Carbon

Graphite (left) and diamond (right), the two most well-knownallotropes of carbon

Spectral lines of carbon

General properties

Name, symbol carbon, C

Appearance graphite: blackdiamond: clear

Allotropes graphite, diamond

Pronunciation /ˈkɑrbən/KAR-bən

Carbon in the periodic table

–↑C↓Si

boron ← carbon → nitrogen

Atomic number (Z) 6

Group, block group 14 (carbon group), p-block

Period period 2

Element category polyatomic nonmetal, sometimesconsidered a metalloid

Standard atomicweight (Ar)

12.011[1] (12.0096–12.0116)[2]

Electronconfiguration

[He] 2s2 2p2

per shell 2, 4

Physical properties

Phase solid

Sublimation point 3915 K (3642 °C, 6588 °F)

Density near r.t. amorphous: 1.8–2.1 g/cm3[3]

graphite: 2.267 g/cm3

diamond: 3.515 g/cm3

Carbon, 6C

CarbonFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Carbon (from Latin: carbo "coal") is achemical element with symbol C andatomic number 6. On the Periodic table, itis the first (row 2) of six elements in column(group) 14, which have in common thecomposition of their outer electron shell. Itis nonmetallic and tetravalent—making fourelectrons available to form covalentchemical bonds. There are three naturallyoccurring isotopes, with 12C and 13C beingstable, while 14C is radioactive, decayingwith a half-life of about 5,730 years.[14]

Carbon is one of the few elements knownsince antiquity.[15]

Carbon is the 15th most abundant elementin the Earth's crust, and the fourth mostabundant element in the universe by massafter hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. It ispresent in all forms of carbon-based life,and in the human body carbon is thesecond most abundant element by mass(about 18.5%) after oxygen.[16] Thisabundance, together with the uniquediversity of organic compounds and theirunusual polymer-forming ability at thetemperatures commonly encountered onEarth, make this element the chemicalbasis of all known life.

The atoms of carbon can be bondedtogether in different ways: allotropes ofcarbon. The best known are graphite,diamond, and amorphous carbon.[17] Thephysical properties of carbon vary widelywith the allotropic form. For example,graphite is opaque and black, whilediamond is highly transparent. Graphite issoft enough to form a streak on paper(hence its name, from the Greek word"γράφω" which means "to write"), whilediamond is the hardest naturally-occurringmaterial known. Graphite is a very goodconductor, while diamond has a very lowelectrical conductivity. Under normalconditions, diamond, carbon nanotubes,and graphene have the highest thermalconductivities of all known materials. All

Carbon - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon

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Triple point 4600 K, 10,800 kPa[4][5]

Heat of fusion graphite: 117 kJ/mol

Molar heatcapacity

graphite: 8.517 J/(mol·K)diamond: 6.155 J/(mol·K)

Atomic properties

Oxidation states +4, +3,[6] +2, +1,[7] 0, −1, −2, −3, −4[8]

(a mildly acidic oxide)

Electronegativity Pauling scale: 2.55

Ionizationenergies

1st: 1086.5 kJ/mol2nd: 2352.6 kJ/mol3rd: 4620.5 kJ/mol(more)

Covalent radius sp3: 77 pmsp2: 73 pmsp: 69 pm

Van der Waalsradius

170 pm

Miscellanea

Crystal structure graphite: simple hexagonal(black)

Crystal structure diamond cubic

Speed of soundthin rod

diamond: 18,350 m/s (at 20 °C)

Thermalexpansion

diamond: 0.8 µm/(m·K) (at 25 °C)[9]

Thermalconductivity

graphite: 119–165 W/(m·K)diamond: 900–2300 W/(m·K)

Electricalresistivity

graphite: 7.837 µΩ·m[10]

Magnetic ordering diamagnetic[11]

Young's modulus diamond: 1050 GPa[9]

Shear modulus diamond: 478 GPa[9]

Bulk modulus diamond: 442 GPa[9]

Poisson ratio diamond: 0.1[9]

Mohs hardness graphite: 1–2diamond: 10

CAS Number 7440-44-0

History

Discovery Egyptians and Sumerians[12]

(3750 BCE)

Recognized as anelement by

Antoine Lavoisier[13] (1789)

Most stable isotopes of carbon

carbon allotropes are solids under normalconditions, with graphite being the mostthermodynamically stable form. They arechemically resistant and require hightemperature to react even with oxygen.

The most common oxidation state of carbonin inorganic compounds is +4, while +2 isfound in carbon monoxide and othertransition metal carbonyl complexes. Thelargest sources of inorganic carbon arelimestones, dolomites and carbon dioxide,but significant quantities occur in organicdeposits of coal, peat, oil and methaneclathrates. Carbon forms a vast number ofcompounds, more than any other element,with almost ten million compoundsdescribed to date,[18] which in turn are atiny fraction of such compounds that aretheoretically possible under standardconditions.

