CARACALLA FROM INNOCENCE TO VILLAINY :AS RECORDED BY HIS COIN ENGRAVERS

George Halabi *

SYNOPSIS

The history of the Roman Empire is replete with cruelty, intrigue, deadly power struggles, assassinations, murder, etc. Caracalla was one of the many emperors who did not hesitate touse treachery and brute force to secure and maintain absolute power. But Caracalla appears to have surpassed all others. To quote E. Gibbon, the renowned historian:”...Caracalla was the common enemy of mankind.” Referring to his murder by one of his guards, Gibbon says: “Such was the end of a monster whose life disgraced human nature...”

This article briefly outlines few aspects of Caracalla's life; that of his father, Septimius Severus; his mother, Julia Domna; his brother Geta; and his wife Plautilla. It also provides, by means of a selection of coins, a tribute to the unknown and unsung die-engravers who had faithfully portrayed the facial features of Caracalla in his fall from childhood innocence to villainy. Pictures are included in the appendix showing 24 coins which attest to the mastery of the unknown engravers in their portrayal of this fall.

CARACALLA AND HIS FAMILY

Lucius Septimius SeverusHe was born in 146 AD near Leptis Magna in north Africa ( about 130 km east of modern Tripoli in Libya), his father being of a senatorial family. He was an able soldier and at the death of emperor Commodius, he became governor and army commander of the region of Upper Pannonia, south of the Rhine. He owed his allegiance to emperor Pentrax. But after the murder of Pentrax and the deceitful elevation of Didius Julianus as emperor by means ofmoney bribes, Srverus was saluted as emperor by his troops. He then ( in the period 193 to 197 AD), progressively deposed and defeated Julianus, Prescennius Niger and Claudius Albinus.

He married Julia Domna in 173 AD after the death of his first wife, Marcia, and had two sons: Septimius Bassanius born in 188 AD and Geta born in 189 AD.

Severus adopted himself to the Antonine dynasty by stating that he was the son of emperor Marcus Aurelius. He even changed the name of his elder son from Septimius Bassanius to Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and in 198 AD made him joint emperor at the age of 10 years.

–-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *Member, American Numismatic Society; Member, American Numismatic Association;

P.E. (Professional Engineer); Fellow, ASCE; Fellow, ACE.

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He was active in visiting and campaigning in various regions of the empire. He subdued the Parthians, Arabians and Adiabenians (natives of the region of northern Assyria) and in 208 AD, despite his advanced age and ailments, proceeded with his army and two sons to Britainto invade and subdue the Caledonians. This was not altogether successful. The severity of the winter weather, the inhospitable terrain and the frequent raids and ambushes by the Caledonians, all imposed a very heavy penalty; and it is reported that this adventure cost theRomans more than fifty thousand men.

Severus, as a result of his old age, severe ailments, and the strains of war, died in Eboracum (modern city of York) in February 211. His stated wish before he died was for his two sons to rule the empire as joint- emperors. This wish remained unfulfilled.

Julia DomnaJulia was born of a family of priestly rulers, her father Julius Bassianus being a high priest of Sol in the town of Emisa in Syria. It is said that as a young woman she believed in astrology and that according to her signs she was destined to become the wife of a king.She went to Rome and it so happened that Severus got to know about her, he himself being fond of the studies of magic, divination, dreams, omens and astrology. After the death of his first wife he proposed and got married to her.

Julia is said to have possessed beauty, wit, learning, eloquence and good judgement. She was often consulted by Severus and he was guided by her sound advice and recommendations. She had two sons Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (nicknamed Caracalla) andGeta and tried in vain to reconcile between them and to eliminate the intense hatred each had towards the other.

She had the misfortune of outliving her husband, seeing her younger son Geta being murdered in 212 AD, and also the murder of her elder son Caracalla in 217 AD. Her positionbecame extremely untenable and she soon died in Antioch, after committing suicide by refusing food and drink.

