Carbohydrates
description
Transcript of Carbohydrates
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Chapter 16Carbohydrates
Mary K. CampbellShawn O. Farrellhttp://academic.cengage.com/chemistry/campbell
Paul D. Adams • University of Arkansas
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Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrate:Carbohydrate: a ________________________ or ____________________, or a substance that gives these compounds on hydrolysis
• Monosaccharide:Monosaccharide: a carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed to a simpler carbohydrate
• Building blocks of all carbohydrates• They have the general formula ________________,
where nn varies from ______________ • ______________ :: a monosaccharide containing an
aldehyde group• ______________ :: a monosaccharide containing a
ketone group
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Monosaccharides
• Monosaccharides are classified by their number of carbon atoms
• ______________ are simplest carbohydrate monosaccharides
• ______________ contains a stereocenter and exists as a pair of enantiomers
• Mirror-images stereoisomers are called ______________
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Fischer Projections
• Fischer projection:Fischer projection: bonds are written in a two dimensional representation showing the configuration of tetrahedral stereocenters• horizontal lines represent
bonds projecting _______• vertical lines represent
bonds projecting to the _________________
• the carbon atom at the intersection of the horizontal and vertical lines is not shown
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D,L Monosaccharides
• According to the conventions proposed by Fischer• D-monosaccharide:D-monosaccharide: a monosaccharide that, when
written as a Fischer projection, has the -OH on its ______________ carbon on the ______________
• L-monosaccharide:L-monosaccharide: a monosaccharide that, when written as a Fischer projection, has the -OH on its ______________ carbon on the ______________
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Aldotetroses
• ______________:: stereoisomers that are mirror images• example: D-erythrose and L-erythrose
• ______________ :: stereoisomers that are not mirror images• example: D-erythrose and D-threose
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Stereoisomers of Aldotetroses
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What Happens if a Sugar Forms a Cyclic Molecule?
• Cyclization of sugars takes place due to interaction between functional groups on distant carbons, C1 to C5, to make a cyclic ______________
• Cyclization using C2 to C5 results in ______________ formation.
• In both cases, the carbonyl carbon is new chiral center and becomes an ______________ carbon
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Formation of a Cyclic Hemiacetal
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Cyclic Structure
• Monosaccharides have -OH and C=O groups in the same molecule and exist almost entirely as five- and six-membered ___________ _____________• anomeric carbon:anomeric carbon: the new stereocenter resulting
from _____________________________ formation• anomers:anomers: carbohydrates that differ in ____________
only at their anomeric carbons
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Haworth Projections
• _____________ projections• five- and six-membered hemiacetals are represented
as planar pentagons or hexagons, as the case may be, viewed through the ______________
• most commonly written with the anomeric carbon on the right and the hemiacetal oxygen to the back right
• the designation -means that -OH on the anomeric carbon is ______________ to the terminal -CH2OH; - means that it is ______________
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Haworth Projections (Cont’d)
• A six-membered hemiacetal ring is shown by the infix –pyran pyran - (pyranose)
• A five-membered hemiacetal ring is shown by the infix –furan furan - (furanose)
• Five-membered rings are so close to being ______________ that Haworth projections are adequate to represent furanoses
• For pyranoses, the six-membered ring is more accurately represented as a ____________________ ______________ conformation
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Haworth Projections (Cont’d)
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Comparison of Fischer & Haworth Representations
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Reaction of Monosaccharides
• Reducing sugar:Reducing sugar: one that reduces an oxidizing agent• Oxidation of a cyclic hemiacetal form gives a ____________ • When the oxidizing agent is Tollens solution, silver
precipitates as a silver mirror• If anomeric carbons are involved in ______________ linkage,
there will be a negative Tollens reagent test• If another anomeric carbon is not bonded and is free, there
will be a ______________ Tollens reagent test
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Reaction of Monosaccharides (Cont’d)
• The carbonyl group of a monosaccharide can be reduced to an hydroxyl group by a variety of reducing agents, such as NaBH4
• reduction of the C=O group of a monosaccharide gives a polyhydroxy compound called an alditolalditol
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Phosphoric Esters
• Phosphoric ____________ are particularly important in the metabolism of sugars to provide energy• phosphoric esters are frequently formed by transfer of
a phosphate group from ATP
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Glycosidic Bond Formation
• GlycosideGlycoside: a carbohydrate in which the -OH of the anomeric carbon is replaced by -OR• those derived from furanoses are furanosidesfuranosides; those
derived from pyranoses are pyranosidespyranosides• ______________ bond:bond: the bond from the anomeric