Contents1 Characteristics

1.1 Allotropes1.2 Occurrence1.3 Isotopes1.4 Formation in stars1.5 Carbon cycle

2 Compounds2.1 Organic compounds2.2 Inorganic compounds2.3 Organometallic

compounds3 History and etymology4 Production

4.1 Graphite4.2 Diamond

5 Applications5.1 Diamonds

6 Precautions7 Bonding to carbon8 See also9 References10 External links

CharacteristicsThe different forms or allotropes of carbon(see below) include one of the softestknown substances, graphite, and also the


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iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP11C syn 20 min β+ 0.96 11B12C 98.9% 12C is stable with 6 neutrons13C 1.1% 13C is stable with 7 neutrons14C trace 5730 y β− 0.156 14N

Theoretically predicted phasediagram of carbon

hardest

naturally occurring substance, diamond. Moreover, it has anaffinity for bonding with other small atoms, including other carbonatoms, and is capable of forming multiple stable covalent bondswith such atoms. As a result, carbon is known to form almost ten

million different compounds; the large majority of all chemical compounds.[18] Carbon also has thehighest sublimation point of all elements. At atmospheric pressure it has no melting point as its triplepoint is at 10.8 ± 0.2 MPa and 4,600 ± 300 K (~4,330 °C or 7,820 °F),[4][5] so it sublimes at about3,900 K.[19][20]

Carbon sublimes in a carbon arc which has a temperature of about 5,800 K (5,530 °C; 9,980 °F).Thus, irrespective of its allotropic form, carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than the highestmelting point metals such as tungsten or rhenium. Although thermodynamically prone to oxidation,carbon resists oxidation more effectively than elements such as iron and copper that are weakerreducing agents at room temperature.

Carbon compounds form the basis of all known life on Earth, and the carbon-nitrogen cycle providessome of the energy produced by the Sun and other stars. Although it forms an extraordinary varietyof compounds, most forms of carbon are comparatively unreactive under normal conditions. Atstandard temperature and pressure, it resists all but the strongest oxidizers. It does not react withsulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, chlorine or any alkalis. At elevated temperatures carbon reacts withoxygen to form carbon oxides, and will reduce such metal oxides as iron oxide to the metal. Thisexothermic reaction is used in the iron and steel industry to control the carbon content of steel:

Fe3O4 + 4 C(s) → 3 Fe(s) + 4 CO(g)

with sulfur to form carbon disulfide and with steam in the coal-gas reaction:

C(s) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + H2(g).

Carbon combines with some metals at high temperatures to form metallic carbides, such as the ironcarbide cementite in steel, and tungsten carbide, widely used as an abrasive and for making hardtips for cutting tools.

As of 2009, graphene appears to be the strongest material ever tested.[21] However, the process ofseparating it from graphite will require some technological development before it is economicalenough to be used in industrial processes.[22]

The system of carbon allotropes spans a range of extremes:

Graphite is one of the softest materials known.Synthetic nanocrystalline diamond is the hardestmaterial known.[23]

Graphite is a very good lubricant, displayingsuperlubricity.[24] Diamond is the ultimate abrasive.


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A large sample of glassy carbon.

Graphite is a conductor of electricity.[25]Diamond is an excellent electrical insulator,[26]

and has the highest breakdown electric field ofany known material.

Some forms of graphite are used for thermalinsulation (i.e. firebreaks and heat shields), butsome other forms are good thermal conductors.

Diamond is the best known naturally occurringthermal conductor

Graphite is opaque. Diamond is highly transparent.

Graphite crystallizes in the hexagonal system.[27] Diamond crystallizes in the cubic system.

Amorphous carbon is completely isotropic. Carbon nanotubes are among the mostanisotropic materials ever produced.

Allotropes

Atomic carbon is a very short-lived species and, therefore, carbon is stabilized in various multi-atomicstructures with different molecular configurations called allotropes. The three relatively well-knownallotropes of carbon are amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond. Once considered exotic,fullerenes are nowadays commonly synthesized and used in research; they include buckyballs,[28][29]

carbon nanotubes,[30] carbon nanobuds[31] and nanofibers.[32][33] Several other exotic allotropeshave also been discovered, such as lonsdaleite,[34] glassy carbon,[35] carbon nanofoam[36] and linearacetylenic carbon (carbyne).[37]

The amorphous form is an assortment of carbon atoms in anon-crystalline, irregular, glassy state, which is essentiallygraphite but not held in a crystalline macrostructure. It is presentas a powder, and is the main constituent of substances such ascharcoal, lampblack (soot) and activated carbon. At normalpressures carbon takes the form of graphite, in which each atomis bonded trigonally to three others in a plane composed of fusedhexagonal rings, just like those in aromatic hydrocarbons.[38] Theresulting network is 2-dimensional, and the resulting flat sheetsare stacked and loosely bonded through weak van der Waalsforces. This gives graphite its softness and its cleaving properties(the sheets slip easily past one another). Because of thedelocalization of one of the outer electrons of each atom to form a

π-cloud, graphite conducts electricity, but only in the plane of each covalently bonded sheet. Thisresults in a lower bulk electrical conductivity for carbon than for most metals. The delocalization alsoaccounts for the energetic stability of graphite over diamond at room temperature.