CaracallaAs mentioned, his name was changed by his father to Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. He was nicknamed Caracalla after the name of a long hooded tunic of Gallia which he was fond of wearing. He was born in Lugdunum (modern city of Lyon) in 188 AD.

He was given the title of “CAESAR” in 196 when he was only 8 years old. In the followingyear he was given the acclamation of “IMP. DESIG.” (imperatorial designate) and the title of “PONTIFEX.” (priest of god). In 198, when 10 years old, he was granted three additionaltitles: (1) “TR.P.” (tribunication power as tribune of the people), this was granted every year thereafter to reach “TR.P. XX” in 217 AD; (2) “IMP.” (imperator); and (3) “AVGVSTVS.” (augustus). In effect he was at this early age, made the joint-ruler of the empire with his father.

In 202 AD Caracalla ( age 14) was married to Fulvia Plautilla, the daughter of a rich and powerful praetorian prefect, Plautianus, who came from the same town as Severus and served under him. He gave himself the title of “PIVS” after his marriage. But it was far 2

from being a pious or a happy one and lasted for barely 3 years. After the execution of Plautianus on charges of treason, Caracalla banished his wife to the Liparis (volcanic islandssome 30 km north of Sicily). She was forced to stay there (a few authorities mention she hadher and Caracalla's child with her) till 212 AD when she was executed on the orders of this selfsame Caracalla.

From an early age Caracalla and his brother Geta exhibited serious indications of sibling rivalry, jealousy, and even intense animosity one towards the other. This gradually built-up. After the death of their father in Britain in 211 AD and their return (as joint-emperors) with his ashes to Rome, they lived in separate quarters, never shared a meal and were always on the lookout for possible poisoning or assassination attempts. Negotiations were even started on splitting the empire between then. But the nature of Caracalla was such that he wanted the power and the sole- rule for himself. In 212 AD, about 12 months of their joint-rule, Caracalla arranged for the murder of Geta in the presence of their unfortunate mother.

By pretending innocence, blaming his brother for attempting assassination on his person, and his acting in self defence, he was able (with substantial money inducements) to procure the sympathy and support of his praetorian guard and his army, and, by threats and intimidation, the acquiescence of the Senate.

He then left Rome in 213 AD and spent the rest of his reign in the provinces. He campaigned against the Alamanni in upper Germany and gained himself the title of “GERM” (germanicus). This was to add to his other titles of “BRIT” (britannicus) after his escapades in Britain with his father; “P.M.” (pontifax maximus = chief priest of god); and “P.P.” (pater patriae = father of his country). He went to Egypt and further east towards the Parthian Empire where he overpowered his enemies by treachery rather than by straight forward battle. He then campaigned in Media where his villainy finally caught up with him.

His praetorian prefect, Macrinus, on suspicion that the emperor was scheming to get rid of him, plotted with one of his guards (who in turn was seeking revenge for his brother's execution by the emperor) to assassinate Caracalla. He was stabbed to death by the guard onthe road to Carrhae (a town in Upper Mesopotamia) in 217 AD, age 29.

PlautillaAs mentioned she was the daughter of Severus' prefect Plautianus. She entered into an arranged and unfortunate marriage with Caracalla in 202 AD bringing with her a substantial dowry. The marriage was acrimonious for both parties because of their opposing characters and lasted for only three years. The fall of her father was a convenient excuse for Caracalla to banish her in 205 AD and later to order her execution in 212 AD. Views vary in respect ofthis marriage. Some say the two were completely at odds with one another and that their marriage was never consummated. The other view, also held by some numismatists, was that the couple had a child. Mattingly and Sydenham in their Roman Imperial Coinage, referring to one of Plautilla's gold coins state: “ 'Pietas Angostorum' with sceptre and child seems to be a type of the love that binds a family; it suggests, what is otherwise unrecorded, that Caracalla and Plautilla had a child.” This coin can be seen in the Appendix of Coins item C14. 3

GetaGeta was born in Rome in 189 AD. His name was initially Lucius (then changed to Publius) Septimius Julius Geta. He was given the title of “CAESAR” in 198 and “PONTIFIX” in 200AD. He joined his father and brother in their British campaign in 208 AD and was granted the titles of “AVGVSTVS”, “BRIT”, and “P.P” successively between 210 and 211 AD.

