car park designers handbook

Car park designers’ handbook

Jim Hill

With contributions from

Glynn Rhodes, Steve Vollar and Chris Whapples

Published by Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd,

1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.

URL: http://www.thomastelford.com

Distributors for Thomas Telford books are

USA: ASCE Press, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4400, USA

Japan:MaruzenCo. Ltd, BookDepartment, 3–10Nihonbashi 2-chome, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103

Australia: DA Books and Journals, 648 Whitehorse Road, Mitcham 3132, Victoria

First published 2005

Also available from Thomas Telford Books

The Motorway Achievement volume 1. The British motorway system: visualisation, policy and

administration. Edited by Sir Peter and Robert Baldwin. ISBN 07277 3196 3

The Motorway Achievement volume 2. Frontiers of knowledge and practice.

Edited by Professor Ron Bridle and John Porter

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 0 7277 3438 5

# Thomas Telford Limited 2005

All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright, Designs and

Patents Act 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system

or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or

otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Publishing Director, Thomas

Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.

This book is published on the understanding that the authors are solely responsible for the

statements made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not necessarily

imply that such statements and/or opinions are or reflect the views or opinions of the

publishers. While every effort has been made to ensure that the statements made and the

opinions expressed in this publication provide a safe and accurate guide, no liability or

responsibility can be accepted in this respect by the authors or publishers.

Typeset by Academic þ Technical, Bristol

Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books, Bodmin, Cornwall

This book is dedicated to the memory ofJohn Charles Cannon

MA (Cantab), CEng, MICE, FIStructE

1931–2005An outstanding engineer who, for 50 years, fought theeffects of poliomyelitis with courage and determination.

Contents

Foreword xiPreface xiiiGlossary of terms xivAcknowledgements xvi

1 Introduction 11.1 Historical note 11.2 Advice and guidance 21.3 Scope 21.4 Design flexibility 2

2 Design brief 42.1 The client 42.2 The brief 4

3 Design elements 63.1 The standard design vehicle (SDV): discussion 6

3.1.1 Length and width 63.1.2 Height 63.1.3 Wheelbase 73.1.4 Ground clearance 73.1.5 Turning dimensions 83.1.6 Recommended minimum diameters for turns

up to 1808 between obstructions 83.1.7 Left side, right side or in the middle? 8

3.2 Parking categories 83.2.1 Discussion 83.2.2 Car park categories 9

3.3 Parking stalls 93.3.1 Discussion 93.3.2 Recommended dimensions for differing parking

categories 93.3.3 Obstructions between stalls 93.3.4 Angled parking 10

3.4 Aisle widths 103.4.1 Discussion 103.4.2 One-way-flow with reduced aisle widths 113.4.3 Two-way-flow-with reduced aisle widths 123.4.4 Manoeuvring on aisles 133.4.5 Turning between aisles 13

3.5 Bin dimensions 133.5.1 Discussion 133.5.2 Recommended minimum bin dimensions for

parking with 2.400m-wide stalls 133.6 Ramps and access-ways 13

3.6.1 Discussion 133.6.2 Recommended maximum vehicle gradients 163.6.3 Transitional slopes 173.6.4 Ramp projections into aisles 173.6.5 Storey height ramps 17

3.6.6 Side clearance 173.6.7 Manoeuvring envelope 183.6.8 Stall access 203.6.9 One-way-flow ramp widths: discussion 203.6.10 Ramp widths and angled parking 213.6.11 Two-way-flow ramps 213.6.12 Turning circle templates 223.6.13 Two-way-flow: recommended minimum clear

ramp widths 223.6.14 Scissors-type ramps 223.6.15 Side-by-side ramps 223.6.16 Circular ramps 223.6.17 Recommended minimum diameters for full

circle ramps between limiting wall faces 243.6.18 Recommended minimum widths for circular

ramp lanes between wall faces 243.7 Interlocking ramps 24

3.7.1 Stadium type 243.7.2 Circular type 24

3.8 Kerbs 243.9 Super-elevation 253.10 Parking deck gradients 253.11 Headroom and storey heights 253.12 Height limitations 25

4 Dynamic considerations 264.1 Discussion 26

4.1.1 Impact speeds 264.1.2 Effects of rain 264.1.3 Exit and entry rates and internal movement 264.1.4 Dynamic capacities for different stall widths

and categories 274.1.5 Stopping distance 274.1.6 Speed limits 274.1.7 Dynamic capacities of ramps and access-ways 274.1.8 Dynamic capacities of cross-ramps and

access-ways, per hour 284.1.9 Dynamic capacities of parking decks;

calculations 284.1.10 Dynamic efficiency 29

5 Static considerations 305.1 Static efficiency, discussion 30

5.1.1 Relative efficiencies 305.1.2 Area per car space 315.1.3 Recommended capacities 31

6 Circulation design 336.1 Discussion 336.2 How many levels? 336.3 Roof considerations 336.4 Circulation efficiency 34

6.4.1 Discussion 346.4.2 Shortest travel distance 346.4.3 Examples of circulation efficiency 35

6.5 Parking times 356.5.1 Discussion 35

7 Circulation layouts 377.1 Discussion 37

7.2 Dimensions used 37

7.3 User-friendly features 37

7.3.1 Discussion 377.3.2 Simplicity 377.3.3 Crossovers 387.3.4 Circulation direction 387.3.5 Dead ends (culs-de-sac) 38

7.4 Angled and right-angled parking: a comparison 387.5 Split-level decks (SLDs) 43

SLD 1 One-way traffic flow with an included rapid

outflow route 44SLD 2 One-way traffic flow with an excluded rapid

outflow route 46SLD 3 One-way-flow with side-by-side ramps

(scissors type) 48SLD 4 Combined one-way-flows, three bins or

more wide 50SLD 5 Combined one- and two-way-flows, three bins or

more wide 52SLD 6 Two-way-flow with ‘combined’ ramps 54SLD 7 One-way-flow with an included contra-flow

rapid exit route 567.6 Sloping parking decks (SDs) 59

SD 1 Single helix with two-way-flow 60SD 2 Single helix with one-way-flow and a rapid

outflow route 62SD 3 Double helix, end connected with one-way-flow

on the central access-way 64SD 4 Double helix, end connected with two-way-flow

on the central access-way 66SD 5 Interlocking double helix, with one-way-flows 68SD 6 Combined helix, side connected with one- and