At very high pressures carbon forms the more compact allotrope diamond, having nearly twice thedensity of graphite. Here, each atom is bonded tetrahedrally to four others, thus making a3-dimensional network of puckered six-membered rings of atoms. Diamond has the same cubicstructure as silicon and germanium and because of the strength of the carbon-carbon bonds, it is thehardest naturally occurring substance in terms of resistance to scratching. Contrary to the popularbelief that "diamonds are forever", they are in fact thermodynamically unstable under normalconditions and transform into graphite.[17] However, due to a high activation energy barrier, thetransition into graphite is so extremely slow at room temperature as to be unnoticeable. Under someconditions, carbon crystallizes as lonsdaleite. This form has a hexagonal crystal lattice where allatoms are covalently bonded. Therefore, all properties of lonsdaleite are close to those ofdiamond.[34]

Fullerenes have a graphite-like structure, but instead of purely hexagonal packing, they also contain


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Some allotropes of carbon: a) diamond; b)graphite; c) lonsdaleite; d–f) fullerenes (C60,C540, C70); g) amorphous carbon; h) carbonnanotube.

Graphite ore

pentagons (or even heptagons) of carbon atoms,which bend the sheet into spheres, ellipses orcylinders. The properties of fullerenes (split intobuckyballs, buckytubes and nanobuds) have not yetbeen fully analyzed and represent an intense area ofresearch in nanomaterials. The names "fullerene" and"buckyball" are given after Richard Buckminster Fuller,popularizer of geodesic domes, which resemble thestructure of fullerenes. The buckyballs are fairly largemolecules formed completely of carbon bondedtrigonally, forming spheroids (the best-known andsimplest is the soccerball-shaped C60

buckminsterfullerene).[28] Carbon nanotubes arestructurally similar to buckyballs, except that eachatom is bonded trigonally in a curved sheet that formsa hollow cylinder.[29][30] Nanobuds were first reportedin 2007 and are hybrid bucky tube/buckyball materials(buckyballs are covalently bonded to the outer wall ofa nanotube) that combine the properties of both in asingle structure.[31]

Of the other discovered allotropes, carbon nanofoam isa ferromagnetic allotrope discovered in 1997. Itconsists of a low-density cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a loose three-dimensional web, in which the atoms are bonded trigonally in six- and seven-membered rings. It isamong the lightest known solids, with a density of about 2 kg/m3.[39] Similarly, glassy carboncontains a high proportion of closed porosity,[35] but contrary to normal graphite, the graphitic layersare not stacked like pages in a book, but have a more random arrangement. Linear acetyleniccarbon[37] has the chemical structure[37] -(C:::C)n-. Carbon in this modification is linear with sp orbitalhybridization, and is a polymer with alternating single and triple bonds. This type of carbyne is ofconsiderable interest to nanotechnology as its Young's modulus is forty times that of the hardestknown material – diamond.[40]

Occurrence

Carbon is the fourth most abundant chemical element in theuniverse by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon isabundant in the Sun, stars, comets, and in the atmospheres ofmost planets.[41] Some meteorites contain microscopic diamondsthat were formed when the solar system was still a protoplanetarydisk. Microscopic diamonds may also be formed by the intensepressure and high temperature at the sites of meteoriteimpacts.[42]

In 2014 NASA announced a greatly upgraded database(http://www.astrochem.org/pahdb/) for tracking polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons (PAHs) in the universe. More than 20% of thecarbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs, complex compounds of carbon and hydrogenwithout oxygen.[43] These compounds figure in the PAH world hypothesis where they arehypothesized to have a role in abiogenesis and formation of life. PAHs seem to have been formed "acouple of billion years" after the Big Bang, are widespread throughout the universe, and areassociated with new stars and exoplanets.[41]


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http://www.astrochem.org/pahdb/

Raw diamond crystal.

"Present day" (1990s) sea surfacedissolved inorganic carbonconcentration (from the GLODAPclimatology)

It has been estimated that the solid earth as a whole contains 730ppm of carbon, with 2000 ppm in the core and 120 ppm in thecombined mantle and crust.[44] Since the mass of the earth is5.972 × 1024 kg, this would imply 4360 million gigatonnes ofcarbon. This is much more than the amounts in the oceans oratmosphere (below).