The relationship between Geta and Caracalla was mentioned earlier. Geta was favoured by many people due to his good disposition, moderate and mild attitude. He was, contrary to his brother, kind and respectful to others, winning him the friendship and good will of many.

The animosity between the two brothers prevented a peaceful joint- rule as hoped for by Severus and Julia. Failing to reach agreement on splitting the empire, Caracalla, in his blind lust for power, arranged for the murder of his brother in 212 AD.

CARACALLA'S ACHIEVEMENTS (?)

Most historians have scarce little to say about the benevolence or achievements of Caracalla. Perhaps the only three quasi- positive references are the Baths in Rome, the “Constituto Antoniniana”, and the revisions in the coinage. The Baths of Caracalla (Termi di Caracalla) were built in Rome and completed in 216 AD. It is said that the idea of these lavish baths was first drawn up by Severus and merely completed by Caracalla, who apparently did so for political propaganda and to improve his image and the public opinion towards him.

The “Constituto Antoniniana” was an edict made by Caracalla in 212 AD whereby all free inhabitants of the Empire were granted Roman citizenship. Propaganda appears to have alsoplayed a big part in this: the need to be seen as a good, egalitarian, and benevolent emperor.The equality of citizenship was however greatly distorted. The edict in fact created two classes of people: an upper class with more rights and privileges, and a lower class with inferior legal protection and more stringent punishments. This edict also widened and increased the people base thus imposing and collecting more taxes. An additional income was what Caracalla badly needed to cover the financial deficits created by his substantial monetary inducements continuously made to his army.

As a consequence of the forgoing and the substantial increase in army pay, Caracalla resorted to debasement of the silver coinage by about 20% (from about 58 to 50 % silver content). He then also introduced a new coin known as the “antoninianus” nominally to be equivalent to two silver dinarii but having the silver content of only 1.5 dinarii. This further debased the coinage to a very low level. CARACALLA'S ATROCITIES

There is a vast array of atrocities attributed to this Caracalla. It is evident that almost all historians, in recounting the villainy and atrocities of Caracalla, appear to have done so

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with a sense of abhorrence and dismay. Few instances of such atrocities are mentioned below.

To start with, one needs to mention the acute animosity he always had for his younger brother Geta and his ultimate act of assassination.

His wife Plautilla was treated with cruelty leading to her banishment and again his ultimate act of assassination.

During the British campaigns his atrocity towards his own father can not be more brilliantly described other than by E. Gibbon's in his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. To quote Gibbon: “The declining health and last illness of Severus inflamed the wild ambition and black passion of Caracalla's soul. Impatient of any delay or division of empire, he attempted, more than once, to shorten the small remainder of his father's days, and endeavoured but without success, to excite a mutiny among the troops.”

After arranging for his brother's assassination, Caracalla, with the help of his army, went on a murder rampage of all those who were royal, or had been friends or even acquaintances, ofhis brother. It is said that in excess of twenty thousand people were executed. All images, statues, inscriptions, and tokens of Geta were ordered to be destroyed. Even the coinage of Geta was ordered to be melted down. This rampage was not only confined to Rome but extended throughout the provinces where more people were executed on the same pretext.

After leaving Rome to the provinces in 213 AD, he inflicted his cruelty on every province he visited including imposing fines, taxes, confiscation of property, executions and other measures of brutality. It is said that when in Egypt presumably to visit the temple in Alexandria and to honour Alexander the Great's memory, (but in reality with an intention of dark vengeance on the Alexandrians) he ordered a large massacre of the people on the pretext that they ridiculed him. Many thousands were executed in cold blood.