two-way-flows 70SD 7 and 8 Double helix, side connected, with

one-way-flows 727.7 Combined flat and sloping deck (FSD) layouts 75

FSD 1 Single helix with two-way-flow 76FSD 2 Single helix with one-way-flow and a rapid

outflow route 78FSD 3 Combined helix, side connected with one- and

two-way-flows 80FSD 4 Combined helix, side connected with

one-way-flow 82FSD 5 Double helix, side connected with one-way-flow 84FSD 6 and 7 Double helix, side connected with

one-way traffic flows 86FSD 8 Single helix with one-way-flow and an internal

ramp 887.8 Combined flat and sloping deck layouts with internal

cross-ramps (VCM and WPD) 91VCM 1 One-way-flow with two one-way-flow ramps 92VCM 2 One-way-flow with end ramps 94VCM 3 Two-way-flow with a single end ramp 96VCM 4 One- and two-way traffic flows with a single

ramp 98

WPD 1 Warped parking decks with one-way-flow 1007.9 Flat decks with storey height internal ramps (flat with

internal ramps – FIR) 103FIR 1 One-way-flow decks with combined

two-way-flow ramps at right-angles to

the aisles 104FIR 2 One-way-flow decks with side-by-side (scissors

type) ramps at right-angles to the aisles 106FIR 3 One-way-flow decks with combined

two-way-flow ramps parallel with the aisles 108FIR 4 One-way-flow decks with separated

one-way-flow ramps 1107.10 Minimum dimension (MD) layouts 113

MD 1 One-way-flow between circular end ramps 114MD 2 Two-way-flow with a circular ramp at one end 116MD 3, 4 and 5 One- and two-way-flows, ten stalls

wide 118MD 6, 7 and 8 One- and two-way-flows eight stalls

wide (VCM type) 120MD 9, 10 and 11 One- and two-way-flows eight stalls

wide (split-level type) 1227.11 Circular sloping decks (CSDs) 125

CSD 1 Circular parking deck with two-way-flow 1267.12 Half external ramps (HERs) 129

HER 1 Half spiral with one-way-flow 130HER 2 and 3 Straight ramps with one-way-flow 132HER 4 Straight ramps with one-way-flow,

end located 134HER 5 Straight ramps with one-way-flow,

end located 1367.13 External ramps (ERs) 139

ER 1 Full circular with a two-way traffic flow 140ER 2 Full circular ramps each with a one-way

traffic flow 142ER 3 Straight ramps with a one-way traffic flow 144ER 4 Storey height, straight ramps 146ER 5 Stadium-shaped interlocking ramps 148ER 6 Circular interlocking ramps 150

8 Stairs and lifts 1538.1 Discussion 1538.2 Vertical and horizontal escape 153

8.2.1 Stairs, widths of flights 1538.2.2 Vertical escape 1558.2.3 Horizontal escape 155

8.3 Escape distances 1558.4 Lift sizing 156

9 Disabled drivers and carers 1619.1 Discussion 1619.2 Stall locations 1619.3 Stall dimensions 1629.4 Access 163

10 Cycles and motorcycles 16510.1 Discussion 16510.2 Cycle parking 165

10.3 Motorcycle parking 16510.4 Lockers 16610.5 Fiscal control 167

11 Security 16911.1 Discussion 16911.2 Lighting, music and CCTV 16911.3 See and be seen 17011.4 Women-only car parks 170

12 Underground parking 17312.1 Discussion 173

13 Lighting 17513.1 Discussion 17513.2 Emergency lighting 175

14 Signage 17714.1 Discussion 17714.2 Directional signs 17714.3 Information signs 17814.4 Variable message sign systems 17814.5 Emergency signs 179

15 Drainage 18115.1 Discussion 181

16 Fire escapes, safety and fire fighting 18316.1 Discussion 18316.2 Escape distances 18316.3 Fire safety 18316.4 Fire-fighting measures 18316.5 Sprinklers 18416.6 Fire escapes 184

17 Fiscal and barrier control 18717.1 Discussion 18717.2 Control systems 18717.3 Barrier control 188

18 Ventilation 19118.1 Discussion 19118.2 Natural ventilation requirements 19118.3 Mechanically assisted natural ventilation requirements 19118.4 Mechanical ventilation requirements 191

19 Structure 19519.1 Discussion 19519.2 Construction materials 19519.3 Joints 19619.4 Perimeter protection 19619.5 Concrete finishes 19719.6 Protective coatings 19719.7 Waterproofing 19719.8 Cambers 198

20 Appearance 201

20.1 Discussion 20120.2 Appearance requirements 201

Appendix A 203

References 204

Index 205

About the authors

James Hill CEngFIStructE (ret’d)

In 1967 Jim founded the Hill Cannon Partnership (HCP) with JohnCannon and has been involved in car park design since 1969. In1970, they developed the Tricon structural system and in 1993 Jimpatented the Vertical Circulation Module system (VCM). He is a pastPresident of the British Parking Association and a regional Chairmanof the Concrete Society. He is now a consultant to the practice,having retired in 1992, since when he has concentrated on the furtherdevelopment of VCM, designing appropriate circulation layouts formany projects and researching this book. He is currently writing asimilar handbook on ‘good practice’ parking in the USA.

Glynn Rhodes BSc (Hons)CEng MICE MIHTFConsE

Glynn is a senior partner of the HCP and has been involved in thedesign of 30 multi-storey car parks since 1986, two of which havebeen voted Best New Build car parks at the annual British ParkingAwards. He also received the Ernest Davies Award for the best articlepublished in Parking News entitled ‘Current Trends in the Design of CarParks’. He has provided design advice for large underground carparking facilities in Manila, Kuala Lumpur (Petronas Towers),Zagreb and Dubai. Recent projects include the Jubilee car park inHarrogate (precast with 450 spaces), Merryhill Shopping Centre,West Midlands (precast with 1600 spaces) and Manchester RoyalInfirmary (precast with 1600 spaces).