In combination with oxygen in carbon dioxide, carbon is found inthe Earth's atmosphere (approximately 810 gigatonnes of carbon)and dissolved in all water bodies (approximately36,000 gigatonnes of carbon). Around 1,900 gigatonnes of carbonare present in the biosphere. Hydrocarbons (such as coal,petroleum, and natural gas) contain carbon as well. Coal"reserves" (not "resources") amount to around 900 gigatonneswith perhaps 18 000 Gt of resources.[45] Oil reserves are around150 gigatonnes. Proven sources of natural gas are about175 1012 cubic metres (representing about 105 gigatonnescarbon), but it is estimated that there are also about 900 1012

cubic metres of "unconventional" gas such as shale gas,representing about 540 gigatonnes of carbon.[46] Carbon is alsolocked up as methane hydrates in polar regions and under theseas. Various estimates of the amount of carbon this representshave been made: 500 to 2500 Gt,[47] or 3000 Gt.[48] In the past,quantities of hydrocarbons were greater. According to one source,in the period from 1751 to 2008 about 347 gigatonnes of carbon were released as carbon dioxide tothe atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels.[49] However, another source puts the amount added tothe atmosphere for the period since 1750 at 879 Gt, and the total going to the atmosphere, sea, andland (such as peat bogs) at almost 2000 Gt.[50]

Carbon is a major component in very large masses of carbonate rock (limestone, dolomite, marbleand so on). Coal is the largest commercial source of mineral carbon, accounting for 4,000 gigatonnesor 80% of fossil carbon fuel.[51] It is also rich in carbon – for example, anthracite contains 92–98%.[52]

As for individual carbon allotropes, graphite is found in large quantities in the United States (mostly inNew York and Texas), Russia, Mexico, Greenland, and India. Natural diamonds occur in the rockkimberlite, found in ancient volcanic "necks", or "pipes". Most diamond deposits are in Africa, notablyin South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, the Republic of the Congo, and Sierra Leone. There are alsodeposits in Arkansas, Canada, the Russian Arctic, Brazil and in Northern and Western Australia.Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope. However,though diamonds are found naturally, about 30% of all industrial diamonds used in the U.S. are nowmade synthetically.

Carbon-14 is formed in upper layers of the troposphere and the stratosphere, at altitudes of 9–15 km,by a reaction that is precipitated by cosmic rays.[53] Thermal neutrons are produced that collide withthe nuclei of nitrogen-14, forming carbon-14 and a proton.

Carbon-rich asteroids are relatively preponderant in the outer parts of the asteroid belt in our solarsystem. These asteroids have not yet been directly sampled by scientists. The asteroids can be usedin hypothetical space-based carbon mining, which may be possible in the future, but is currentlytechnologically impossible.[54]

Isotopes


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Isotopes of carbon are atomic nuclei that contain six protons plus a number of neutrons (varying from2 to 16). Carbon has two stable, naturally occurring isotopes.[14] The isotope carbon-12 (12C) forms98.93% of the carbon on Earth, while carbon-13 (13C) forms the remaining 1.07%.[14] Theconcentration of 12C is further increased in biological materials because biochemical reactionsdiscriminate against 13C.[55] In 1961, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)adopted the isotope carbon-12 as the basis for atomic weights.[56] Identification of carbon in NMRexperiments is done with the isotope 13C.

Carbon-14 (14C) is a naturally occurring radioisotope which occurs in trace amounts on Earth of up to1 part per trillion (0.0000000001%), mostly confined to the atmosphere and superficial deposits,particularly of peat and other organic materials.[57] This isotope decays by 0.158 MeV β− emission.Because of its relatively short half-life of 5730 years, 14C is virtually absent in ancient rocks, but iscreated in the upper atmosphere (lower stratosphere and upper troposphere) by interaction ofnitrogen with cosmic rays.[58] The abundance of 14C in the atmosphere and in living organisms isalmost constant, but decreases predictably in their bodies after death. This principle is used inradiocarbon dating, invented in 1949, which has been used extensively to determine the age ofcarbonaceous materials with ages up to about 40,000 years.[59][60]

There are 15 known isotopes of carbon and the shortest-lived of these is 8C which decays throughproton emission and alpha decay and has a half-life of 1.98739x10−21 s.[61] The exotic 19C exhibits anuclear halo, which means its radius is appreciably larger than would be expected if the nucleuswere a sphere of constant density.[62]

Formation in stars

Formation of the carbon atomic nucleus requires a nearly simultaneous triple collision of alphaparticles (helium nuclei) within the core of a giant or supergiant star which is known as thetriple-alpha process, as the products of further nuclear fusion reactions of helium with hydrogen oranother helium nucleus produce lithium-5 and beryllium-8 respectively, both of which are highlyunstable and decay almost instantly back into smaller nuclei.[63] This happens in conditions oftemperatures over 100 megakelvin and helium concentration that the rapid expansion and cooling ofthe early universe prohibited, and therefore no significant carbon was created during the Big Bang.Instead, the interiors of stars in the horizontal branch transform three helium nuclei into carbon bymeans of this triple-alpha process.[64] In order to be available for formation of life as we know it, thiscarbon must then later be scattered into space as dust, in supernova explosions, as part of thematerial which later forms second, third-generation star systems which have planets accreted fromsuch dust.[41][65] The Solar System is one such third-generation star system. Another of the fusionmechanisms powering stars is the CNO cycle, in which carbon acts as a catalyst to allow the reactionto proceed.

