviewpoint.FactsheetUpdated: October 2009

Home No title

Online discussionHome

DiversityDetails of CIPD research into the latest thinking and practice on diversity issues.Research detailsUpdated: September 2007Home

Employee of the MonthHi All, We are trying to implement an 'Employee of the Month' scheme. Our General Manager isinsisting that we have a whole motivational drive and really campaign the process.Does anybody haveany experience of this, specifically on what types and am...Online discussionUpdated: 30 August 2006

Home Retracting the offer of a second interview

We offered three people second interviews for a post. Two were interviewed for a second time (andhave since been told they were not successful) the third was unviable for a week at the time we madecontact to arrange the second interview. In the m...Online discussionUpdated: 03 May 2006Home

Changing contract back from custom practice to that on the contractMy employees are all on a contract that states they will work rotating shifts. However, for the last 2years most have worked static shifts. I want to move them all back on to rotating shifts. Can someoneadvise on whether I need to give 2 weeks n...Online discussionUpdated: 09 September 2004Home

Page 4 of 9 << Previous page : Next page >>Full search results

Tackling age discriminationHi everyone,Organisations that fail to tackle age discrimination will be at a disadvantage in therecruitment and retention of talented employees, and also from October 2006, liable to discriminatoryclaims on the basis of age. It would be interestin...Online discussionUpdated: 23 August 2004Home

Too young at 35, too old at 40 - ageism in the British workplaceAgeism is so rife in the British workplace that people have only five years in their entire working lifeduring which they are unlikely to be judged too...Press release

Published: 05 January 2004Home

Pay progressionSummarises different types of pay progression arrangements, the extent to which they operate, andassesses trends. Includes the CIPD viewpoint.Author: EGAN JanetFactsheetUpdated: March 2010Home

Selection interviewingConsiders the role of interviews in the selection process. Outlines the forms interviews can take, types


http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/dvsequl/relgdisc/Racereligemplmnt.htm?IsSrchRes=1




http://www.cipd.co.uk/research/_divarw.htm?IsSrchRes=1








http://www.cipd.co.uk/search/default.aspx?q=bias&g=0&c=*&l=cipd.co.uk&ps=10&pn=2&r=0&f=qck






http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/pay/general/pay-progression.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/recruitmen/selectn/selnintvg.htm?IsSrchRes=1

http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/recruitmen/selectn/selnintvg.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/pay/general/pay-progression.htm?IsSrchRes=1














http://www.cipd.co.uk/research/_divarw.htm?IsSrchRes=1




http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/dvsequl/relgdisc/Racereligemplmnt.htm?IsSrchRes=1




327

of questions to ask and offers tips for good practice. Includes the CIPD viewpoint.FactsheetUpdated: February 2010Home

Pay levels: market pricingExplains 'market rate' in relation to pay. Discusses pay policy, what constitutes pay and sets outapproaches to market pricing.Author: PALMER SteveFactsheetUpdated: February 2010Home

ReferencesLooks at how to manage the risks in giving and providing references, and the key legal points.Includes the CIPD viewpoint.FactsheetUpdated: January 2010Home

Investors in PeopleA summary of Investors in People (IIP) covering the Standard, the assessment and recognitionprocess, and the benefits. Includes the CIPD viewpoint. and our approach to organisational capability.FactsheetUpdated: December 2009Home

Employing people with criminal records: risk assessmentProvides guidance on how to undertake a risk assessment when deciding whether or not to recruitsomeone with a criminal record.FactsheetUpdated: March 2009Home

Selection Interviewing SkillsThis DVD will equip anyone involved with selection interviewing to prepare for, conduct and assessinterviews professionally and incisively.Author: Terry GillenDVDPublished: 01 March 2009Home

CIPD Ireland Law Conference Report - Job cuts leading to 'survivor guilt' inworkplacesThousands of people at work are becoming psychological victims of soaring unemployment andwidespread job the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) annual employment lawconference in Dublin was told.Press releasePublished: 24 February 2009

Full search results Latest official unemployment figures fall just short of 2 million but quarterly leap in

redundancies signals 3 million jobless on the wayOfficial labour market figures published earlier today by the Office for National Statistics (ONS)surprisingly show that UK unemployment didn t top the...Press releasePublished: 11 February 2009Home

RewardDetails of CIPD research into the latest thinking and practice on reward issues, including pensions andflexible benefits.Research detailsUpdated: February 2008Home

Check – the rest are this


http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/pay/general/mrktpricing.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/recruitmen/selectn/references.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/lrnanddev/general/iip.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/dvsequl/exoffenders/crimrecra.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/Bookstore/_catalogue/Training/9781843982296.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/branch/ireland/_events/Eastern-event-23-02-09-Report.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/pressoffice/_articles/120209Responsetoons.htm?IsSrchRes=1



http://www.cipd.co.uk/research/_rwdtrfbp.htm?IsSrchRes=1



http://www.cipd.co.uk/research/_rwdtrfbp.htm?IsSrchRes=1







http://www.cipd.co.uk/Bookstore/_catalogue/Training/9781843982296.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/dvsequl/exoffenders/crimrecra.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/lrnanddev/general/iip.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/recruitmen/selectn/references.htm?IsSrchRes=1


http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/pay/general/mrktpricing.htm?IsSrchRes=1




328

REFERENCES (STUDY 1 AND 2 )



329

REFERENCES

Agars, M. D. (2004). Reconsidering the Impact of Gender Stereotypes on the

Advancement of Women in Organizations. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28.

Alcoff, L. (2008). Cultural Feminism vs. Poststructuralism: the identity crisis in feminist theory . Retrieved 9 February 2009 from

http://www.metamanda.com/blog/archives/2008/04/linda-alcoff-cultural-

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