Stephen Vollar Eur IngBSc CEng FIStructEMICE FConsE

Steve is a senior partner of the HCP and has been actively involved withcar park design and parking related subjects since 1996: these includestructured car parks, both above and below ground, as well as largecapacity single deck layouts. His particular interest is in the provisionof suitably located parking for disabled drivers, two wheeled trafficand general ‘wayfinding’ for both motorists and pedestrians alike.Recent design projects include Birmingham Airport (precast with1700 spaces), Ocean Terminal; Edinburgh (precast with 1000 spaces)and Clarence Dock; Leeds (precast with 1600 spaces).

Christopher Whapples BSc(Hons) CEng FIStructEFICE MIHT FConsE

A senior partner of the HCP, Chris has been involved in the design ofparking structures for more than twenty years. He is a contributor tothe IStructE publication Design recommendations for multi-storey andunderground car parks and the Institution of Civil Engineers’ publica-tion Recommendations for inspection, maintenance and management ofcar park structures. He has served on European technical committeesand has presented papers on parking related subjects. His particularinterest is in the development of new structural forms. Recent designprojects include St. Andrews; Norwich (steel frame with 1100 spaces),Sundials; Amersham (steel frame with 550 spaces) and DesignerOutlet Village, Livingston (in situ with 1600 spaces).

Foreword

Jim Hill has spent the last 35 years in the development of car parkdesign and this experience has given him a unique insight into thereasons why some buildings operate successfully and others, of a similarsize and activity, do not. The choice of the correct circulation layout is asubject that he considers to be of prime importance in the creation of anefficient parking building.Both as a consumer of parking services and a former parking

manager, it always intrigues me why some parking layouts are easilynavigated and yet others test one’s patience? As an engineer, I thinklogically and admire the ‘art of parking’ created by my fellow collea-gues; as a consumer I want to be able to park my car as quickly andas effectively as I can and get on with the business in hand, be itwork or play; this is especially true if I have children with me.My experience has taught me that parking is a means to an end; it

is the first and last impression of my ‘destination’; it needs to begood if I’m to contemplate returning there again and again. This isespecially true in the retail and commercial world where (hopefully)my custom is valued. It is equally true when I visit an unfamiliartown or city, park at a rail station, or simply spend a day at leisuresomeplace.Equally important is the need to feel intuitively safe and welcome

wherever I choose to park. Complex layouts, frustration with queuesand conflict with others who are manoeuvring about in or out ofparking spaces, or sometimes in what seems like a never-ending set oftwists and turns to get in or out of the car park in the first place,only serve to increase my sense of ‘uncared for’ by the owner oroperator.This book, describes and illustrates some 60þ variations on the many

‘layout themes’, no doubt there are others. Their advantages and dis-advantages are discussed, recommendations made for their practicalapplication and suggestions made for other layouts that should alsobe considered.More than just discussing layouts, the author has shown how ramps

can be prevented from projecting excessively into traffic aisles, how toassess dynamic capacity and efficiency, and the many other considera-tions that go to make up the design process. The matters dealt with inChapters 8 to 20 such as the current requirements for people withmobility impairments, pedestrian access, security, ventilation, etc.have been written with the help of his partners, all parking experts intheir own right.In the author’s opinion, effective design is based upon common sense,

a little crystal ball gazing and experience: it is not a precise art. Hesuggests that, provided drivers will want to frequent the car park andclients are willing to pay for it, little else matters. I wouldn’t wantto disagree with him, but my comments about being ‘welcome’ atany parking facility are the key to its success. If the operator wantsto do business, good customer service is vital; to do that needs gooddesign.This book addresses the subject of car park design, especially the

design of circulation layouts, in a practical manner and can be easily

understood by anyone with an interest in the subject. It will help toidentify examples of best practice in making our parking facilitiesmore accessible to all. The book is also a useful reference for thoseconsidering the Park Mark1 Safer Parking Scheme.

Kelvin Reynolds

Kelvin is Director of Technical Services at the British Parking Associa-tion and Head of the Safer Parking Scheme.

Preface

Information on the design of vehicle circulation systems in car parks ishard to find: had it not been so this book, probably, would not havebeen written. To my knowledge, special features and relative efficienciesof car parks have never before been discussed in any great detail. Manydesigners are unaware of the advantages of using a particular layoutsystem over another and it is a major purpose of this book to redressthat imbalance.In 1968, John Cannon and I first became involved in car park

structures when we were retained to design the foundations and non-standard elements for a proprietary precast concrete system. A localcar park incorporating this system had become the subject of adversecomment by many who used it, convincing us that we could do betterourselves. Our first effort was to develop a clear-span structure thatwas efficient, economical, aesthetically pleasing and capable of beingconstructed using structural steel as well as precast and cast in situconcrete: this was a successful venture and after more than 35 years itis still being used in many car park designs. In time, however, itbecame clear that no matter how efficient the structural solution wasand how attractive the architectural appearance, if it was wrappedaround a poor choice of circulation layout the result was yet anotherunpopular car park. In many under-used car parks, the reason fortheir unpopularity is not that that they have been allowed to becomedirty and/or dingy (conditions that by themselves would not normallyput offmost motorists), but rather that they suffered from a poor choiceof internal layout.Of the many buildings inspected, the most unpopularhave, invariably, incorporated inappropriate circulation designs.Rather than giving these car parks an expensive cosmetic ‘make-over’, the money would have been better spent on improving thelayout, even at the cost of losing, possibly, a few parking stalls.Over the years, as we became more experienced, so our awareness of

the number of different layouts available increased. Fifteen years ago Idecided to list them and recommend when and where they could be putto best use. This endeavour was interrupted in 1992 by the developmentand promotion of the vertical circulation module (VCM) circulationsystem. It was just as well, as the number of different layouts hasrisen even further since then. Some have been rejected as being imprac-tical or just plain whimsical, but those that are featured in this book arepractical and have been constructed somewhere but not always in theUK. With more than 6000 car parks in the UK, 30 000 in the USAand many thousands more in the rest of the world, it is unlikely thatall of the possible variations will have been covered, and if anyreader is aware of a practical circulation layout substantially differentfrom those featured and lets me know, if it is included in a future editionthey will be acknowledged as the source.Finally, I would like to thank my wife Rosalie who not only accom-

panied me on my travels around the car parks of several countries with-out complaint, but was also of invaluable assistance in suggestingimprovements to the text and correcting my grammatical errors: anythat remain are entirely my own fault.

Glossary of terms

Access-way or crossway

A traffic lane without adjoining stalls laid flat or to a slope notexceeding 5%, also capable of being used by pedestrians.