Rotational transitions of various isotopic forms of carbon monoxide (for example, 12CO, 13CO, andC18O) are detectable in the submillimeter wavelength range, and are used in the study of newlyforming stars in molecular clouds.[66]

Carbon cycle

Under terrestrial conditions, conversion of one element to another is very rare. Therefore, the amountof carbon on Earth is effectively constant. Thus, processes that use carbon must obtain it somewhereand dispose of it somewhere else. The paths that carbon follows in the environment make up thecarbon cycle. For example, plants draw carbon dioxide out of their environment and use it to build


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Diagram of the carbon cycle. The blacknumbers indicate how much carbon is stored invarious reservoirs, in billions tonnes ("GtC"stands for gigatonnes of carbon; figures arecirca 2004). The purple numbers indicate howmuch carbon moves between reservoirs eachyear. The sediments, as defined in thisdiagram, do not include the ~70 million GtC ofcarbonate rock and kerogen.

Structural formula ofmethane, the simplestpossible organiccompound.

Correlation between the carbon cycle andformation of organic compounds. In plants,carbon dioxide formed by carbon fixation canjoin with water in photosynthesis (green) toform organic compounds, which can be usedand further converted by both plants andanimals.

biomass, as in carbon respiration or the Calvin cycle, aprocess of carbon fixation. Some of this biomass iseaten by animals, whereas some carbon is exhaled byanimals as carbon dioxide. The carbon cycle isconsiderably more complicated than this short loop; forexample, some carbon dioxide is dissolved in theoceans; dead plant or animal matter may becomepetroleum or coal, which can burn with the release ofcarbon, should bacteria not consume it.[67][68]

Compounds

Organic compounds

Carbon has the ability toform very long chains ofinterconnecting C-C bonds.This property is calledcatenation. Carbon-carbonbonds are strong, andstable. This property allowscarbon to form an almostinfinite number ofcompounds; in fact, there aremore known carbon-containing compounds thanall the compounds of theother chemical elementscombined except those of

hydrogen (because almost all organic compoundscontain hydrogen as well).

The simplest form of an organic molecule is thehydrocarbon—a large family of organic molecules thatare composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a chain ofcarbon atoms. Chain length, side chains andfunctional groups all affect the properties of organicmolecules.

Carbon occurs in all known organic life and is thebasis of organic chemistry. When united withhydrogen, it forms various hydrocarbons which areimportant to industry as refrigerants, lubricants,solvents, as chemical feedstock for the manufacture ofplastics and petrochemicals and as fossil fuels.

When combined with oxygen and hydrogen, carboncan form many groups of important biologicalcompounds including sugars, lignans, chitins,alcohols, fats, and aromatic esters, carotenoids andterpenes. With nitrogen it forms alkaloids, and with the addition of sulfur also it forms antibiotics,amino acids, and rubber products. With the addition of phosphorus to these other elements, it formsDNA and RNA, the chemical-code carriers of life, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the mostimportant energy-transfer molecule in all living cells.


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Inorganic compounds

Commonly carbon-containing compounds which are associated with minerals or which do not containhydrogen or fluorine, are treated separately from classical organic compounds; however the definitionis not rigid (see reference articles above). Among these are the simple oxides of carbon. The mostprominent oxide is carbon dioxide (CO2). This was once the principal constituent of thepaleoatmosphere, but is a minor component of the Earth's atmosphere today.[69] Dissolved in water, it

forms carbonic acid (H2CO3), but as most compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on asingle carbon it is unstable.[70] Through this intermediate, though, resonance-stabilized carbonate

ions are produced. Some important minerals are carbonates, notably calcite. Carbon disulfide (CS2)is similar.

The other common oxide is carbon monoxide (CO). It is formed by incomplete combustion, and is acolorless, odorless gas. The molecules each contain a triple bond and are fairly polar, resulting in atendency to bind permanently to hemoglobin molecules, displacing oxygen, which has a lowerbinding affinity.[71][72] Cyanide (CN−), has a similar structure, but behaves much like a halide ion(pseudohalogen). For example, it can form the nitride cyanogen molecule ((CN)2), similar to diatomic

halides. Other uncommon oxides are carbon suboxide (C3O2),[73] the unstable dicarbon monoxide(C2O),[74][75] carbon trioxide (CO3),[76][77] cyclopentanepentone (C5O5)[78] cyclohexanehexone(C6O6),[78] and mellitic anhydride (C12O9).

With reactive metals, such as tungsten, carbon forms either carbides (C4−), or acetylides (C2−2 ) to

form alloys with high melting points. These anions are also associated with methane and acetylene,both very weak acids. With an electronegativity of 2.5,[79] carbon prefers to form covalent bonds. Afew carbides are covalent lattices, like carborundum (SiC), which resembles diamond.

Organometallic compounds

Organometallic compounds by definition contain at least one carbon-metal bond. A wide range ofsuch compounds exist; major classes include simple alkyl-metal compounds (for example,tetraethyllead), η2-alkene compounds (for example, Zeise's salt), and η3-allyl compounds (forexample, allylpalladium chloride dimer); metallocenes containing cyclopentadienyl ligands (forexample, ferrocene); and transition metal carbene complexes. Many metal carbonyls exist (forexample, tetracarbonylnickel); some workers consider the carbon monoxide ligand to be purelyinorganic, and not organometallic.