When he advanced to the Parthian Empire, it is said that he used treachery and deceit to advance his aims. He pretended to request the hand of the king's daughter in marriage and to agree terms for peace. This was gladly accepted by the Parthians who in good faith went out in their multitudes to welcome the emperor. What then ensued was a massacre of the Parthians of horrendous proportions by the army on Caracalla's command.

THE NUMISMATIC EVIDENCE / THE COIN ENGRAVERS

The coin engravers during Caracalla's reign are not known and remain as unidentified and un-sung artist craftsmen, with no recognition or praise. There is practically no reference to any of them by name or otherwise, in numismatic literature. The Roman coinage, in contrastto Greek coinage, lacks any proper acknowledgement of coin engravers. During the period of the Greek classical art, especially between 415 and 336 BC, coin engravers were sought-after, highly appreciated, and honoured. Engravers such as Euainetos, Eukleidas, and Kimon of Syracuse, produced perhaps the most beautiful coin designs-- never surpassed or 5

even equalled, neither in antiquity nor in modern times. Signatures of these engravers were often placed discretely in their coin designs and remain enshrined in the masterpieces they left behind.

With reference to Roman coin engravers, some distinguished numismatists had expressed some positive views, examples of which are quoted below:

----In his book Numismatics, P. Griersons says: “The portraiture of living persons, first allowed to Julius Ceasar on the very eve of his assassination, was fully exploited thenceforth, the series of imperial portraits that resulted, realistic and sometimes ruthlessly unflattering, being of the highest quality.”

----In their book The Roman Imperial Coinage, Vol. I , Sutherland and Carson say : “Of all the mint operations involved that of the die-sinkers must have been the most difficultand time-consuming, especially in relation to portrait-dies. ...We cannot but be struck by theexcellence of coin portraiture in general—always positive, if sometimes hurried; always authoritative and essentially personal; the likeness of real men of absolute power; often harsh, but usually clear... The sense of balance was extraordinarily good; and something approaching a universally achieved style was mastered”.

This article draws attention to these unknown coin engravers, to their mastery in translating very intricate portraiture onto the surface of tiny coins, especially those in gold and silver each having a diameter of about 20mm. In this regard some of Caracalla's coins (mostly gold aurei) are brought to focus in this article to demonstrate the proficiency and artistry of their engravers in portraying the facial features of this emperor, from infancy to demise—hisfall from childhood innocence to villainy.

PHYSIOGNOMY

By looking at coin portraiture, one is tempted to associate the shape and features of a head or a face appearing on a coin, with the person's character. This association is termed physiognomy. In ancient Greece and Rome the practice of judging character from outer appearance, mainly the face, was generally accepted. In recent times, Leonardo da Vinci is said to have dismissed this practice as having no scientific basis. But he conceded that lines caused by facial expressions could indicate personality traits. He wrote in one of his books, On Art and the Artist, that “those who have deep and noticeable lines between the eyebrows are irascible”. The attention to physiognomy grew in the 18th and 19th centuries. The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer (1788 – 1860) in his essay on physiognomy, for example, asks :

“...what kind of physiognomy can be expected in those whose minds , their whole life long, have scarcely ever entertained anything but petty, mean, and miserable thoughts, and

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vulgar, selfish, jealous, wicked, and spiteful desires. Each of these thoughts and desires has left on the face for the length of time it existed; all these marks, by frequent repetition, have eventually become furrows and blemishes, if one may say so.”

In 2009 it was reported in the New Scientist that physiognomy is having a new revival and that some research papers are now exploring possible links between facial expressions and character, albeit inconclusively.

It is interesting to speculate that the coin engravers of Caracalla, in their renderings of the emperor's bust and face, were in fact discretely trying to portray what was common knowledge about his character and traits, at various stages of his life. But this can only remain a speculation even-though the coins may indicate otherwise.

THE COINS

In the Appendix of Coins which follows, 24 coins are presented covering a period of about 21 years, extending from 195/196 AD to 216/217 AD. The coins are designated C1 to C24 and placed in chronological order. Other than a gold coin C12 a silver denarius C24, both owned by the writer ( the latter of which, due to its unusually harsh and brutal aspect, has essentially prompted this article), the 22 others are gold coins (aurei). The photographs of the aurei were selected from the Coin Depositories listed in the References; to these the writer is deeply indebted.

