Capture Fisheries and Post Harvest Technology

1. INTRODUCTION FOR CAPTURE FISHERIESAND POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY

Capture fisheries is intended for catching fishes and also prawns,lobsters, crabs, sea-cucumbers, shales, pearl oysters, edible bivalve andcopious other organisms of other than fishes etc. Premitive human beingwere acquinted with capture fishery centuries passed for him to observeand understand for the possibilities of culturing fish. Then also hedepended mostly on the culture of fishes with parental care. Later, hetried to collect the fingerlings in canals, distribution canals. In the earlierdays, the mixture of carnivore fish fingerlings and carp fish fingerlingswere stocked together in tanks. Later, they were segregated and stockedselecting the required vaiety.

Capture of fishes can be broadly divided in to two types; a)Capture by Human effort b) Capture by observing the behavioural patternof Fishes.

Inland capture fisheries of India has an important place ; itcontributes to about 30% of the total fish production. The large networkof inland water masses will continue to provide great potential, foreconomic capture fishery which consequently will compete well withfasj/ growing fish-culture practices. The freshwater inland watef^ bodiesfall into five major categories, distinguished as the Ganga, theBrahmaputra and the Indus system of the Northern India, and the Eastand the West coast river systems of the Southern (peninsular) India(Figure 1.1). These river systems have certain characteristics of theirown with respect to their ecology, climatic conditions and fishpopulations of commercial food fishes. Besides, there are a number ofland-locked lakes especially those situated at high altitudes which havestarted supporting cold water fisheries of both indigenous and exoticspecies. In addition to the above-mentioned freshwaters, there are alsorich fisheries offered by extensive brackishwaters, including importantestuaries (Hooghly - Matlah, Mahanadi and Godavari estuaries), lagoons(Chilka lake, Pulicat lake) and backwaters (Vembanad) and paddy fields(Pokkali in Kerala). Chilka lake in the state of Orissa is an open shallowbrackishwater lake having an area of 906 sq. km. in summer and 1165

Capture Fisheries and Post-Harvest Technology2

sq. km. in rainy season. A long canal joins it with sea. Waters from riverDaya (Mahanadi) and other smaller streams flow into it. Recent additionsto the natural inland water bodies are man-made reservoirs. There areat present some 300 reservoirs which hold very good prospects, afterrestocking, both for capture as well as for culture fisheries. Some ofthese reservoirs have responded fairly well to attempts to restock themwith indigenous as well as exotic species.

Inland capture fisheries is a- continually expanding industrybringing under its fold newer fisheries of a local or regional nature,while improving upon those which are existing already. Introduction ofexotic species from abroad and inter-regional transplantation of fishfrom Northern to Southern waters have been most welcome andrewarding.

Fig. 1.1 Map of India

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The inland capture fishery, however, stands at a critical juncture,which draws a special attention at the national level. Rapidindustrialization movements in the country have given a serious blowto the growth of the inland fisheries which was struggling to come outof the old-fashioned style to a more rational and scientific style.Construction of dams have been the cause of decline and damage toseveral regionally important fisheries. Discharge from industrialestablishments, multiplying at mushroom growth, into inland waterbodies is polluting the water in very serious proportions, and is damagingthe fish populations tremendously. Already, old-age practices ofindiscriminate fishing of fingerlings and juveniles, supporting local andseasonal fisheries, especially in breeding or nursery gro.unds, have beendoing enormous damage, and needed effective controls for conservation.Likewise, time-old practice of sewage disposal into rivers was amenacing practice causing heavy pollution. Great harm is also beingdone from agricultural wash coming to inland waters, which brings tofish a very toxic principle of the numerous pesticides used in theagricultural practices.

INTRODUCTION TO POST-HARVEST FISHERY

Food even more than clothing or shelter is the indispensablenecessity of mankind. The history of our species is largely an accountof the evolution of equipment and methods of hunting, gathering,cultivating, breeding and otherwise controlling food supplies. Althoughthe initial production of food is primary, the methods adopted for itspreservation, storage and distribution, are no less important and reacton the former.

In all periods and at all levels of technological progress, fish hasusually played an essential part in man’s diet. Although there areoccasionally communities that do not eat fish, whether for reasons ofgeography far more people throughout the world have been and still aredependent almost entirely on fish than is the case with meat.

Fresh fish flesh provides an excellent source of protein for humandiet. This protein is relatively of high digestibility, biological and growth

INTRODUCTION FOR CAPTURE FISHERIES AND POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY


promoting value for human consumption. Nutritional studies have provedthat fish proteins rank in the same class as chicken protein and aresuperior to milk, beef protein and egg albumen. Fish proteins compriseall the ten essential amino acids in desirable strength for humanconsumption. This accounts for the high biological value of fish flesh.Fish flesh therefore becomes a valuable supplement to human diet forpeople who are habitually taking cereals, starchy roots and sugar astheir principal diet. Besides proteins, fish flesh also offers minerals.Iodine, vitamins and fat, over and above all, fish flesh cooks easily,offers a palatable taste and flavour, and is easily digestible. Fish isconsumed either as a preparation from freshly caught fish or from thosethat have been preserved in some farm. Fishes are consumed as food infresh condition. Some of them are also utilized after the preservation.

Fish, however, is more susceptible to spoilage than certain otheranimal protein foods, such as meat and eggs. As part of the naturalprocess by which organic matter is broken down and returned to thenitrogen cycle, fish flesh is rapidly invaded, digested and spoiled by themicro-organisms which are abundant on the skin and in the intestines.Ferments (‘enzymes’ to the scientist) also contribute to the dissolution,and oxidation by atmospheric oxygen is an additional process ofdeterioration, particularly in the case of natural fats.

To prevent spoilage of fish, some form of preservation is necessary.Preservation means keeping the fish, after it has landed, in a conditionwholesome and fit for human consumption for a short period of a fewdays or for longer periods of over a few months. During the period ofpreservation the fish is kept as ‘fresh’ as possible, with minimum lossesin flavour, taste, odour, form, nutritive value, weight and digestibilityof flesh. This preservation should cover the entire period from the timeof capture of fish to its sale at the retailer’s counter.

As a result, methods of preservation to counteract these processesmust in former days have been essential to the utilization of fish asfood. Fish in early times occupied a key position as one of the mosteasily accessible sources of protein food, and the spread of man himselfwas probably determined by the success of the techniques of preservationand storage employed.

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There are regions in the world where fish preservation is notnecessary. In arctic zones, for instance, landed fish is rapidly frozendue to extremely cold climate. No further preservation is called for. Intemperate climate also, the need for preservation is not so pressingbecause fish can remain “fresh” for a few days without any preservation.The picture is different for tropical areas of the world. Here the hotclimate favours rapid spoilage of fish.

The principal processes employed to check bacterial and other formsof spoilage have been few in number. ‘Curing’ by drying, smoking, andsalting with common salt, in various combinations, is bacteriostatic orbactericidal in varying degree. Other salts, acids such as vinegar, sugar,and certain spices and herbs, have a similar effect. Even fermentationitself can be a means of preservation if the process of decomposition isproperly controlled. Cooling by means of ice slows down themultiplication of micro-organisms and hard-freezing below a certaintemperature suspends it altogether. Canning results in their destructionby heat.

These processes, which are all in use to-day have their characteristicproblems and limitations. Furthermore, a certain level of technique, andof social organization, was required in each case before materialcircumstances permitted its appearance in history.

During preservation and processing, some materials of fish andprawn are discarded as waste. Similarly some trash and distasteful fishesare unsuitable for human consumption. These waste material and abovefishes become an important source to produce fish by-products. Whichin turn are used to produce different useful fish by-products by differentfish by-product industries. The following by-products are described indetail.

After fish harvesting the fishes are sold in the market freshly orafter the preservation. In earlier days, the term marketing of fish meantbuying and selling of fish at the landing centre. After the second worldwar, the concept and function of fish marketing have taken a new rolein business activities. The fisheries have now become highly

INTRODUCTION FOR CAPTURE FISHERIES AND POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY


industrialized in all advanced fishing nations. The new marketingtechniques have been adopted so as to sell more fish. The modern fishmarketing system lays emphasis in meeting the existing demands forfish, besides tapping the potential demand in the important markets. Inmany advanced countries the improved methods of fish marketing arebeing adopted with the advancement of fisheries development. Aprogressive fish marketing system will also provide remunerative priceto the primary producer though the interest of the consumer is alsoprotected.