Aisle

A traffic lane with adjoining stalls on one or more sides.

Bin

Used to denote the dimension across an aisle and its adjacent stalls.(A half bin has stalls only on one side.)

Circulation efficiency

Amethod of comparing the travel distance required to search the stalls,in any particular car park, with the minimum travel distance. (Given asa percentage.)

Congestion

Applies to traffic that is unable to flow freely.

Cross-ramp

An inclined traffic lane connecting the aisles in adjacent bins, laid to aslope greater than 5%.

Deck

A single floor that extends over the plan area of a parking building.

Des Recs

A shortened form of words describing the Design Recommendations forMulti-storey and Underground Car Parks, 3rd edition, published in June2002 by the Institution of Structural Engineers.

Dynamic capacity

A measure of the rate that traffic can pass a given location within a carpark. (Given in vehicles per hour.)

Dynamic efficiency

A measure of the ability of a car park to process vehicles under normaloperating conditions.

Excluded

Applies to an inflow route that is separated from an outflow route.

Extended

Applies to any traffic route that is not rapid.

Included

A flow route that is located within the circulation pattern of another.

Inflow

Applies to the search path for traffic within a car park.

Manoeuvring envelope (ME)

The boundaries established by the minimum turning circle whenentering a crossway or ramp, outside of which a vehicle is unable tomanoeuvre without reversing.

MPV

The initials for a multi-purpose vehicle.

MSCP

The initials for a multi-storey car park.

One-way-flow

Traffic flowing in a single direction on an aisle.

Outflow

Applies to traffic exiting from a car park.

Ramp

Any traffic lane, without adjoining stalls, that provides access to orfrom parking at different levels.

Rapid

Applies to a short route for inflow or outflow traffic.

Stall

The parking area allotted to a single vehicle, exclusive of any otheradjoining area.

Stall pitch

The spacing for stalls, normal to an aisle, for a particular angle ofparking.

Static capacity

The total number of stalls contained within a designated area orcomplete car park.

Static efficiency

The area of the parking decks divided by the static capacity and given asan area per stall.

SUV

The initials for a sports utility vehicle.

Swept path

The width on plan established by a vehicle for any given radius of turn.

Two-way-flow

Traffic flowing in both directions on an aisle, ramp or crossway.

Vph

Vehicles per hour.

Acknowledgements

Figs 1.1, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.5(a) and (b), 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 3.10, 3.11, 3.17, 3.19,3.20, 6.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.5, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 8.1, 9.1, 10.1(a), 11.1, 12.1, 13.1,14.1, 15.1, 16.1, 17.1, 19.1 and 20.1 Hill-Cannon archives.Figs 7.4 and 7.6 courtesy of Dundec Ltd.Fig. 7.10 courtesy of Norwest Holst.Fig. 10.2(c) courtesy of Falco.Fig. 10.3(d) courtesy of Motoloc Ltd.Fig. 18.17 courtesy of PSB (UK) Ltd.

7 Circulation layouts

7.1 Discussion Of the more than 5000 structured car parks believed constructed in theUK alone, it can be readily appreciated that no single person can haveknowledge of every circulation layout variation that has been proposedand built. Practical considerations, personal experience and the con-stant pressures for financial economy render it reasonable to assumethat the examples shown, all of which have been featured or builtduring the past 35 years, provide the basis for most of the self-parkingbuildings that exist at the present time. The design of a satisfactorycirculation layout is one of the most important factors governing userappreciation and yet many designers are unaware of the large varietyof options from which they may choose and their suitability for theintended purpose.The following examples are all practical layouts and form the basis

upon which most self-parking facilities have been designed. Some aremore popular than others and some are significantly defective in circu-lation design, static and dynamic efficiency. If designers are to gainconfidence in developing solutions to solve particular problems, thenit is desirable that they should know the strengths and weaknesses ofindividual layouts in order to make an informed choice.

7.2 Dimensions used There are few precise dimensions that must be adopted for the design ofparking structures. Dimensions for the individual elements can varyand are also affected by the parking angle (that varies the bin width)in one direction and the stall pitch (that varies the overall length) inthe other direction. The main concern is that motorists and clientsare content.It is overly laborious and unnecessary to keep mentioning all of the

variations that can occur in practice and so dimensions for the featuredlayouts will be based upon those recommended for 908 parking withstall dimensions of 2.400m� 4.800m, aisle widths of 6.000m (one-way flow), 7.000m (two-way flow) and a storey height of 3.000m.In the layouts shown in the following pages, the overall aisle lengths

are sometimes shown less than those given for the width; nevertheless,the length of the aisle will determine the ‘length’ of a layout and thedimension over the bins will determine its ‘width’.

7.3 User-friendlyfeatures

7.3.1 DiscussionThere are many existing car parks where, in retrospect, it can be seenthat the layout would have been much better if only the designer hadrecognised that a problem existed. In such cases, if improvements hadbeen incorporated at the design stage, they need not have cost moreto implement or reduced static capacity. They could even haveenhanced the market value by being more ‘user friendly’ to the parkingpublic. It is, also, a relatively simple matter to spoil a potentially accep-table circulation layout by over complication, or by the introduction ofunnecessary and unfriendly features.

7.3.2 SimplicityThe basic tenet of all circulation design is to ‘keep it simple’. What, atfirst, might look like a clever idea to a designer could well end up as a

37

motorist’s nightmare. In a structured car park the layout should endea-vour to replicate the openness of a surface car park. To this end, it isdesirable to eliminate, as far as possible, vertical structure that interferes,both visually and physically, with the free movement of vehicles andpedestrians. Turning directly from one lock to the other is not a popularmanoeuvre. If possible all turns should be in the same direction and notmore than 908 at a time.When located under other types of building, it isnot always possible to create the most desirable layout. Attempts shouldbe made to minimise the visual impact of large vertical elements andlocate them away from the circulation routes, if at all possible.

7.3.3 CrossoversCrossover conditions should be avoided. When on a traffic aisle andsearching for the first available space, it is disconcerting and potentiallydangerous to find a car suddenly appearing at right angles from behinda parked vehicle. The driver of this car may also be concentrating onfinding a space in which to park, or intent only on leaving the facilityas quickly as possible. A user-friendly circulation layout should nothold surprises for drivers who should be able to observe the movementsof other vehicles well before there is a need to take avoiding action.