While carbon is understood to exclusively form four bonds, an interesting compound containing anoctahedral hexacoordinated carbon atom has been reported. The cation of the compound is[(Ph3PAu)6C]2+. This phenomenon has been attributed to the aurophilicity of the gold ligands.[80]

History and etymology

The English name carbon comes from the Latin carbo for coal and charcoal,[81] whence also comesthe French charbon, meaning charcoal. In German, Dutch and Danish, the names for carbon areKohlenstoff, koolstof and kulstof respectively, all literally meaning coal-substance.

Carbon was discovered in prehistory and was known in the forms of soot and charcoal to the earliesthuman civilizations. Diamonds were known probably as early as 2500 BCE in China, while carbon inthe form of charcoal was made around Roman times by the same chemistry as it is today, by heatingwood in a pyramid covered with clay to exclude air.[82][83]


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Antoine Lavoisier in hisyouth Carl Wilhelm Scheele

In 1722, René Antoine Ferchault deRéaumur demonstrated that iron wastransformed into steel through theabsorption of some substance, now knownto be carbon.[84] In 1772, Antoine Lavoisiershowed that diamonds are a form of carbon;when he burned samples of charcoal anddiamond and found that neither producedany water and that both released the sameamount of carbon dioxide per gram. In1779,[85] Carl Wilhelm Scheele showed thatgraphite, which had been thought of as aform of lead, was instead identical with

charcoal but with a small admixture of iron, and that it gave "aerial acid" (his name for carbon dioxide)when oxidized with nitric acid.[86] In 1786, the French scientists Claude Louis Berthollet, GaspardMonge and C. A. Vandermonde confirmed that graphite was mostly carbon by oxidizing it in oxygenin much the same way Lavoisier had done with diamond.[87] Some iron again was left, which theFrench scientists thought was necessary to the graphite structure. However, in their publication theyproposed the name carbone (Latin carbonum) for the element in graphite which was given off as agas upon burning graphite. Antoine Lavoisier then listed carbon as an element in his 1789textbook.[88]

A new allotrope of carbon, fullerene, that was discovered in 1985[89] includes nanostructured formssuch as buckyballs and nanotubes.[28] Their discoverers – Robert Curl, Harold Kroto and RichardSmalley – received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1996.[90] The resulting renewed interest in newforms lead to the discovery of further exotic allotropes, including glassy carbon, and the realizationthat "amorphous carbon" is not strictly amorphous.[35] The developement of carbon technology wasvery slow, but by the late 1960s it gave a boost.

Production

Graphite

Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world, but the mostimportant sources economically are in China, India, Brazil and North Korea. Graphite deposits are ofmetamorphic origin, found in association with quartz, mica and feldspars in schists, gneisses andmetamorphosed sandstones and limestone as lenses or veins, sometimes of a meter or more inthickness. Deposits of graphite in Borrowdale, Cumberland, England were at first of sufficient sizeand purity that, until the 19th century, pencils were made simply by sawing blocks of natural graphiteinto strips before encasing the strips in wood. Today, smaller deposits of graphite are obtained bycrushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite out on water.[91]

There are three types of natural graphite—amorphous, flake or crystalline flake, and vein or lump.Amorphous graphite is the lowest quality and most abundant. Contrary to science, in industry"amorphous" refers to very small crystal size rather than complete lack of crystal structure.Amorphous is used for lower value graphite products and is the lowest priced graphite. Largeamorphous graphite deposits are found in China, Europe, Mexico and the United States. Flakegraphite is less common and of higher quality than amorphous; it occurs as separate plates thatcrystallized in metamorphic rock. Flake graphite can be four times the price of amorphous. Goodquality flakes can be processed into expandable graphite for many uses, such as flame retardants.The foremost deposits are found in Austria, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany and Madagascar. Veinor lump graphite is the rarest, most valuable, and highest quality type of natural graphite. It occurs in


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Diamond output in 2005

veins along intrusive contacts in solid lumps, and it is only commercially mined in Sri Lanka.[91]

According to the USGS, world production of natural graphite was 1.1 million tonnes in 2010, to whichChina contributed 800,000 t, India 130,000 t, Brazil 76,000 t, North Korea 30,000 t and Canada25,000 t. No natural graphite was reported mined in the United States, but 118,000 t of syntheticgraphite with an estimated value of $998 million was produced in 2009.[91]

Diamond

The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number ofpowerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a smallnumber of locations around the world (see figure).

Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actualdiamonds. The ore is crushed, during which care has to be takenin order to prevent larger diamonds from being destroyed in thisprocess and subsequently the particles are sorted by density.Today, diamonds are located in the diamond-rich density fractionwith the help of X-ray fluorescence, after which the final sorting steps are done by hand. Before theuse of X-rays became commonplace, the separation was done with grease belts; diamonds have astronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore.[92]

Historically diamonds were known to be found only in alluvial deposits in southern India.[93] India ledthe world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the 9th centuryBCE[94] to the mid-18th century AD, but the commercial potential of these sources had beenexhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the firstnon-Indian diamonds were found in 1725.[95]

Diamond production of primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) only started in the 1870s afterthe discovery of the Diamond fields in South Africa. Production has increased over time and now anaccumulated total of 4.5 billion carats have been mined since that date.[96] About 20% of that amounthas been mined in the last 5 years alone, and during the last ten years 9 new mines have startedproduction while 4 more are waiting to be opened soon. Most of these mines are located in Canada,Zimbabwe, Angola, and one in Russia.[96]

In the United States, diamonds have been found in Arkansas, Colorado and Montana.[97][98] In 2004,a startling discovery of a microscopic diamond in the United States[99] led to the January 2008bulk-sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana.[100]

Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia, Botswana, Australia and theDemocratic Republic of Congo.[101] In 2005, Russia produced almost one-fifth of the global diamondoutput, reports the British Geological Survey. Australia has the richest diamantiferous pipe withproduction reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons (41 long tons; 46 short tons) per year in the1990s.[97] There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest Territories ofCanada, Siberia (mostly in Yakutia territory; for example, Mir pipe and Udachnaya pipe), Brazil, andin Northern and Western Australia.

ApplicationsCarbon is essential to all known living systems, and without it life as we know it could not exist (seealternative biochemistry). The major economic use of carbon other than food and wood is in the formof hydrocarbons, most notably the fossil fuel methane gas and crude oil (petroleum). Crude oil is


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Pencil leads for mechanicalpencils are made of graphite (oftenmixed with a clay or syntheticbinder).

Sticks of vine and compressedcharcoal.

A cloth of woven carbon fibres

Silicon carbide single crystal

The C60 fullerene in crystallineform

Tungsten carbide milling bits

used by the petrochemicalindustry to produce, amongstother things, gasoline andkerosene, through a distillationprocess, in refineries.Cellulose is a natural, carbon-containing polymer producedby plants in the form of cotton,linen, and hemp. Cellulose ismainly used for maintainingstructure in plants.Commercially valuable carbonpolymers of animal origininclude wool, cashmere andsilk. Plastics are made fromsynthetic carbon polymers,often with oxygen and nitrogenatoms included at regularintervals in the main polymerchain. The raw materials formany of these syntheticsubstances come from crudeoil.

The uses of carbon and itscompounds are extremelyvaried. It can form alloys withiron, of which the mostcommon is carbon steel.Graphite is combined withclays to form the 'lead' used inpencils used for writing anddrawing. It is also used as alubricant and a pigment, as amolding material in glassmanufacture, in electrodes fordry batteries and in electroplating and electroforming, in brushesfor electric motors and as a neutron moderator in nuclearreactors.

Charcoal is used as a drawing material in artwork, for grilling, and in many other uses including ironsmelting. Wood, coal and oil are used as fuel for production of energy and space heating. Gemquality diamond is used in jewelry, and industrial diamonds are used in drilling, cutting and polishingtools for machining metals and stone. Plastics are made from fossil hydrocarbons, and carbon fiber,made by pyrolysis of synthetic polyester fibers is used to reinforce plastics to form advanced,lightweight composite materials. Carbon fiber is made by pyrolysis of extruded and stretchedfilaments of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and other organic substances. The crystallographic structure andmechanical properties of the fiber depend on the type of starting material, and on the subsequentprocessing. Carbon fibers made from PAN have structure resembling narrow filaments of graphite,but thermal processing may re-order the structure into a continuous rolled sheet. The result is fiberswith higher specific tensile strength than steel.[102]

Carbon black is used as the black pigment in printing ink, artist's oil paint and water colours, carbonpaper, automotive finishes, India ink and laser printer toner. Carbon black is also used as a filler inrubber products such as tyres and in plastic compounds. Activated charcoal is used as an absorbent


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Worker at carbon black

and adsorbent in filter material in applications as diverse as gas masks, water purification and kitchenextractor hoods and in medicine to absorb toxins, poisons, or gases from the digestive system.Carbon is used in chemical reduction at high temperatures. Coke is used to reduce iron ore into iron.Case hardening of steel is achieved by heating finished steel components in carbon powder.Carbides of silicon, tungsten, boron and titanium, are among the hardest known materials, and areused as abrasives in cutting and grinding tools. Carbon compounds make up most of the materialsused in clothing, such as natural and synthetic textiles and leather, and almost all of the interiorsurfaces in the built environment other than glass, stone and metal.

Diamonds

The diamond industry can be broadly separated into two basically distinct categories: one dealingwith gem-grade diamonds and another for industrial-grade diamonds. While a large trade in bothtypes of diamonds exists, the two markets act in dramatically different ways.

A large trade in gem-grade diamonds exists. Unlike precious metals such as gold or platinum, gemdiamonds do not trade as a commodity: there is a substantial mark-up in the sale of diamonds, andthere is not a very active market for resale of diamonds.