In many developing countries traditional system and fish marketingis adopted. The methods and practices in trade dealings are based onsome customs. These practices have remained unchanged andunimproved over decades. The fish marketing is normally done at thecollection centres, which are mainly situated in the area of fish landing.Fish has peculiar feature at its own and gives a big strain and stress onthe method of its marketing. The fish marketing should not have theobject of only catching and selling of fish but should have the widescope for exploitation, production, distribution, preservation andtransportation of fish in addition to actual sale of fish by reducingmiddlemen.

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2. CLASSIFICATION OF FISHERIES

Aquaculture has been defined in many ways. It has been calledas the rearing of aquatic organisms under controlled or semi controlledcondition - thus it is underwater agriculture. The other definition ofaquaculture is the art of cultivating the natural produce of water, theraising or fattening of fish in enclosed ponds. Another one is simplythe large-scale husbandry or rearing of aquatic organisms for commercialpurposes. Aquaculture can be a potential means of reducing over needto import fishery products, it can mean an increased number of jobs,enhanced sport and commercial fishing and a reliable source of proteinfor the future.

Fish is a rich source of animal protein and its culture is an efficientprotein food production system from aquatic environment. The mainrole of fish culture is its contribution in improving the nutritionalstandards of the people. Fish culture also helps in utilising water andland resources. It provides inducement to establish other subsidiaryindustries in the country.

Fisheries can be categorised into two types - fin fisheries andnon-fin fisheries. The former is fisheries of true fishes, whereas thelater is the fisheries of organisms other than true fish like prawn, crab,lobster, mussel, oyster, sea cucumbers, frog, sea weeds, etc.

Fin fisheries can be further categorised into two types - capturefisheries and culture fisheries. Capture fisheries is exploitation of aquaticorganisms without stocking the seed. Recruitment of the species occurnaturally. This is carried out in the sea, rivers, reservoirs, etc. Fishyield decreases gradually in capture fisheries due to indescriminatecatching of fish including brooders and juveniles. Overfishing destroysthe fish stocks. Pollution and environmental factors influence the fishyield. The catches include both desirable and undesirable varieties.

Culture fisheries is the cultivation of selected fishes in confinedareas with utmost care to get maximum yield. The seed is stocked,nursed and reared in confined waters, then the crop is harvested. Culture


takes place in ponds, which are fertilized and supplementary feeds areprovided to fish to get maximum yield. In order to overcome theproblems found in capture fisheries to increase the production,considerable attention is being given to the culture fisheries.

Culture fisheries is conducted in freshwater, brackish water andsea waters. With the development and expansion of new culture systems,farming of a wide variety of aquatic organisms like prawns, crabs,molluscs, frogs, sea weeds, etc. have come under culture fisheries. Dueto the culture of a variety of aquatic organisms, culture fisheries hasbeen termed as aquaculture.

SUMMARY

Fish is a rich source of animal protein and its culture is an efficientprotein food production system from aquatic environment. The mainrole of fish culture is its contribution in improving the nutritionalstandards of the people. Fish culture also helps in utilising water andland resources. It provides inducement to establish other subsidiaryindustries in the country.

Fisheries can be categorised into two types - fin fisheries andnon-fin fisheries. The former is fisheries of true fishes, whereas thelater is the fisheries of organisms other than true fish like prawn, crab,lobster, mussel, oyster, sea cucumbers, frog, sea weeds, etc.

QUESTIONS

1. Give an account on fisheries classification.

2. Write a brief notes on capture fisheries.

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3. CAPTURE FISHERY RESOURCES IN INDIA

India is endowed with vast and varied aquatic resources (marine andInland) amenable for capture fisheries and aquaculture. While the marinewater bodies are used mainly for capture fisheries resources, the inlandwater bodies are widely used both for culture and capture fisheries. Mostof the inland water bodies are captive ecosystems where intensive humanintervention in the biological production process can be possible andthereby holding enormous potential for many fold increase in fish output.Inland water bodies include freshwater bodies like rivers, canals, streams,lakes, flood plain wetlands or beels (ox-bow lakes, back swamps, etc.),reservoirs, ponds, tanks and other derelict water bodies, and brackishwater areas like estuaries and associated coastal ponds, lagoons (Chilkalake, Pulicat lake) and backwaters (vembanad backwaters), wetlands(bheries), mangrove swamps, etc., The inland watwr resources availablein India are given in Table-3.1.

Table-3.1. Inland water resources in India

Resource Extent Type of fisheries

a. Rivers 29,000km capture fisheriesb. Canals & streams 1,42,000km capture fisheriesc. Lakes 0.72m ha capture fisheriesd. Reservoirs 3.152m ha

Large 1,140,268 ha capture fisheriesMedium 527,541 ha capture fisheriesSmall 1,485,557 ha capture-based fisheries

e. Ponds & tanks 2.85 m ha Culture fisheriesf. Flood plain wetlands 202,213 ha culture-based fisheries

(Beels / Ox-bow lakes)g. Swamps and

Derelict waters 53,471 ha Nil (not known)h. Upland lakes 720,000 ha Not knowni. Brackish water 2.7 m ha

Estuaries 300,000 ha capture fisheriesBack waters 48,000 ha capture fisheries


Lagoons 140,000 ha capture fisheriesWetlands (Bheries) 42,600 ha capture fisheriesMangroves 356,000 ha subsistenceCoastal lands foraquaculture 1.42, m ha capture fisheries

Of these, the rivers, canals, streams, lakes, large and mediumreservoirs, estuaries, and associated backwaters and lagoons supportthe capture fisheries. Whereas freshwater ponds, tanks, swamps andestuarine wetlands (bheries), paddy fields, small shallow coastal lagoonsand coastal pond farms support the culture fisheries or aquaculture.

In capture fisheries, the wild populations are simply harvestedfrom the natural waters with little human intervention in modifying theecosystem i.e. hunting. Example: marine fishery. On the other hand, ina culture fishery, the whole operation is based on captive stocks with ahigh degree of effective human control over the water quality and otherhabitat variables. Example: Culture of fish and shell-fish in ponds. Whenthe fish harvest in an open water system depends solely or mainly onartificial recruitment (stocking), it is generally referred to as culture-based fisheries. Culture-based fishery is the most common method ofenhancing the fish production being followed in some inland waterbodies in India.

The water bodies which are used for capture fisheries are fallsunder three categories. They inland capture fisheries resources, Brackishwater capture fisheries resources and marine capture fishery resourceswhich were delt elsewhere in subsequent chapters

SUMMARY

In capture fisheries, the wild populations are simply harvestedfrom the natural waters with little human intervention in modifying theecosystem

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India is endowed with vast and varied aquatic resources (marineand Inland) amenable for capture fisheries and aquaculture. While themarine water bodies are used mainly for capture fisheries resources, theinland water bodies are widely used both for culture and capture fisheries.Most of the inland water bodies are captive ecosystems where intensivehuman intervention in the biological production process can be possibleand thereby holding enormous potential for many fold increase in fishoutput.

QUESTIONS

1. Write a note on capture fisheries resources of India.

CAPTURE FISHERY RESOURCES IN INDIA


4. RIVERINE FISHERIES

India is blessed with a vast inland water resources in the form ofrivers, estuaries, natural and man made lakes. The Inland water bodieshave been divided into five riverine systems and their tributariesextending to a length of about 29,000 km in the country – Indus, Ganges,Bramhaputra, East flowing riverine system and West riverine system.All these rivers, their tributaries, canals and irrigation channels haveand area of roughly 13000km. These water bodies harbor the originalgermplasm of one of the richest and diversified fish fauna of the worldcomprising 930 fish species belonging to 326 genera. The major riversystems of India on the basis of drainage can be divided broadly intotwo major rivers systems. They are (i) Himalayan rivers system (Ganga,Indus and Bramhaputra) and (ii) Peninsular river system (East cost andWest coast river system).