7.3.4 Circulation directionThe direction of circulation has little effect upon circulation efficiency inone-way-flow systems. Provided that the route is of an adequate widthit matters little in which direction the traffic is made to flow. It has beensaid that left-turning circuits are not as popular in one-way-flow sys-tems as turning to the right. However, when vehicles are travellingdown the middle of an aisle drivers are biased to the right therebyproviding a much better view of openings on the left.When a two-way-flow ramp occurs in a one-way-flow layout it is

preferable to have a left-turning circuit whereby traffic drives on thecorrect side of the ramp.When entering a traffic aisle from a right-turning ramp, a front-seat

passenger could obscure traffic approaching from the left, but whentraffic approaches from the right the driver’s lateral vision is relativelyunimpaired.Turning right onto an exit barrier enables a ticket to be inserted more

easily into the acceptor machine than when turning to the left.When the entry/exit lanes are located side-by-side, right turning

circuits are preferable if a crossover situation is to be avoided.None of these points are important enough to dictate the direction of

flow by themselves, but it is useful to appreciate that they occur whenconsidering the flow direction.

7.3.5 Dead ends (culs-de-sac)When viewing down a ‘dead-end’ aisle, it is difficult to see the parkingsituation more than three or four stalls away. For good practice, and ifunnecessary manoeuvring is to be avoided, it should be the limitingfactor.

7.4 Angled andright-angled parking:a comparison

Members of the public and some clients, ask why angled parking is notused more frequently in the UK. They point out that it is popular in theUSA and, for those who have used it, it is a popular parking formatbut, in the UK, layouts with 908 parking occur more often in town-centre car parks than any of the other types.Figure 7.1 shows a basic UK town-centre-type split-level layout with

908 parking. It is 28 stall widths in length with 96 stalls on each deck.

38 Car park designers’ handbook

The area of the deck is 2096.6m2 producing an average of 21.840m2 perstall.Figure 7.1 also shows the same basic layout with 708 parking. It is 28

stall widths in length with 92 stalls on each deck. The area of the deck is2196.8m2 producing an average of 23.620m2 per stall.The difference of 1.780m2 per stall represents an increase of 8% in

area and a consequent increase in construction costs.The 708 layout, at 71.512m, is 4.312m longer than the 908 layout,

representing an increase of 6.5% in length while containing 4% fewervehicles.The width at 30.724m is 484mm narrower than the 908 layout repre-

senting a reduction of 1.5%.The traffic aisles for the 708 layout at 4.700m wide are 1.300m less

than those for the 908 layout, reducing the separation distance betweenvehicles and pedestrians on the aisles.If the stall widths in a 908 car park were increased by 8%, to 2.550m,

both layouts would be rendered similar in area and cost. In thiseventuality, it is reasonable to ask whether 908 parking with 2.550m-wide stalls and 6.000m-wide aisles would be more popular than 708parking with 2.400m-wide stalls and 4.700m wide aisles? It is a ques-tion that can only be answered by designers and clients, individually.Widening the traffic aisles in the 708 car park will increase construc-

tion costs by about 0.6% for every 100mm increase in width.As the parking angle reduces, so the building length increases and the

aisle widths narrow even further. At a parking angle of 458, a 96-space

Fig. 7.1 Angled andright-angled parking:a comparison

Circulation layouts 39

per deck building will need to be 95.000m in length, (41% longer) andeven with aisle widths reduced to 3.600m, the car space requirementwill be some 25% greater than for the 908 car park (see Section 5.1.1).A two-bin, split-level car park with 908 parking could increase its stall

widths to 3.000m, and retain its 6.000m-wide aisles without exceedingthe area per car space for a two-bin 458 car park with 2.400m-widestalls and 3.600m wide aisles.In the USA, many structured town-centre-type car parks incorporate

908 parking. Stalls with 608 angles, widened aisles and a two-way trafficflow are sometimes used for retail shopping at surface level and 708 to808 angles for large Cats 3 and 4 buildings of the SD and FSD series, SD2, 3 and 4 being particularly popular in the southern and western USA.


Index

Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations and diagrams.

access ways 13, 14, 15

see also ramps

dynamic capacity 27–28

aesthetics of design 200, 201–2, 202

circular sloping deck types 124, 125

air change rates, ventilation 192

aisles

angled stalls 11

dead ends 38

inflow capacity 36

minimum widths

one-way-flows 13

two-way-flows 13

pedestrians in 11

with angled parking stalls 11

ramp entries 21

ramp projections into 17

reduced

one-way-flows 11, 19

two-way-flows 12

turning between 12, 13

vehicles crossing 26–7

viewing angles 8

widths 10–11

angled stalls 10

angles 11, 12

circulation efficiency 38–40, 39

design implications 39–40, 39

dynamic efficiency 29

minimum dimensions 13

pedestrians in aisles 11

ramp widths 21

barriers 186

exit 38

numbers of 189

two-way-flow 188

Birmingham airport, car park 152

camper vans 6

capacities

medium stay car parks 31

short stay car parks 31

tidal car parks 32

car parks

see also multi-storey car parks

as motorists’ destination influences 1–2

user friendly 2, 37–9

CCTV 168, 169–70

optimum monitoring 169–70

presence of 169

changes of use, car parks 2–3

circular decks, two-way-flow 126, 127

circular ramps 22, 24

end

one-way-flow 114, 115

two-way-flow 116, 117

full, two-way-flow 140, 141

turning circles 139

two full, one-way-flow 142, 143

circular sloping decks 124, 125

see also CSD series

user-unfriendliness 125

circulation design, simplicity 37–8

circulation efficiency

angled stalls 38–40, 39

crossovers 38

importance of 35–6

indicating 34

combined flat and sloping decks

internal cross-ramps

see also VCM and WPD series

pedestrian access 91

combined helix

one- and two-way-flows

side connected 70, 71, 80, 81

one-way-flow, side connected 82, 83

contra-flow rapid exit, one-way-flow types 56, 57

control signs 178

control systems

barriers 186

exit 38

numbers of 189

two-way-flow 188

disabled drivers 163

pay and display 187

payment by mobile phone 187–8

payment on exit 186, 187

payment on foot 187

tag systems 188

crossovers 13, 14, 15

avoiding 38

manoeuvring envelopes 18, 19, 20

CSD 1 (circular deck/two-way-flow) 126, 127

static efficiency 127

cycle parking

lockers 164, 165

stands for 165, 166

decks

combined flat and sloping 91

directional markings 177

drainage falls 181

dynamic capacity 28–9

exposed

effects of rain 26

roofing 33–34, 195–6

stopping distances on 27

temperature differences 196

waterproofing 33

flat, with internal ramps 103

frost prevention 198

gradients 25

level indicators 176, 178

205

decks (continued )