C1 and C2These two coins both show the bust of Caracalla as a young boy. His head is bare with curly hair and his features are sharp and well defined.

C3 to C10 and C12This group shows the young Caracalla still with boyish features but with discrete and noticeable changes of growing up from 10 years of age to 14. His head is now bound with a laurel wreath. He is portrayed at an age when he was basking in his parents' love and care: C4 with his father and younger brother; C6 and C8 with his younger brother; C9 with his mother; and C10 in which he is shown on the coin obverse whilst his parents, con-joint are show on the reverse. C12 shows the whole family: Severus on the obverse with Julia Domnaflaked by her two sons on the reverse. This design is perhaps one of the very rare occasions where a similar family group is portrayed on Roman coinage.

C11, C13 and C14 This interesting group of three coins portrays Caracalla at the time of his marriage to Plautilla. On C11 can be read the title of “PIVS” (pious) which was adopted by Caracalla upon his marriage in 202 AD. As can be seen, his features are more developed and now depict a teenager rather than a young boy as previously. C13 and C14 show Plautilla as an elegant young woman. On C13 she clasps hands with her husband probably as a token of reconciliation and future promise. C14 shows “PIETAS” 7

the goddess of piety (also reverence, devotion, affection, tenderness, and love of one's children) holding a child-- probably signifying the child born to Plautilla and Caracalla, as mentioned earlier. C 15 to C18C15 shows Caracalla at 17 with more determinate, serious, and perhaps harsher features. This was at the time he banished his unfortunate wife ( possibly with her child) to the inhospitable Lipari Islands.

C16 portrays Severus' aspirations towards his two sons. He is shown in the centre with Caracalla (left, with laureate head) and Geta beside him. This was at the time Severus decided to take his two sons with him to Britain, to fight the Caledonians. C17 shows Caracalla at 21 (during the British campaigns) with features much more pronounced and possibly more vain and ruthless than those on C15.

C18 shows a very pronounced change in the features of Caracalla—the vainglory of a British 'victory' is apparent, and the brutality of war is evident. This possibly forms an important land mark on his rapid fall into outright brutality.

C19 to C24 The coin engravers depictions of Caracalla in these successive coins, from 212 AD ( the year he assassinated his brother and his wife) to 217 AD (the year of his own assassination), are potent and quite masterful. They show the austere and harsh features of a man whose lust for absolute power, villainous character, and evil nature, all combined to bring about death and suffering to a very large number of innocent people, and also to inflict the ultimate penalty of death upon himself.

CONCLUSIONS

The unknown engravers during the time of Caracalla, produced and left behind an extensive and vibrant pictorial record. This, progressively and effectively, depicted on the surface of small coins, the changes in the disposition and facial features of a brutal emperor, with knowledge, sensitivity and artistry.

The coin engravers of antiquity deserve recognition and admiration. It is evident that their works provide a significant contribution to craftsmanship, artistry and historical record.

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CARACALLA FROM INNOCENCE TO VILLAINY :AS RECORDED BY HIS COIN ENGRAVERS

REFERENCES

The writer is greatly indebted to, and acknowledges with much gratitude the following references. Without the valuable help and assistance of these references, this article would not have been possible.

A. Publications

Calico, Xavier E., The Roman Avrei, X.& F. Calico, Barcelona, 2003.

BBC Science, “Reading Faces: Face Value”, 27 October 2013, (bbc.co.uk).

Devenport, Caillan, “Cassius Dio and Caracalla”, The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 62, Issue 02, Dec. 2012.

Evans, Arthur, Syracusan 'Medallions' and their Engravers, London, 1892.

Gibbon, Edward, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, eBook Mall, Inc., 2001.

Greirson, Philip, Numismatics, Oxford, 1975.