Major River systems of India

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4.1 Ganges River System:

It is the largest river systems of the world, having a combinedlength (including tributaries) of 12,500 km. It originates from Gangotriin the Himalayas at a height of about 3129 km above the sea level.After origin it drains the southern slopes of the central Himalayas. Gangapasses through UP, Bihar, some parts of Rajasthan, M.P. and west Bengaland finally joins to the Bay of Bengal. It has a large number of tributariesand ‘Yamuna’ river is one of the major tributaries of this system, whichis about 1000 km long. The other tributaries are – Ram Ganga. Gomti,Ghaghra, Gandak, Kosi, Chambal, Betwa and Ken. Further more; it hasnumerous lakes, ponds and Jheels, both perennial and seasonal areas. Ithas a total catchment area of 9.71 lakh sq. km and receives an annualrainfall of 25-77 inches.

4.1.1 Physico-Chemical Characteristics:

i) Temperature range - 16.70C in January – 31.50C inJune to sept.

ii) PH - 7.4 during June to August andMaximum 8.3 during January toMay.

iii) Turbidity - 100 ppm in January; 1100-2170ppm during July to September.

iv) Do2 - 5.0 to 10.5 ppm during January toFebruary while in monsoon2.00ppm (July-Sept.)

v) Co2 - 0.6 ppm -10.0ppmvi) Chloride - 4.0 -35.4 ppmvii) Phosphate - 0.05-021ppmviii) Nitrates - 0.08-0.22ppmix) Silicates - 4.0-20.3ppmx) Carbonates - 1.0 – 12.0 ppm

4.1.2 Common Phytoplanktons:

Phytoplanktons are generally poor during the monsoon and autmn

RIVERINE FISHERIES


months. Common phytoplanktons found in Ganga river system are – (i)Members of Bacillariophyceae like Amphora, Asterionella, Cymbella,Navicula and Synedra etc. (ii) members of Chlorophycace like, Chlorella,Closterium, Denticula, Pandorina and Spirogyea etc.(ii) members ofMyxophyceae like Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria etc.

4.1.3 Common zooplanktons:

Rattulas, Rotaria, Keratella, Filuia, Notops, Monostyla etc.

4.1.4 Fisheries of Ganga river systems:

The Ganga river system supports a large number of commerciallyimportant fish species including major carps (Labeo. rohita: L.Calabasu,Catla catla and Cirrhinus mrigala), minor carps ( Labeo fimbriatus;L.bata; Cirrhinus. reba), catfishes (Wallago. attu ; Mystus. aor; M..tengara, Clarias. batrachus; Heteropneustes fossilis), cluipeiods,murrels (Channa species), feather backs (Notopterus. notopterus;N.chitala), mullets (Mugil corsula), fresh water eel (Anguilla) andprawns (Macrobrachium malcolmsonii; Palaemon. Lamarii). Apart fromthese fishes, the others like Pangasius; silonia silondia; Gudusia chapra;Bagasius. bagasius; Eutropichthys. vacha are also found in the riversystem.

The commercial fisheries in this zone are non-existing due tospares population, inaccessible terrain and poor communication betweenfishing grounds and landing centers. The fish yield has been declinedover the years due to 1) sandification of the river bed (upto Patna) whichreduced the rivers productivity due to blanket effect, (2) markedreduction in the water volume on account of increase sedimentation,(3) increased water abstraction and (4) irrational fishing.

In spite of this, the Ganga river system is contributing nearlyabout 89.5% of the total fish seed correlation of India.

4.1.5 Fishing gears used :The principal gears used in Ganga river system are dragnets,

cast nets and bag nets.

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4.2. Godavari River System:

It originates in Doolai hills near Nasik in North Western Ghats.This river system is a part of East coast of pennensular river system,with a length of 1465 km covering the states like Maharastra,Andhrapradesh and Madhyapradesh. It has the primary tributaries likemanjira, Wainganga; Subtributaries like paingunga and wardha andminor tributaries like maner and sabari. It drains into Bay of Bengal. Ithas a total catchments area of over 315,980 sqkm.

4.2.1 Physico-Chemical characteristics:

i) Temperature – 27.5 to 36.40Cii) PH - 7.2 to 8.3iii) Do2 mg/L - 1.26 -18.2iv) Co2 - 0.0 – 6.6 ppmv) Bicarbonates - 45.8 -192-2ppm

4.2.2 Fisheries of Godavari River System:

The head waters harbour a variety of game fishes but don’tsupport the commercial fisheries. The commercial fisheries consist ofcarps (major caps, Labeo fimbriatus), large cat fish (Mystus spp.,Wallago attu; Bagarius bagarius) and fresh water prawn (Macrobrachiumrosenbergii). Hilsa formed lucrative –fisheries and the Indian major carpsplanted in the river in the beginning in 19th century are thriving welland contributing to the commercial fisheries.

4.2.3 Fishing gears used:

The principle gear used in Godavari river system are falls undertwo categories viz. gill nets, which include setgill nets, drift nets, draggill nets (Benduvala) and the barrier gillnet (Katu vala). Seines includeshore seine (Jaruguvala), Large seine (Allui vala) and dragnet castnetsare also employed for fishing.

RIVERINE FISHERIES


4.3 Krishna river system:

The originates in Western Ghats region, south of Poona andfinally drains into East coast, with an a length of 1401km covering thestate like Maharastra, Karnataka and Andhrapradesh. It has the maintributaries like Bhima (Annual) and Tungabhadra (Perennial). This riversystem has an total catchments area of 2,33,229 sq km.

The physico-chemical characteristics, fish fauna and the fishinggears used similar to the Godavari river system.

In general, the physiographic and fish fauna resembles theGodavari river systems. The head waters support rich fishery whencompared to mid-stretch, which is rocky and inaccessible. Noinformation is available on its present fishery and catch statistics.

4.4 Cauveri river System:This river system originates from Brahmagiri hills on western

ghat, with an elevation of 1340 m extending to a length of 800 km. thisriver system covering the states the Karnataka and Tamil Nadu finallydrains into Bay of Bengal in Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu. It hasthe tributaries like Bhavani, Noyil and Amaravathi. This river systemhas an total catchment area of 4,70000 sq km. The water resources ofthe river are extensively exploited as numerous reservoirs, anicuts andbarrages have been built on the river.

4.4.1. Physico-Chemical characteristics:

i) Temperature – 26 to 30.90Cii) PH - 7.6 to 8.5iii) Do2 mg/L - 1.26 -18.2iv) Co2 - 0.0 – 6.6 ppmv) Bicarbonates - 45.8 -192-2ppm

4.4.2 Fisheries of Cauveri river system:

The Cauveri river system exhibits substantial variations in its

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fauna - nearly 80 species of fish belong to 23 families have been reportedfrom this river system. Its fish funa differs significantly from Godavariand Krishna river system. The fishes like Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis; Tor. Putitora; Barbus carnatus; B. dubius; Labeo kontius; L. ariza;Cirrhinus cirhosa; Mystus aor; Mystus seenghala; Pangasius pangasius;Wallago attu; Silonia silonida; Glyptothorax madrapatanus; Gangeticcarps such as Catla catla; Labeo rohita; Cirrhinus mrigala and the exoticspecies Cyprinus carpio and Osphronemus goramy have beentransplanted in Cauveri river system. The game fish Tor khudri and Tmussullah are found all along the river length except the deltaic stretch.

4.5 West coast river system:

The west coast system comprises the river Narmada and Tapti,both of which flow in westernly direction of the country and drain thenarrow belt of peninsular India, west of the western ghats further in thenorth the system forms basins of Narmada and Tapti and the drainage ofGujarat.

4.5.1. Narmada river system :

This river system originates in Amarkantak hills of MadhyaPradesh, at an elevation of 1,057 m above the sea level. The length ofthe river is 1280 km, covering Madhyapradesh and Gujarat states andfinally drains into gulf of Cambay in Gujarat. The effective catchmentsarea of this river system is 94235 sq. km and 6330 sq. km of its alltributaries. This river system comprises of total 18 tributaries, of which16 in Madhya Pradesh and 2 in Gujarat. This river system receives andannual rain fall of 12” – 115”.