The market for industrial-grade diamonds operates much differently from its gem-grade counterpart.Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity, making many of thegemological characteristics of diamond, including clarity and color, mostly irrelevant. This helpsexplain why 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 100 million carats or 20 tonnes annually),unsuitable for use as gemstones and known as bort, are destined for industrial use.[103] In addition tomined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after theirinvention in the 1950s; another 3 billion carats (600 tonnes) of synthetic diamond is producedannually for industrial use.[104] The dominant industrial use of diamond is in cutting, drilling, grinding,and polishing. Most uses of diamonds in these technologies do not require large diamonds; in fact,most diamonds that are gem-quality except for their small size, can find an industrial use. Diamondsare embedded in drill tips or saw blades, or ground into a powder for use in grinding and polishingapplications.[105] Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for highpressure experiments (see diamond anvil cell), high-performance bearings, and limited use inspecialized windows.[106][107] With the continuing advances being made in the production ofsynthetic diamonds, future applications are beginning to become feasible. Garnering muchexcitement is the possible use of diamond as a semiconductor suitable to build microchips from, orthe use of diamond as a heat sink in electronics.[108]

PrecautionsPure carbon has extremely low toxicity to humans and can be handledand even ingested safely in the form of graphite or charcoal. It isresistant to dissolution or chemical attack, even in the acidic contents ofthe digestive tract, for example. Consequently, once it enters into thebody's tissues it is likely to remain there indefinitely. Carbon black wasprobably one of the first pigments to be used for tattooing, and Ötzi theIceman was found to have carbon tattoos that survived during his life andfor 5200 years after his death.[109] However, inhalation of coal dust orsoot (carbon black) in large quantities can be dangerous, irritating lungtissues and causing the congestive lung disease coalworker'spneumoconiosis. Similarly, diamond dust used as an abrasive can doharm if ingested or inhaled. Microparticles of carbon are produced indiesel engine exhaust fumes, and may accumulate in the lungs.[110] Inthese examples, the harmful effects may result from contamination of the


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plant in Sunray, Texas(photo by John Vachon,1942)

carbon particles, with organic chemicals or heavy metals for example,rather than from the carbon itself.

Carbon generally has low toxicity to almost all life on Earth; however, tosome creatures it can still be toxic. For instance, carbon nanoparticlesare deadly to Drosophila.[111]

Carbon may also burn vigorously and brightly in the presence of air at high temperatures. Largeaccumulations of coal, which have remained inert for hundreds of millions of years in the absence ofoxygen, may spontaneously combust when exposed to air, for example in coal mine waste tips.

In nuclear applications where graphite is used as a neutron moderator, accumulation of Wignerenergy followed by a sudden, spontaneous release may occur. Annealing to at least 250 °C canrelease the energy safely, although in the Windscale fire the procedure went wrong, causing otherreactor materials to combust.

The great variety of carbon compounds include such lethal poisons as tetrodotoxin, the lectin ricinfrom seeds of the castor oil plant Ricinus communis, cyanide (CN−) and carbon monoxide; and suchessentials to life as glucose and protein.

Bonding to carbon

CH HeCLi CBe CB CC CN CO CF NeCNa CMg CAl CSi CP CS CCl CArCK CCa CSc CTi CV CCr CMn CFe CCo CNi CCu CZn CGa CGe CAs CSe CBr CKr

CRb CSr CY CZr CNb CMo CTc CRu CRh CPd CAg CCd CIn CSn CSb CTe CI CXeCCs CBa CHf CTa CW CRe COs CIr CPt CAu CHg CTl CPb CBi CPo CAt RnFr CRa Rf Db CSg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo

↓CLa CCe CPr CNd CPm CSm CEu CGd CTb CDy CHo CEr CTm CYb CLuAc CTh CPa CU CNp CPu CAm CCm CBk CCf CEs Fm Md No Lr

Chemical bonds to carbon

Core organic chemistry Many uses inchemistry

Academic research, but nowidespread use Bond unknown

See alsoCarbon chauvinismCarbon footprintLow-carbon economyTimeline of carbon nanotubes

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External linksCarbon (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003c1cj) on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now(http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/p003c1cj/In_Our_Time_Carbon))Carbon (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/006.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos(University of Nottingham)Carbon on Britannica (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-80956/carbon-group-element)Extensive Carbon page at asu.edu (http://invsee.asu.edu/nmodules/Carbonmod/everywhere.html)Electrochemical uses of carbon (http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/art-c01-carbon.htm)Carbon—Super Stuff. Animation with sound and interactive 3D-models.(http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2006/juni/1149432180.36)

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Categories: Carbon compounds Carbon Carbonate minerals Carbon forms Chemical elementsPolyatomic nonmetals Organic minerals Biology and pharmacology of chemical elementsReducing agents

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http://www.archive.org/details/turningmechanica02holtuoft

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases

http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003c1cj

http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/p003c1cj/In_Our_Time_Carbon

http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/006.htm

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-80956/carbon-group-element

http://invsee.asu.edu/nmodules/Carbonmod

http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/art-c01-carbon.htm

http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2006/juni/1149432180.36

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