Head, Barclay, Historia Numorum, Oxford, 1911.

Herodian, History of the Roman Empire since the Death of Marcus Aurelius, translated by E. C. Echols (Herodian of Antioch's History of the Roman Empire), 1961, Berkeley and Los Angeles. Online by Roger Pearse (tertullian.org).

Hill, G.F., A Handbook of Greek and Roman Coins, London, 1899. Hurley, Patrick, “Life of Caracalla”, Ancient History Encyclopedia, June 2011. (ancient.eu.com).

Mattingly, H. and Sydenham, E., The Roman Imperial Coinage, Vol. IV, Spink, London, 1936.

Meckler, Michael L., Ohio State University, “Caracalla (211-217 A.D.)”, De Imperatoribus Romanis, Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors, 1997. (roman-emperors.org).

Seaby H. A., revised by Sear David R., Roman Silver Coins, Vol. III, 2nd Ed. Seaby, London, 1982.

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Sear, David R., Roman Coins and their Values, 4th Rev. Ed., Seaby Publications Ltd. London, 1988.

Schopenhauer, Arthur, “Physiognomy”, part of Essays of Schponhauer, translated by Rudolf Dircks,Gutenberg Ebooks, released in April 2004.

Spartianus Aelius, “The Life of Antoninus Caracalla” part of Historia Augusta, Vol. II, , Loeb Classical Library, 1924, (penelope.uchicago.edu).

Sutherland C. and Carson R, The Roman Imperial Coinage, Vol. I, Spink, London, 1984.

-----“'Caracalla' Lucius Septimius Bassianus (AD 188-AD 217)” The Roman Empire Net (roman-empire.net).

B. Coin Depositories

Ancient Coin Search Engine: (acsearch.info)American Numismatic Society, Mantis, (numismatics.org).Archive of Ancient Coins: (coinarchives.com).British Museum, Collection online, (britishmuseum.org).

Data bank of Greek, Roman and Byzantine Coins: (wildwinds.com).

Numismatische Bilddatenbank Eichstaett. (nbeonline.de).

Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Muenzkabinett Online Catalogue. (smb.museum.de).

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CARACALLA FROM INNOCENCE TO VILLAINY :AS RECORDED BY HIS COIN ENGRAVERS

APPENDIX OF COINS ( pictures are enlarged for clarity; actual coins are about 18-21mm dia.)

C1 (195/196 AD). Severus with Caracalla (7 to 8 years old)

C2 (196 AD). Caracalla about 8 years old

C3 ( 198 AD). Caracalla about 10 years old

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C4 ( 198 AD) Caracalla elevated to C5 (198/200 AD. Severus with his two sonsaugustus at about 10 years of age Caracalla (left) and Geta

C6 (199/200 AD). Caracalla with his brother Geta C7 ( 200 AD) Caracalla at 12 years

C8 ( 200 AD) Caracalla (left) and Geta C9 ( 201 AD). Julia Domna with son Caracalla

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C10 ( 200/201 AD). Caracalla with his con-joint parents C11 ( 202 AD) Caracalla as Pius Augustus

C12 ( 202 AD) Severus and Julia with Caracalla (left)and Geta

C13 ( 202/205 AD). Plautilla's bust and clasping C14 (203/205 AD) Plautilla and Pietas hands with her husband Caracalla with child

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C15 ( 205 AD). Caracalla 17 years old C16 ( 208 AD). Severus and sons

C17 ( 209 AD) Caracalla 21 years old C18 ( 211 AD). Caracalla—Victoria Britain

C 19 ( 212 AD). Caracalla at 24 C20 ( 213 AD). Caracalla at 25

C 21 ( 214 AD). Caracalla at 26 C21 ( 215 AD). Caracalla with the sun god Sol

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C22 ( 216/7 AD). Caracalla C23 ( 216/7). Caracalla in his last year with in his last year Jupiter holding thunderbolt and sceptre

C 24 ( 216/7). “Caracalla the common enemy of mankind.”

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