4.5.1.1. Fishery of Narmada river system:

Narmada river harbors 84 fish species belonging to 23 genera.The contribution of carps in commercial fishery is of the order of 60.4%,followed by catfishes of 34.1 % and miscellaneous fishes of 5.5%. Thecarp fish groups are Tor tor; Labeo. frimbriatus; L.calabasu; L.bata;L.gonius; Cirrhinus. reba; Puntius. sarana etc, cat fish groups such as

RIVERINE FISHERIES


Mystus seenghala ; M.aor ; M. cavasius; Wallago. Attu ; Clupisomagarua; Ompak bimaculatus and miscellaneous fish groups like Channaspp, Mastacembalus spp; Notopterus notopterus.

Cast nets, gill nets and longlines are the fishing gears that are generallyused in these waters.

4.5.2. Tapti River System:

This river system originates in Mount Vindhya of Satpura rangeat an elevation of 670 –100m above the sea level, with a total length of720 km. This river system covers the states like Maharastra, MadhyaPradesh and Gujarat and finally drains into Arabian Sea at Dumas nearSurat in Gujarat. The total catchments area of this river is 48,000 sq.km and annual rainfall is more or less similar to the Narmada riversystem.

Not much information of fish stock composition and fish yieldis available. The main fisheries of this river system are Tor. tor; Mystus.seenghala; M.aor; Wallago attu; Labeo calabasu; L. fimbriatus; Puntiussarana; Cirrhinus mrigala; C. reba, Chupisorna garna; Channa spp;Mastacembalus. armatus.

Cast nets, gillnets and long lines and also Mahajal is used as thefishing gear in these waters.

4.6 Factors influencing fish yield from rivers:

The intensity of fishing, nature of exploitation and speciesorientation are the characteristics of the artisan riverine fisheries andare governed by

i) Seasonality of riverine fishing activityii) Unstable catch compositioniii) Conflicting multiple use of river wateriv) Cultural stresses leading to nutrient loading and pollution.v) Lack of understanding of the fluvial system and infirm data

base.

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vi) Fragmentary and out molded conservation measures lackingenforcement machinery.

vii) Inadequacy infrastructure and supporting servicesviii) Affordability and playability andix) Socio- economic and socio-cultural determinant.

An intelligent management strategy has to take cognizance of keyparameters such as hydrology, fish stocks and dynamics of theirpopulation together with regulatory measures for fishing. Observanceof closed seasons and setting up of fish sanctuaries has proved theirefficacy in the faster recovery of impaired fisheries.

SUMMARY

India is blessed with a vast inland water resources in the form ofrivers, estuaries, natural and man made lakes. The Inland water bodieshave been divided into five major riverine systems and their tributariesextending to a length of about 29,000 km in the country – Indus, Ganges,Bramhaputra, East flowing riverine system and West riverine system.All these rivers, their tributaries, canals and irrigation channels haveand area of roughly 13000km. These water bodies harbor the originalgermplasm of one of the richest and diversified fish fauna of the worldcomprising 930 fish species belonging to 326 genera. The major riversystems of India on the basis of drainage can be divided broadly intotwo major rivers systems. They are (i) Himalayan rivers system (Ganga,Indus and Bramhaputra) and (ii) Peninsular river system (East cost andWest coast river system).

QUESTIONS

1. Give an account of riverine fishery of India.

2. Give an account on the principle fishes from ganga river system.

3. Write short notes on Godavari and cauveri river system.

RIVERINE FISHERIES


5. COLD WATER AND SPORT FISHERIES

5.1 Cold water fisheries:

The cold water fishes adopted to live below 100C to 200Ctemperature. The upland water at high altitudes of mountains and thespring water at low altitude in temperate regions remain cooler than therest and the cold water fishes flourish in these region. Such water bodiescomprising several hill streams, rapids, pools, lakes and reservoirs areabundantly found in the Himalayan region and in the Deccan plateauregion of peninsular India. These are either fed by melting snow andthe springs as in north or by the rain water as in Deccan plateau.

During recent years, there has been growing realization fordevelopment of cold water fisheries in India, since the production fromcold water is neglisable in comparison to total inland catch. The trouthatchery established in Kashmir is one of the potential sources fromwhere the brown trout have been transplanted to the upland waters ofJammu, Kashmir, Kullu, Simla, Kangra, Nainital, Shilong andArunachal. Other hatcheries constructed at Nilgiris and Kerala.

5.1.1 Indigenous cold water fishes:

Mahaseer, Snow trout and Indian hill trout are the principle coldwater fish species inhabiting the mountain waters of India.

Mahaseer fishery of cold water: It is one of the major game fishesof Himalayas. How ever, it has not received attention as exotic fishes inIndia. It is generally found in large sizes and abundant in quantitiesfrom mountain streams and rivers. Some of the important species ofmahaseer are:

1) Tor tor (Hamilton): It is characterized by head shorter than thedepth of the body. It attains a length of 1.5 m and occurs along thefoot hills of Himalayas from Kashmir to Assam and in the riverNarmada and Tapti. It is insectivorous in its juvenile stage butbecomes herbivorous when adult. It has a prolonged breeding season

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Fig. 5.1 Principal cold water fishes - A. Salmo trutta, B. Tor tor, C. Torputitora, D. Tinca tinca, E. Salmo gardnerii

COLD WATER AND SPORT FISHERIES


from July to December. The eggs are laid in batches. It constitutesthe major fisheries of rivers Narmada and Tapti.

2) Tor putitora (Hamilton): It is commonly called as golden orcommon Himalayan Mahaseer. It has head longer than the depth ofthe body. It occurs in Himalayas from Kashmir to Darjeeling hills.This fish breeds thrice in a year, firstly during winter months (Januaryto February), subsequently in summer (May –June ) and lastly inAugust – September.

3) Tor mosal (Sykes): Mosal Mahaseer has head more or less equal tothe depth of the body. It is found in the Mountain Rivers on foothills of Himalayas, Kashmir, Assam and Sikkim.

4) Tor mosal mahanadicus: It resembles the mosal mahaseer in allaspects except, it is found in the river Mahanadi and that its headhaving small eyes is often higher than the depth of the body.

5) Tor khudree (Sykes): It is characterized by its head being as longas the depth of the body. It is found in Orissa and throughoutpeninsular India. It attains a length of about 1.3 m.

6) Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis (Mc Clelland): It is commonlyknown as copper or chocolate Mahaseer. It has an oblong andcompressed body with an obtusely rounded and prominent mouth.The colour of the body is deep bluish grey with darkish fins. Theseare mainly distributed Upper Ondia,Assam and Cauvery riverinTamil Nadu. It attains a length over 60 cm. It differs from Tort orin having hexagonal shape of its scales and the thin lips.

7) Snow trouts: Snow trouts are chiefly represented by two genera,namely Scizothorax and Schizothoraicthys.

Schizothoraichthys: It is represented by three species in Himalayasviz. S. richadsonii, S. Plagistomus and S. molesworthi. These are foundin snow fed streams of Assam, estern Himalayas, Sikkim, Nepal,Kashmir. The genera is represented by S. esocinus, S. progastus and

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S. kumaonensis, of these, the S. esocinus is found in Kashmir andLadhak, S. progastus in the hill streams of Ganges at Hardwar andDarjeeling and S. kumaoneus in Nainital.

The Indian hill trout: Berilius is known as Indian hill trout. It isrepresented by four species, namely B. bendelisis, B. bola, B. vagra andB.gatensis.

Exotic cold water fishes:

The exotic fishes found in the hill streams of India chiefly include thetrouts, mirror carps, crucian carps and tenches.

1. Trouts: Exotic trouts in India are represented by three species, twoof them belonging to genera Salmo and one to Onchorhynchus.

(a). Salmo gairdneri gairdneri – It is commonly known as rainbowtrout or steel head it is a native of North American Pacific water andwas imported to India in1907. Presently, these are one of the mostsuccessful trouts of Indian waters for cultural purpose because theseadapt easily in comparison to the brown trout’s. Moreover, they promptlyfeed on artificial food and can withstand the high temperature and O2depleted water as well. Their incubation period is shorter and the rateof development and growth is faster. Upon being well fed, they attain alength of 400-500 mm in three years and weight about 5.5 kg.