carbon to the -OR group
• This is the basis for the formation of _____________ and _____________
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Glycosidic Bond Formation (Cont’d)
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Two Different Disaccharides of -D-Glucose
Glycosidic linkages can take various forms; the anomeric carbon of one sugar to any of the -OH groups of another sugar to form an - or -___________ linkage
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Amino Sugars
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Summary
• Sugars can and do undergo oxidation reactions, as well as forming esters
• Glycosidic linkages are responsible for the bonding of monosaccharides to form oligosaccharides and polysaccharides
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Disaccharides
• _____________Table sugar; obtained from the juice of sugar cane and sugar beetOne unit of D-glucose and one unit of D-fructose joined by an -1,2-glycosidic bond
• _____________Made up of D-galactose and one unit of D-glucose joined by a -1,4-glycosidic bondGalactose is a C-4 epimer of glucose
• _____________Two units of D-glucose joined by an -1,4-glycosidic bondFormed from the hydrolysis of starchDiffers from cellobiose by the conformation of the glycosidic linkage
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Some Important Disaccharides
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Summary
• The disaccharide sucrose is a common table sugar. It consists of glucose and fructose linked by a glycosidic bond
• Lactose, found in milk, and maltose, obtained from starch, are two other common disaccharides
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Structures and Function of Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharide: many monosaccharides linked together
• Cellulose:Cellulose: the major structural component of plants, especially wood and plant fibers• a linear polymer of approximately 2800 D-glucose
units per molecule joined by -1,4-glycosidic bonds• fully extended conformation with alternating 180° flips
of glucose units• extensive intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonding
between chains
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Polymeric Structure of Cellulose
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Polysaccharides (Cont’d)
• ________________ is used for energy storage in plants• a polymers of -D-glucose units• ________________: continuous, unbranched chains of up to
4000 -D-glucose units joined by -1,4-glycosidic bonds• ________________: a highly branched polymer consisting of
24-30 units of D-glucose joined by -1,4-glycosidic bonds and branches created by -1,6-glycosidic bonds
• _______________ catalyze hydrolysis of -1,4-glycosidic bonds• -amylase is an exoglycosidase and cleaves from the
nonreducing end of the polymer• -amylase is an endoglycosidase and hydrolyzes glycosidic
linkages anywhere along the chain to produce glucose and maltose
• debranching enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of -1,6-glycosidic bonds
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Amylose and Amylopectin
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Iodine inside amylose forms starch-iodine complex
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Chitin
• Chitin:Chitin: the major structural component of the ____________ of invertebrates, such as insects and crustaceans; also occurs in cell walls of algae, fungi, and yeasts• composed of units of _______________________ joined
by -1,4-glycosidic bonds
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Polysaccharides (Cont’d)
Bacterial cell walls:Bacterial cell walls: prokaryotic cell walls are constructed on the framework of the repeating unit NAM-NAG joined by _______________ bonds
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Plant Cell Walls
• consist largely of ________________
• also contain pectin which functions as an intercellular cementing material
• pectin is a polymer of _________________ acid joined by -1,4-glycosidic bonds
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Glycosaminoglycans
• Glycosaminoglycans:Glycosaminoglycans: polysaccharides based on a repeating disaccharide where one of the monomers is an ________________ ________________ and the other has a negative charge due to a ________________ or ________________ group• Heparin:Heparin: natural ________________• ________________ acid:acid: a component of the
vitreous humor of the eye and the lubricating fluid of joints
• _______________ sulfatesulfate and _______________ sulfate:sulfate: components of connective tissue
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Summary
• Polysaccharides are formed by linking monomeric sugars through glycosidic linkages
• Starch and glycogen are energy-storage polymers or sugars
• Cellulose and chitin are structural polymers
• Polysaccharides are important components of cell walls in bacteria and plants
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Glycoproteins
• Glycoproteins contain ________________ units covalently bonded to a ________________ chain• ________________ are glycoproteins• Oligosaccharide portion of glycoproteins act as
antigenic determinants• Among the first antigenic determinants discovered
were the blood group substances• In the ABO system, individuals are classified
according to four blood types: A, B, AB, and O• At the cellular level, the biochemical basis for this
classification is a group of relatively small membrane-bound carbohydrates
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Structures of Blood-Group Antigenic Determinants
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Summary
• Sugars can be found in specific bonding arrangements in some proteins
• Glycoproteins frequently play a role in the immune response