metal plate 196

surface abrasion 198

washing-down facilities 181

waterproofing 197–8

deflections, structural 198–9

design

aesthetics 200, 201–2, 202

angled stalls, implications 39–40, 39

briefs 4–5

existing 37

questionnaires 4

design and build projects 201

Design recommendations for multi-storey and

underground car parks (Des. Rec.) 1

ramps 16, 16

dimensions

disabled parking stalls 162, 162

stalls

area per car space 31

length 9

width 9, 27

disabled drivers

see also disabled pedestrians

flat and sloping decks 75

hillside car parks 161

separation of 163

sloping parking decks 59

tariffs for 163

disabled parking stalls 160

dimensions 162, 162

legal requirements 161

location

parameters 161–2

random 162

numbers 161

supervision 162

disabled pedestrians

see also disabled drivers

fire escapes 156, 183

lift buttons 177

ramps 15, 156

refuges for 154

viewing panels 177

double helix

interlocking, one-way-flow 68, 69

one-way-flow

end connected 64, 65


two-way-flow, end connected 66, 67

drainage

deck falls 181

gully outlets 198–9

location 181

petrol interceptors 181

protection of 180

roofs 181

stair cores 181

ventilating 181

washing-down 181

driver frustration

complex designs 37–8

potential conflict 49, 51, 129

stall searching 35, 73

dry-risers 154, 184

dynamic capacity

decks 28–9

entries 26

exits 26

ramps 27–8

dynamic efficiency, angled stalls 29

efficiency see circulation efficiency; dynamic efficiency;

static efficiency

emergency signs 179

lighting 175, 179, 183

entries

dynamic capacity 26

two-wheeled vehicles 165

environment, aesthetics 200, 201–2, 202

ER 1 (full circular ramps/two-way-flow) 140, 141

alternatives to 141

ER 2 (full circular ramps/one-way-flow) 142, 143

as alternative 141

alternatives to 143

ER 3 (straight ramps/one-way-flow) 144, 145

alternatives to 145

ER 4 (storey height straight ramps) 146, 147

ER 5 (stadium-shaped interlocking ramps) 148, 149

ER 6 (circular interlocking ramps) 150, 151

exit barriers, ticket insertion 38

exit routes

dynamic capacity 26

rapid 36

exits

emergency 183

ramps, headroom 15

two-wheeled vehicles 165

external ramps 138, 139

see also ER series

FIR 1 (one-way-flow/two-way ramps/right angles) 102,

104, 105

alternatives to 105

circulation efficiency 35


FIR 2 (one-way-flow/scissors ramps) 106, 107

alternatives to 107


FIR 3 (one-way-flow/two-way ramps/parallel) 108,

109

alternatives to 109


FIR 4 (one-way-flow/one-way ramps) 110, 111

alternatives to 111


fire alarms 183

fire escapes

access to 153–4

disabled pedestrians 156, 183

distances from 155–6, 183

horizontal 155

routes to 183

stairs as 153, 154–5

fire fighting 182, 183–4

lifts 184

smoke containment 184

sprinklers 184

fire lobbies 154–5, 154

fire regulations, stairs as fire escapes 153

fire safety strategies 183

flat decks

external ramps, capacity 31

internal ramps 103


flat decks with internal ramps

see also FIR series

multi-bin systems 103

ramp gradients 103

flat and sloping deck layouts 75

see also FSD series

disabled drivers 75

pedestrian movements 75

four-wheel drive (4WD) vehicles 6

Freyssinet, Eugene 1

frost prevention, decks 198

FSD 1 (single helix/two-way-flow) 76, 77

as alternative 79

alternatives to 77


FSD 2 (single helix/one-way-flow/rapid outflow) 78,

79

as alternative 53

alternatives to 79


FSD 3 (combined helix/side connected/one- and

two-way-flows) 80, 81

as alternative 51, 53

alternatives to 81


FSD 4 (combined helix/side connected/one-way-flow)

82, 83

as alternative 51

alternatives to 83


FSD 5 (double helix/side connected/one-way-flow) 74,

84, 85

alternatives to 85



87


87

FSD 8 (single helix/one-way-flow/internal ramp) 88, 89

alternatives to 89


gradients

parking decks 25, 59

disabled drivers 59

sloping 59

ramps

pedestrian 24

vehicle 15, 16–17, 16, 18, 103

single storey rise 103

ground clearances, standard design vehicles 7–8, 10

half external ramp types 128, 129

see also HER series

capacity 31

driver conflict in 129

half external ramps, vehicle 126, 127

half spirals, one-way-flow types 130, 131

headroom 25

light fittings 25

height

limitation gantries 25, 25

standard design vehicles 6, 10

helix see combined helix; double helix; single helix

HER 1 (half spiral/one-way-flow) 130, 131

HER 2 & 3 (straight ramps/one-way-flow) 130, 131

alternatives to 133

HER 4 (straight ramps end located/one-way-flow) 134,

135

alternatives to 135

HER 5 (straight ramps end located/one-way-flow) 136,

137

alternatives to 137

hillside conditions

disabled drivers 161

multi-storey car parks 15

impacts

protection from 196–7

speeds 26, 196

inhabited layouts, definition 33

interlocking double helix, one-way-flow type 68, 69

interlocking ramps

circular type 24, 150, 151

stadium type 24, 148, 149

internal environmental monitoring 192

kerbs, pedestrian separation by 24–5

lengths

parking stalls 9


levels, optimum numbers 33

lifts

buttons, disabled pedestrians 177

capacity per hour 158

considerations for 153

door widths 157, 161

fire fighting 184

long stay car parks 153, 157

medium stay car parks 153, 157

short stay car parks 153, 157

space requirements 157

supermarket requirements 156–7

tidal car parks 157

lighting 174

controls 175

emergency 175, 179, 183

signs 175, 185

fittings, headroom 25

and painting 175

security 169, 175

top decks 175

limosines

in multi-storey car parks 7

stretched 7

lockers

cycles 164, 165

helmets/clothes 166

long stay car parks 9

capacities 31


lifts 153, 157

recommendations for 55, 57, 63, 97

main terminal car parks see long stay car parks

manoeuvring envelopes (ME)