The body is elongate head short and mouth comparatively small. Thecolor of the body is variable, depending on sex and environment. It ischiefly a river fish but is cultivated in confined water as well .It doesnot breed in ponds but artificial fertilization is possible. The fry feedmainly on planktons but half grown and adults are carnivorous. It is agame fish too.

(b). Salmo trutta fario – It is commonly called as brown trout. It is anative of the mountains water of central and Western Europe. This fishwas the first one reproduced and reared artificially in India. Although itwas introduced to mountain waters of all hills, it could establish itself



only in the streams and farms at Kashmir and in river beas in Punjab.It feeds upon the crustaceans and large living prey at the bottom. Itattains a maximum length about 46.5 cm, depending upon the naturalfood availability. During breeding seasons, the fish swims up streamsto spawn on gravel bedded shallows of fast current water.

5.2 Sport Fisheries

Sport fishing is a source of recreation to millions of people from Indiaand abroad and it deserves the status of family recreation. The recreationis an important element of enjoyment and satisfaction derived from thesport fishing. The medical authorities also say it is healthy for peopleto go fishing. Sport fishing satisfies diverse tastes and pursuits.

Most of the well known food fishes are also some of the best knowngame fishes. The true definition of a game fish or a sport fish is that anyfish caught or angled on rod and line putting up some fight and notthrown back in disgust by the angler or sports man. Apart from this, theclassifications of fish deal with small and big game fisher generallyweighing over 50 Kgs. Trout’s, snow trout’s and Mahaseers, goonchetc. placed under big game fish category. In addition, there are differentkinds of methods within the sport fishing or angling.

5.2.1 Principal Game fishes:

The sporting fish includes Mahaseers, trouts and large catfishes etc.The game fish inhabits both fresh and soft waters include small andlarge species. The brief description of each of the principal game fishesof India exhibits its natural habit at in detailed. Various characters usedto distinguish each species from one another include body shape, natureand characteristics of fins, morph metric measurements and naturalcoloration. Based on their occurrence and ecosystem, the game fishesclassified into two groups, such as (a) Fresh water game fishes (b)Estuarine and sea game fishes.

The fresh water game fishes listed as follows, Notopterus chitala, Chelaargentea, Raimas bola, Tor Chillinoides, Tor putitora, Tor tor, T. khudree,

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Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis, Schizothoraichthys esocinus,Schizothorax planifrons, Catta catla, Labeo calbasu, Labeo rohita,Cirrhinus mrigala, Wallago attu, Clupisoma garua, Silonia silondia,Pangasius pangasius, Eutropiichthys vcha, Mystus (Aoricthys) aor,Mystus seenghala, Bagarius bagarius, Channa striatus, Channa marulius,Anguilla bengalensis and Mastacembelus armatus etc.

Eustuarine and Sea game fishes have the following species, Megalopscyprinoides Lates calcarifer, Eleutheronema tetradactylus, Lutjanusargentimaculata, Scomberomorus commersoni, S. guttatus, Sparus berdaand Sparus datnia etc.

5.2.2 Fishing equipment:

The net and the spear are the earliest fishing methods. These are mainlyconcerned with the aim of kindling out of water some fish to eat and theequipment developed by them met this requirement very efficiently,devised lure or tackle. Gradually this follows the methods of spoon,plug or artificial fly. The various units of fishing equipment or fishingtackle starting with the lure are in the sequence as follows. Lure, hook,leader, line, reel and rod. In addition to these certain accessories likesinkers and swivels are universally added. The lures are further subdivided in to (a) Spinners and spoons (b) plugs or lures with body and(c) Flies.

5.2.3 Sport Fishing and Tourism:

India, one of the many countries of the world, earns considerable foreignexchange through tourism including fishing. Among the carps of theIndia, several of which give (Mahaseer, trout etc.) good sport. Sportfishing satisfies diverse tastes and persuits. It is a source of recreationof millions of tourists.

Angling has already become a source of family recreation of people ofall ages, and social economic strata of the society in different countries.Like any other outdoor recreation family-fishing must be geared toprovide pleasant experiences to members of both sexes and widely



varying ages. Besides the other elements of importance in sport fishingis natural environment, water quality, natural beauty, privacy etc.increasing numbers of people to go fishing.

Efforts to attract foreign tourists and anglers for Mahaseer fishing fromdifferent countries of the world, Air-India got the survey of the ‘Beasriverundertaken by Trek-N-Tour, Himachal, located at Palampur with theaim of developing Mahaseer fishing for tourism. Two English menMartin Clark and Robert Hewitt in 1980, visited Karnataka to fish thecauvery about 100 km from Bangalore. The camped near the river tookthe permission from the state to the wild-life – Association of SouthIndia (WASI). Using ragi-pasti, after a few casts the team had theirfirst Mahaseer followed by biggest Mahaseer weighing 92 Lb (41.76Kgs), 1.7 m in length and 1.0 m in girth. Within 2 months of duration,they caught 40 Mahaseers and later on released in back.

Apart from this holding of community activity like seminars, fishingcompetition and educational camps, encouraging people involved inconservation methods by granting awards for successful performance,and promoting national and international tourism through sport fishing.Besides this issuing of fishing license by the state fisheries departmentis another task. It should be cleared off immediately whenever the anglerneed the license for game fishing, so that the department can encouragethe participants as well as gain the revenue to the state simultaneously.

SUMMARY

The cold water fishes adopted to live below 100C to 200Ctemperature. The upland water at high altitudes of mountains and thespring water at low altitude in temperate regions remain cooler than therest and the cold water fishes flourish in these region. Mahaseer, Snowtrout and Indian hill trout are the principle cold water fish speciesinhabiting the mountain waters of India.

Sport fishing is a source of recreation to millions of people from Indiaand abroad and it deserves the status of family recreation. The recreationis an important element of enjoyment and satisfaction derived from the

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sport fishing. The medical authorities also say it is healthy for peopleto go fishing. Sport fishing satisfies diverse tastes and pursuits.

QUESTIONS

1. Describe the status of coldwater fisheries.

2. Give an account on principal indigenious coldwater fishes.

3. Write a note on sport fishery.

4. Give an account on the importance of sport fisheries in tourism.



6. RESERVOIR FISHERIES

India has a large spread of fresh water resources in the form ofrivers, reservoirs, lakes, ponds. Indian reservoirs, being in the tropics,have high primary productivity and have the capacity to produce morefish than their present low Indian average of 29.7 kg/ha/yr in reservoirs.Reservoir fisheries are essentially a stocking cum capture system. Thereare 975 reservoirs in the country with a total area of more than 3.15million hectares.

River water is usually running or flowing water. Construction ofdam results in the creation of a reservoir or dam- lake, in which thelotic water of the upper reaches becomes lentic as water approaches thedam. Rise in reservoir depends upon river flow and rain water. A newreservoir passes through three trophic phases- initial fertility, trophicdepression and final fertility. Filling of a reservoir inundates vast areabearing a cover of vegetation. It starts decaying and putrefaction resultsinitial fertilization of the water leading to an intense development offish food in the form of benthic micro and macro flora and fauna. Theinitial increase of biota is often spectacular. After the initial high fertility,trophic depression phase sets in. This is cause by gradual diminishingof the rate of nutrient release. This is due to increase in the volume ofthe impounded water and available nutrients used by the vegetation.After this phase is passed the final fertility level is reached in thereservoir, which is a much lower level than that of initial fertility.

6.1. Reservoir Ecology:

Reservoir ecology is changed from the reverine ecology because,in reservoirs, the lotic water of the upper reaches becomes lentic aswater approaches the dam. This facilitates entirely different types offishery called reservoir fishery, to suit the ecology of the reservoir. Areservoir has its own peculiarities in which it differs from natural lakes.

The revirine ecology of the water of the upper reaches becomesincreasingly changed into lacustrine ecology in the reservoir. The benthicriverine fauna disappears and it is replaced by typical lacustrine benthic

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fauna. With the change in from the lotic to lentic conditions of the watercurrent, riverine plankton are replaced by lacustrine plankton. Theturbidity level also reduced as reservoir act as settling basins. Fish faunais greatly affected. The running water fish species become fewer orcompletely eliminated. Slow water fish species are predominant. Floatingplants may come up, particularly in tropics where they createdeoxygenating conditions or cause other serious ecological problems.