historical 1–2, 2

ramps 18, 19, 20

stall access 18, 19, 20

market values, multi-storey car parks 3

MD 1 (one-way-flow/circular end ramps) 112, 114, 115

as alternative 121

alternatives to 115

Index 207

MD 1 (one-way-flow/circular end ramps) (continued )


variations 115

MD 2 (two-way-flow/one circular end ramps) 116, 117

alternatives to 117


variations 117

MD 3 (one-way-flow/10 stalls wide) 118, 119


MD 4 (two-way-flow/10 stalls wide) 118, 119


MD 5 (two-way-flow/sloping decks/10 stalls wide) 118,

119


MD 6–8 (one- and two-way-flows 8 stalls wide) 120, 121

as alternative 123

alternatives to 121


MD 9–11 (one- and two-way-flows/8 stalls wide/split

levels) 122, 123

alternatives to 123


medium stay car parks 9

capacities 31

large-capacity 45

lifts 153, 157

recommendations for

combined flat and sloping decks 93, 97

sloping decks 61, 73

split level decks 47, 57

message signs, variable 34, 67, 81, 89, 115, 178–9

metal plate decks 196

minimum dimension layouts 113

see also MD series

underground 112, 113

motorcycle parking

free-standing 164, 165–6, 166

hard surface 166

helmet/clothes lockers 166

security surveillance 166

motorists’ destinations, car park influences 1–2

multi-purpose vehicles (MPV) 6

multi-storey car parks (MSCP)

aisle viewing angles 8

categories 9

changes of use 2–3

first 1

hillside conditions 15

market values 3

running costs 187

sale of 2–3

music, and security 169

natural ventilation 191

obstructions, between parking stalls 9–10

occupancy

maximum 154

notional 153–4

one- and two-way-flow types

combined, threeþ bins wide 52, 53

combined helix


eight stalls wide 120, 121

split-level 122, 123

single ramp 98, 99

ten stalls wide 118, 119

one-way-flow

aisle widths

minimum 13

reduced 11, 19

circular ramps 22, 24

preference for 8

ramp widths 20–1

one-way-flow types

see also one- and two-way-flow types

combined, threeþ bins wide 50, 51

combined helix, side connected 82, 83

contra-flow rapid exit 56, 57

double helix

end connected 64, 65


end ramps 95, 96

circular 114, 115

excluded outflow 28–9, 29, 42, 46, 47

full circular ramps 142, 143

half spiral 130, 131

interlocking double helix 68, 69

internal ramps 92, 93

one-way ramps, separated 110, 111

rapid outflow 44, 45

capacity 31


scissors ramps 48, 49

at right angles 106, 107

single helix


rapid outflow 63, 64, 78, 79

straight ramps 132, 133, 144, 145

end located 134, 135, 136, 137

two-way ramps


parallel 108, 109

warped decks 100, 101

outflow

excluded rapid 46, 47

rapid 44, 45, 62, 63

overhead signage 176, 177

painting, light colours 175

parking stalls see stalls

partially sighted, guidelines 177

pay and display 187

pay stations, signs 178

payment

by mobile phone 187–8

on exit 186, 187

on foot 187

pedestrians

see also disabled pedestrians

access flat and sloping decks 91

angled stalls 11

encumbered 26

fire escapes

access to 153–4, 183

distances from 155–6, 183

stairs as 153, 154–5


guard rails 197

lifts 153

ramps 16

gradients 24

layouts 156, 156

split-level decks 43


signage 177–8

sloping decks 59

and vehicle ramps 15

kerb separation 24–5

petrol interceptors, drainage 181

plans, availability 178

powered two wheelers (PTW)

facilities for 164, 165

separate entries and exits 165

rain

effects on decks 26

effects on stopping distances 27

ramps (pedestrian) 16

gradients 24

regulations 43

split-level decks 43

ramps (vehicle)