The dam in some way interferes with the ecology of the upperreaches of the river. Migratory fishes are completely wiped out fromthe upper reaches. This often leads to disturbances in the ecosystemespecially with advantage to the prey. The reservoir it self may affectthe ecology of the lower reaches of the river. Periodical discharge ofsediments from the reservoirs may cause mud and silting in the lowerreaches with serious consequences on the fauna. Reservoir acts asfertility traps, reducing the amount of dissolved plant nutrients whichwould other wise be freely arriving at the lower reaches.

6.2. Reservoirs in India and AP:

Some important reservoirs in India are listed in the table.

Name of Dam State River

Rihand UP Rend (Ganga)Dhandraul UP BhakarSarda Sagar UP Chuka Sanda (Ganga)Dhora UP DhoraMatatila UP GangaGovid Sagar Punjab & HP SutlejBeas Punjab & HP BeasHirakud Orissa MahanadiRana Pratap Sagar RajastanMaithon Bihar Barakar (Ganga)Panchet Bihar Damodar (Ganga)Ghandi Sagar MP Chambal (Ganga)Mettur Tamil Nadu Cauvery

RESERVOIR FISHERIES


Bhavani sagar Tamil Nadu BhavaniNagarjuna Sagar AP KrishnaNizam Sagar AP MowginaTungabhadra Karnataka Tungabhadra (Krishna)Krishnaraj Sagar Karnataka CauveryNeyyar Kerala NeyyarUkai Gujarat -

The following reservoirs are presently suitable for the fish culture inAndhra Pradesh.

Nagarjuna Sagar - Guntur and Nalgonda Districts.

Thandava - Visakhapatnam

Tammileru - West Godavari

Araniyar and Bahuda - Chitoor

Mopad - Prakasam

Kanigiri and Duvvuru - Nellore

Somasila - Nellore and Cuddapah

Srisailam - Kurnool

Moosi and Dindi - Nalgonda

Manjira and Singoor - Medak

Wyra, Kinnerasani, Palair - Khammam

Srirama Sagar - Adilabad and Nizamabad

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Kadam and Sathnala - Adilabad

Lower Manair and Upper Manair - Karimnagar

Nizam Sagar – Nizamabad

Pakhal - Warangal.

6.3. Classification of reservoirs:

The reservoirs are classified by many authors in different ways mainlybased on the area of reservoirs.

Mohanty (1984) reported three types of reservoirs.

Minor reservoirs – with water spread area up to 40 ha.

Medium reservoirs – With water spread area upto 400 ha.

Major reservoirs – with the water spread area above 400 ha.

Pathak (1990) classified the reservoirs into three categories.

Large reservoirs – covering an area of 5000 and more hectares.

Medium reservoirs – having impounded water spread area of 1000 –5000 hectares.

Small reservoirs – having water spread area less than 1000 hectares.

Agarwal (1990) classified the reservoirs, keeping in view theavailabilities and other factors of management into four categories.

Large reservoirs – the water spread area between 1000 – 5000 ha.

Medium reservoirs – the water spread area between 100 – 1000 ha.

RESERVOIR FISHERIES


Minor reservoirs – the water spread area between 10 – 100 ha.

Small reservoirs – the water spread area below 10 ha.

Jhingran and Sugunan (1990) classified the reservoirs into these groups.

Large reservoirs – the water spread area more than 1000 ha.

Medium reservoir – the water spread area is in between 500 – 1000 ha.

Small reservoirs – the water spread area is less than 500 ha.

6.4. Management of Reservoir fisheries:

The fish production from the reservoirs is low, emphasizing theneed for attention to shape and develop the reservoir fisheries from thesurvey and planning stage to achieve high rate of production and betterreturns for the fishermen, who represent the weaker section of the society.Majority of these water bodies are not scientifically managed. Only ahandful has so far been harnessed on scientific lines, while the othersare either half-heartedly managed or even not managed at all.

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There are marked variations in the fishery management practiceswhich are followed in various reservoirs within the country. Even thoughthe reservoirs are owned by the Government or Corporate agencies inmost of the states, their fishing rights and exploitation systems varyconsiderably. The fishing systems can be divided into the following broadcategories: a). privately owned and managed reservoirs, b). Public waterbodies, c). Community water bodies and d). Water bodies managed bythe Government. After a scrutiny of the various management practicesfollowed in the country, it is difficult to miss a common underlyingspirit of the common property norm. Majority of Indian reservoirs arepublic properties where a fixed number of licensed fishermen make theirliving. The exceptions are the small reservoirs in some states likeKarnataka and Uttar Pradesh, which are auctioned to private individualson annual basis.

The following steps are to be taken for the development of reservoirfisheries. Some of them are

1. Pre- impoundment survey of the reservoir2. Removal of obstacles like tree stumps.3. Fish farm construction at the dam site for stocking of fish seed

adequately.4. Organization of fishermen co-operative society for harvesting

the fish in the reservoir and to take up fish marketing.5. Implementation of conservation methods to prevent over

exploitation and to prevent catching of small fish.

6.4.1. Pre – impoundment survey:

Before formation of reservoir studies and investigations weretaken up in the rivers connected to know the possible effects of fisheries.In case of the dams constructed, the dam constructing authorities shouldfacilitate necessary fish ways for fish migration. The authorities alsoassess the fishermen living in the villages and their craft & tackles thatare going under the submergence of the reservoir. The above measuresare to be taken up before formation of the reservoir to assess and to planfor future development of fishery in the reservoir.

RESERVOIR FISHERIES


6.4.2. Removal of obstacles under submergence:

After formation of the reservoir, it should facilitate easy fishingwith modern fishing methods. To facilitate the above, the trees, buildings,boulders are to be removed either by mechanical means or manually.

6.4.3. Construction of fish seed farms at dam site:

Some of the reservoirs have got river connection as such, theywill have natural stocking of fish seed (auto stoking). The reservoirs,which will have a deep column of water, will greatly affect the breedinggrounds of the fish. Further more the height of the dam is another majorobstruction for the movement of the fish from the lower stretch of theriver to upper stretches. All these factors leads to low productivity, whichdrags the attention of many authorities towards the fish seed stockingevery year in the reservoirs. Keeping in view of this, planning has to bedone for establishment of a fish seed farm near the dam site. TheDepartment of fisheries, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh made an attempt topromoting the fishery wealth in the reservoirs, by constructing the fishseed farms at Thandva, Wyra, Kinnerasani, Palair, Nagarjuna Sagar,Nizam Sagar, Dindi, Jurala, Kadam, Araniyar, Bahuda, Somasila, SriramSagar and Lower Manair dam.

6.4.4. Stocking of the fish seed in reservoirs: An adequate sized fishseed should be stocked in the reservoirs. The tender stages of fish seedlike fry (22-25 mm), fingerlings (40-50 mm) are susceptible and are tobe eaten by the carnivorous fishes. Hence the reservoirs to be stockedwith an advanced fingerlings (100-120 mm). Stocking of reservoirs withfingerlings of economically important fast growing species to coloniesall the diverse niches of the biotype is one of the necessary prerequisitesin reservoir fishery management. This has proved to be a useful tool fordeveloping fisheries potential of such small aquatic systems.

Agarwal (1990) recommended the following stocking rates in reservoirs.

1. Large reservoirs (1000 -5000 ha) – 500 fry/ha/yr.2. Medium reservoirs (100-1000 ha) – 1000 fry/ha/yr.

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3. Minor reservoirs (10-100 ha)- 2000 fry/ha/yr.4. Small reservoirs (below 10 ha) – 10000 fry/ha/yr.

Srivastava (1985) recommended the following stocking rates offingerlings for reservoirs in India.

1. Large reservoirs (5000 -10000 ha) – 200 fry/ha/yr.2. Medium reservoirs (1000-5000 ha) – 400 fry/ha/yr.3. Minor reservoirs (up to 1000 ha) - 1000 fry/ha/yr.