see also access ways

aisles, projections into 17

circular 22, 24

one-way-flow 142, 143

two-way-flow 140, 141

cross- 13, 14, 15

dynamic capacities 27–8

end 95, 97

circular 114, 115, 116, 117

exits, headroom 15

gradients 15

recommended 16–17, 16, 18

ground clearance on 7–8

half external 126, 127

interlocking

circular type 24, 150, 151

stadium type 24, 148, 149

internal 88, 89

internal cross- 91

manoeuvring envelopes 18, 19, 20

open-aspect 14

outer clearances 14, 15

pedestrians and vehicle 15

scissor-type 22, 23

scissors, one-way-flow types 48, 49, 106, 107

separated, one-way-flow types 110, 111

side-by-side 22

storey height 17, 18, 103, 105

straight

one-way-flow 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 144,

145

storey height 146, 147

two-way, one-way-flow types 104, 105, 108,

109

widths

and aisle entry efficiency 21

angled stalls 21

one-way-flow 19, 20–1

turning circles 22, 23

two-way-flow 22

rapid exit routes 36, 78, 79

refuges, disabled pedestrians 154

reinforced concrete structures 195

finishes 197

life expectation 195

shrinkage joints 196

retail outlets


supermarkets, lift requirements 156–7

roofs

exposed decks 33–4, 195–6

drainage 181

running costs, multi-storey car parks 187

Safer Car Parks scheme 169

sales, multi-storey car parks 2–3

scissor-type ramps 22, 23

one-way-flow (SLD 3) 48, 49

scissors ramps

one-way-flow types 48, 49


SD 1 (single helix/two-way-flow) 60, 61

as alternative 55, 63, 77, 97

alternatives to 61

congestion 61


SD 2 (single helix/one-way-flow/rapid outflow) 62, 63

alternatives to 63


SD 3 (double helix/end connected/one-way-flow) 64, 65


alternatives to 65


SD 4 (double helix/end connected/two-way-flow) 66, 67

as alternative 67, 69, 89

alternatives to 67


SD 5 (interlocking double helix/one-way-flow) 58, 68, 69



SD 6 (combined helix/side connected/one- and

two-way-flows) 70, 71

alternatives to 71


SD 7 (double helix/side connected/one-way-flows) 72,

73

alternatives to 73


SD 8 (double helix/side connected/one-way-flows) 72, 73

alternatives to 73


searching

stalls

inefficient 51, 53, 81, 83

traffic congestion 73, 81

security

CCTV 168, 169–70

car park shapes 170

optimum monitoring 169–70

presence of 169

lighting 169

motorcycle parking 166

music as aid 169

public perceptions 169, 170, 175

women-only car parks 170


capacities 31

large-capacity 45

lift requirements 156–7

lifts 153, 157

recommendations for

combined flat and sloping decks 93, 97


split-level decks 47, 57

retail outlets 26

side-by-side ramps 22

Index 209

signage

control 178

deck levels, indications 176, 178

deck markings, directional 177

emergency 179

lighting 175

headroom 25

overhead 176, 177

pay stations 178

pedestrians 177–8

schedule 179

variable message 34, 67, 81, 89, 115, 178–9

single helix

one-way-flow


rapid outflow 62, 63, 78, 79

two-way-flow

flat and sloping decks 76, 77


SLD 1 (one-way-flow/rapid outflow) 44, 45


alternatives to 45

capacity 31, 45

circulation efficiency 35, 45


SLD 2 (one-way-flow/excluded outflow)

as alternative

to FSD series 89

to SD series 65, 67, 71, 73

to SLD series 45

to VCM series 95

alternatives to 47


SLD 3 (one-way-flow/scissors ramps) 48, 49


alternatives to 49

capacity 31


SLD 4 (combined one-way-flows, threeþ stalls wide)

50, 51

alternatives to 51


SLD 5 (combined one- and two-way-flows, 3þ bins

wide) 52, 53

as alternative 83

alternatives to 53


SLD 6 (two-way-flow/combined ramps) 54, 55


alternatives to 55


SLD 7 (one-way-flow/contra-flow exit) 56, 57


alternatives to 57


sloping parking decks (SD)

see also SD series

definition 59

disabled drivers 59

parking gradients 59

pedestrian considerations 59

smoke

control 184, 192

detectors 192

speed limits, imposition of 27

split-level decks (SLD)

see also SLD type series

advantages 43

pedestrian ramps in 43

popularity 43

sports utility vehicles (SUV) 6

sprinklers 184

staff parking see tidal car parks

stairs

cores, drainage 181

as fire escapes

fire lobbies 154–5, 154

fire regulations 153

widths 155

stalls

see also angled stalls; disabled parking stalls; parking

decks

access, manoeuvring envelopes 18, 19, 20

dimensions

area per car space 31

length 9

width 9, 27

driver searches 35

dynamic capacity 27

obstructions between 9–10

rectangle 6, 9

searching

inefficient 51, 53, 81, 83

traffic congestion 73, 81

static efficiency 30–1

standard design vehicles (SDV)

see also vehicles

95factor 6, 10

departures from 6, 7

ground clearance 7–8, 10

height 6, 10

length 6, 10

turning diameters 8, 10

wheelbase 7, 10

width 6, 10

static efficiency

definition 30

external bins 30

internal bins 31

single bins 30

two-bin layout 30

steelwork 195

coatings 197

storey height ramps 17, 18, 103, 105

structure

alternative materials 195

deflections 198–9

reinforced concrete 195

finishes 197

life expectation 195

shrinkage joints 196

steelwork 195

coatings 197

supermarkets, lift requirements 156–7

surveillance see CCTV; lighting; security

swept paths, turning circles 22, 23

tag systems of payment 188

tariffs see control systems

temperature differences, exposed decks 196

tidal car parks 9, 49

capacities 32

with flow reversal 69

lifts 157


recommendations for


sloping decks 61, 63, 65, 69

split level decks 49, 55, 57

two-way-flow, ramps 21–2

top decks see decks, exposed

turning circles

circular ramp systems 139

minimum dimension layouts 113


swept paths 22, 23

two-bin layout, static efficiency 30

two-way-flow

aisle widths

minimum 13

reduced 12

circular decks 126, 127

circular ramps 24

end 116, 117

full 140, 141, 142, 143

traffic congestion 61

vehicles crossing 26–7

two-way-flow types

see also one-and two-way-flow types

with combined ramps 54, 55

double helix, end connected 66, 67

single end ramp 96, 97

single helix, sloping decks 60, 61

underground parking 172

constraints 173

efficiency 173

minimum dimension layouts 112, 113

ventilation 190, 191–2

uninhabited layouts, definition 33

USA, high level parking 33, 34

user-friendly car parks 2, 37–9

user-unfriendly car parks 125

variable message signs 34, 67, 81, 89, 115, 178–9

VCM 1 (one-way-flow/internal ramps) 90, 92, 93

as alternative

to FIR series 105, 107, 109, 111

to FSD series 81, 83, 85, 89

to SD series 65, 67, 71, 73

to SLD series 45, 47, 51, 53, 57

to WPD series 101

within VCM series 95, 99

alternatives to 93

capacity 31


VCM 2 (one-way-flow/end ramps) 94, 95

as alternative

to FSD series 85, 89

to SD series 65, 67, 71, 73

to SLD series 57

within VCM series 93, 99

alternatives to 95


VCM 3 (two-way-flow/single ramp) 96, 97


alternatives to 97


VCM 4 (one- and two-way-flow/single ramp) 98, 99


alternatives to 99


vehicles

see also standard design vehicles

camper vans 6

four-wheel drive 6

limosines

in multi-storey car parks 7

stretched 7

new registrations by type 203

sports utility 6

ventilation

air change rates 192

fans 190, 191–2

natural 191

underground parking 190, 191–2

viewing panels, for disabled pedestrians 177

warped parking decks 91

see also WPD series

washing-down facilities, decks 181

waterproofing decks 197–8

wheelbase, standard design vehicles 7, 10

widths

aisles 10–11

minimum 13

parking stalls 9

stairs 155


women-only car parks 170

WPD 1 (warped deck/one-way-flow) 100, 101

alternatives to 101


Index 211

car park designers handbook

Documents

Transcript of car park designers handbook