6.4.5. Implementation of conservancy methods to prevent overexploitation:

It has been observed that fishes of mature major carp fishesmigrate to the rivers for breeding, where the fishermen lead to catchthem and destroy their breeding grounds. The breeding grounds of thesefishes are to be identified and necessary protective measures are to betaken up. It is also observed that during rainy season, the big fishesmigrate towards the dam site along the canals and congregate at thegates, which has been catch by the fishermen folk. This is to be reduced.The conservancy methods like mesh size regulation, observing the closedseason for fishing, strict observation of prohibiting the unethical meansof fishing are to be implemented strictly by the Government.

6.4.6 Species enhancement:

Decline of indigenous fish stocks due to habitat loss, especiallythat caused by dam construction, is a universal phenomenon. Plantingof economically important, fast growing fish from outside with a viewto colonising all the diverse niches of the biotope for harvestingmaximum sustainable crop from them is species enhancement. It can bejust stocking of a new species of introductions. Here introduction meansone time or repeated stocking of a species with the objective ofestablishing its naturalised populations. This widespread managementpractice has more relevance to larger water bodies where stocking andrecapture on a sustainable basis is not feasible.

RESERVOIR FISHERIES


6.4.7 Introduction of exotics :

In India, the fish transferred on trans-basin basis within thegeographic boundaries of the country is not considered as exotic andthere are no restrictions on them. Thus, catla is not regarded as exotic topeninsular rivers. This is despite the fact that the peninsular rivers havehabitats distinctly different from those of Ganga and Bhrahmaputra.Catla, rohu. and mrigal have been stocked in the peninsular reservoirsfor many decades now. with varying results. In some of the south Indianreservoirs, they have established breeding populations. The hallmarkof the Indian policy on introductions is the heavy dependence on Indianmajor carps.

There is evidence that the Gagetic major carps have affected thespecies diversity of peninsular cyprinids. The Indian policy on stockingreservoirs, though not very explicit, disallows the introduction of exoticspecies into the reservoirs. However, common carp is very popular inreservoirs of the northeast where it enjoys a favourable microclimateand a good market. Silver carp and grass carp are not normallyencouraged to be stocked in Indian reservoirs, though they are stockedregularly in a few small reservoirs. The three exotic species brought inclandestinely by the fish farmers, bighead carp..Aorichthys nobilis,Oreochromis niloticus and African catfish Clarius gariepinus have notgained entry into the reservoir ecosystems. They still remain restrictedto the culture systems.

6.4.8 Environment enhancement:

The improvement of the nutrient status of water by the selectiveinput of fertilisers is a very common management option adopted inintensive aquaculture. If similar environmental enhancement is adoptedin small reservoirs, stocks can be maintained at levels higher than thenatural carrying capacity of the environment. However, scientificknowledge to guide the safe application of this type of enhancementand the methods to reverse the environmental degradation, if any. isstill inadequate. On account of all these, this is not a very commonmanagement tool. China is known to have used this instrument in a big

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way to augment production from small reservoirs. Cuba, taking a cluefrom China has tried manuring of small reservoirs using both organicand inorganic fertilisers. This is also practised selectively in thecommunity water bodies of Thailand.

Fertilisation of reservoirs as a means to increase waterproductivity through abetting plankton growth has not received muchattention in India. Multiple use of the water body and the resultantconflict of interests among the various water users are the main factorsthat prevent the use of this management option. Surprisingly, fertilisationhas not been resorted to even in reservoirs which are not used for drinkingwater and other purposes. Documentation on fertilisation of reservoirsin India is scarce. Sreenivasan and Pillai (1979) attempted to improvethe plankton productivity of Vidur reservoir by the application of superphosphate with highly encouraging results. As soon as the canal sluicewas closed, 500 kg super phosphate with P,O5 content of 16 to 20 %was applied in the reservoir when the water spread was 50 ha with amean depth of 1.67 m. As an immediate result of fertilisation, phosphatecontent of water increased from nil to 1.8 ppm and that of soil from0.242 to 0.328 %. Similar improvements in organic carbon nitrogen havebeen reported from soil and water phases on account of fertilisation.Experiments were also conducted with urea in the same reservoir.

Fertilisation can play a key role in many small reservoirs of Indiawhich require correction of oligotrophic tendencies. A number ofreservoirs in Madhya Pradesh. the Northeast and the Western Ghatsreceiving drainage from poor catchments show low productivity,necessitating artificial fertilisation. Chinese experience in fertilising thesmall reservoirs for increasing productivity has been reassuring (Yangetal., 1990).

Fertilisers are less effective in soft water with total alkalinityless than 20 ppm. Soft waters have inadequate carbon usually in theform of carbon dioxide and can often be enhanced by applying lime tolow alkalinity impounded waters. The application of lime equivalent to2,000 to 6.000 kg/ha calcium carbonate is generally sufficient to maintaintotal alkalinity above 20 ppm.

RESERVOIR FISHERIES


6.5. Suggestive model for management of reservoirs:

The concept of fishery- business model was developed by Desaiin 1984. The main components of this model are macro-fisheries andmicro – fishery systems. Macro-fishery system again composed withfish supply system, fish production system and fish marketing system.The micro –fishery system contains fishery input sub system, fisherycredit subsystem, fishery extension subsystem, fishery education subsystem, fishery habitat sub system, fishery research subsystem, fisheryregulation subsystem, fishery administration subsystem, fisheryexploitation subsystem, fishery processing subsystem and fisherydistribution sub system.

6.6. Natural fishery in reservoir:

The following fishery wealth is available in the major reservoirsof Andhara Pradesh. The Fishes like Wallago attu; Mystus species;Heteropneustes fossilis; Clarias sp; Major carps like – Catla catla; Labeorohita; Cirhinus mrigala and other carps like C. reba; Thynicthussandkhol etc,. The fresh water Eel, fresh water prawns, Murrels are alsoavailable in the reservoirs.

6.7 Planning criteria

In keeping with the need for rapid assessment of the country’ssmall reservoir resources, the following planning criteria are suggestedfor the resource assessment at the State level for the preparation of aninventory of such small reservoir ecosystems along with the estimatesof their potential yields under the categories - a. Reservoirs which arebest developed as capture fisheries, b. Reservoirs mostly of local interesthaving significant potential for fish culture; and c.Reservoirsintermediate in size and potential yield.

These under-utilised fishery resources offer immense scope andpotential for generating additional national income of the order of morethan Rs. 100 crores per year and providing additional employment tolakhs of fishermen and others through fishing, handling, transport,marketing and ancillary industries. A systematic and integrated approach

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towards scientific studies and planning criteria for undertaking fishculture in small reservoirs should be so directed as to have anunderstanding of the following factors.

1. The reservoir morphometry and water residence time.2. The physico-chemical characteristics of water and soil.3. The animal and plant inhabitants.4. Growth rate of commercially important fish species, and5. The relation between the inhabitants and the physico-chemical

aspects of the environment in terms of population and communitydynamics.

It is felt that under the prevailing socio-economic conditions,such short-range studies undertaken for small reservoirs would providea rapid assessment of their fisheries potential to take up fish culture inthem.

SUMMARY

India has a large spread of fresh water resources in the form ofrivers, reservoirs, lakes, ponds. Indian reservoirs, being in the tropics,have high primary productivity and have the capacity to produce morefish than their present low Indian average of 29.7 kg/ha/yr in reservoirs.Reservoir fisheries are essentially a stocking cum capture system. Thereare 975 reservoirs in the country with a total area of more than 3.15million hectares.

Construction of dam results in the creation of a reservoir or dam-lake, in which the lotic water of the upper reaches becomes lentic aswater approaches the dam. Rise in reservoir depends upon river flowand rain water. A new reservoir passes through three trophic phases-initial fertility, trophic depression and final fertility.

Reservoir ecology is changed from the reverine ecology because,in reservoirs, the lotic water of the upper reaches becomes lentic aswater approaches the dam. This facilitates entirely different types offishery called reservoir fishery, to suit the ecology of the reservoir. Areservoir has its own peculiarities in which it differs from natural lakes.

RESERVOIR FISHERIES


The fish production from the reservoirs is low, emphasizing theneed for attention to shape and develop the reservoir fisheries from thesurvey and planning stage to achieve high rate of production and betterreturns for the fishermen, who represent the weaker section of the society.Majority of these water bodies are not scientifically managed. Only ahandful has so far been harnessed on scientific lines, while the othersare either half-heartedly managed or even not managed at all.

QUESTIONS

1. What is an reservoir ? Give an account on reservoir ecology.

2. Explain various steps taken for development of reservoir fisheries.

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7. OVERFISHING, EFFECT OF DAMS ANDBARRAGES ON FISHERIES

The fish resources are no longer considered to be infinite. But atthe same time, the current thinking is that fish is renewable sources.Regulations of proper inputs can make the fishery as a sustainableprocess, if it is tuned with the ecosystem of which it is an end product.Fish technology is very diverse, embracing aspects as varied as biologyand bionomics, fish detection and location of fish stock, fish behavior.During 1950’s and 1960’s witnessed the explosion of fishingtechnologies. Use of radars and sonar helped in detection and locationof fish schools, boosting up the exploitation of the high seas and oceans.Improvement in fishing vessels, enable to reach close to the fishinggrounds and improvement in gears for industrial fishing to deal withcapture the bulk amount of catches further added for the exploitation,there by the over fishing eventually becomes a common practice inindustrial fishing. Globally about 70% of conventionally preferred foodspecies are subjected to overfishing.

Last few decades the world wide fish catches declined, that wereat peak in the Atlantic, Pacific and Mediterranean oceans where as Indianocean was the last to be subjected to over fishing. The impact of theover fishing was felt in many ways. More over fishing to meet thesupplies made the situation worse. Subsidies coming from respectiveGovernments rise to meet out the deficits in the fishing industry and tokeep employment. Resort to fishing of species situated lower in the foodweb and having lesser food value boomeranged in loss of food to largewild fish, causing further declining in their population. The commercialimportant alternative resources to wild fish [fish culture, shrimp cultureor the other aquaculture practices] did not bring much improvement inthe situation in the face of ever increasing fish demand resulting fromever increasing growth of human population.

There are in fact two cases of overfishing. They are (i). Growthoverfishing and (ii). Recruitment overfishing. It is necessary tounderstand the reasons of the two kinds of overfishing before managerialmeasures may be correctly applied.


(i). Growth overfishing:

It is a case of overfishing which result from fishing of such ahigh intensity that all the large-sized individuals of the population areremoved. As a consequence, subsequent fishing catches smaller andstill smaller individuals of the population. Thus, small-sized individualsare captured before their potential is fully realized. Some correctivemeasures that have been found use full includes – (i). Use of nets oflarge meshes size so that small – sized individuals can escape from thecatch in any event; (ii). Reduction of fishing intensity so that small-sized individuals may get time to survive to attain full growth potential.

(ii). Recruitment overfishing:

It occurs when the intensity of fishing of mature individuals isexcessively high. In such a situation, the population is not able to recoverthe numerical loss, because the rate of reproduction is insufficient tomake good the loss. The population eventually declines. The correctivemeasures includes: (i). Reduction in intensity of fishing to the extentthat may ensure a sizeable number of sexually mature individuals thatmay not be removed by fishing so that enough recruitment to thepopulation is assured. It will be necessary to make correct predictionabout what recruitment it is going to be for a given population of sexuallymature individuals, such a prediction may not be easy.

Economic fall out:

When population of edible species decline considerably due tooverfishing, sea food prices go up. To keep a check on price rise manycountries resorts to shrimp farming which though very expensive has tobe undertaken to preserve employment. Enthusiasm of fishing between1970 and 1990 doubled the fishing ships in the total tonnage and innumber, resulting in growth of the fishing fleet twice the rate of the fishcatch. But then this became counter productive due to over capitalization.There were more ships than the marine resources could support for theeconomic catches, necessitating their removal to make a fisheryprofitable. But removal of boats may not be feasible, as the owners,

43

who are unable to sell them until loans are paid up, land in a kind ofeconomic trap.

7.1. Effect of dams and barrages on fisheries:

River systems in the country have been developed by constructingdams and barrages across the rivers for purpose of irrigation, floodcontrol, navigation, power generation, water storage for public supplies,recreation, development of fisheries and sport fishing. Dams usuallycomprise a massive concrete wall built across a stream or river leadingto the formation of vast reservoir upstream of the bunds. It often stretchesto hundreds of miles. Dams, weirs, barrages and anicuts raise the waterlevel for facilitating diversion of the flow.

Weirs cannot discharge water over its crest or through wideopenings. The barrage is weirs provided with sluice openings. Anicutsis a low barrage built for irrigation purposes. Dams holds water for publicsupply and allow excess of water to pass out over a spill way. Dams,which are more complicated, have built in spill ways through which thevolume of the discharge can be regulated by a system of gates to meetthe down-stream needs of water.

As time advances more and more of the above structures will becoming into existence. The river valley projects interfere with theriverine environment, inevitably affecting the fishery resources of theconcerned rivers. The effects of dams and barrages on fish populationcan be categorized into obstruction and ecological changes.

1. Obstructions – Dams and other structures act as physical barriers tomigration, tending to prevent access of the fish to their usual breeding,rearing and feeding grounds. The denial of migration may result inpermanent and irrevocable reduction of fish stocks. The new environmentso created may be occupied by undesirable species.

2. Ecological changes – Ecological changes adversely affect both themigratory and non-migratory species of fishes. Due to the damconstruction and reservoir formation, substantial morphological changes

OVERFISHING, EFFECT OF DAMS AND BARRAGES ON FISHERIES


take place in Original River both above and below the dam site. Due tothe dams, torrential water converts into a water body or reservoir ofslow discharge characteristics and radical changes take place inorganisms. Some species shift to new spawning grounds, anadrmousfish tend to settle down, intra- specific biological differentiation of fishoccur, egg laying substrate change take place and torrential fish graduallydisappear. Other changes like inundation of spawning grounds,fluctuations in water levels, alterations in the physico-chemicalconditions of spawning grounds, disappearance of marsh lands, completechange in turbid and silting patterns occur which may result in the failureof spawning of many important fishes. Reduction of flow in the residualrivers tailing below the dam, alters the ecology of the spawning grounds,which even dry up. Reduction of water level result in the formation ofshallow areas which obstruct the fish movements. The reduction of waterdischarge due to the construction of dam in estuarine areas result in thechanges in temperature and salinity in brackish waters.

The construction of dam across a river results in the creation ofa reservoir. These constructions restrict the migration of the fishes andeffect the population. Even in certain cases there is a chance ofdisappearance of the fish races in nature.

Based on the migratory habits, fish can be classified in to three types:They are

a) Resident species which prefers to remain confined to the localterritories

b) Local migrants which tend to perform seasonal migration withinthe short distances for breeding, feeding and

c) Long distance migrants which prefers regular annual migrationsfor feeding or breeding.

Indian shad, Hilsa hilisa migration is restricted to the portion ofthe rivers below the anicuts and barraiges and the fisheries bearing onthese stocks declined considerably. In these streatches of the rivers abovethe anicuts hilsa fishery has been rendered practically non-existent.Another bad effect has been found in the case of Pangasius pangasius

45

in Ganga, Brahmputra,Mahanadi and Godavari rivers. Dams located onthe lower and middle reaches of these rivers obstruct the migration ofthis fish and adversly affect its population. Torrential fishes likeGlyptothorax, Leptognathus can not survive in reservoirs and there is achance of disappearance of their races in nature.

Hence fish ways and fish lifts are provided at dam sites to help themigratory fish to negotiate the dam height. Fish ways are expensive tobuild and operative.

Summary

The fish resources are no longer considered to be infinite. But atthe same time, the current thinking is that fish is renewable sources.Regulations of proper inputs can make the fishery as a sustainableprocess, if it is tuned with the ecosystem of which it is an end product.There are in fact two cases of overfishing. They are (i). Growthoverfishing and (ii). Recruitment overfishing.

As time advances more and more of the above structures will becoming into existence. The river valley projects interfere with theriverine environment, inevitably affecting the fishery resources of theconcerned rivers. The effects of dams and barrages on fish populationcan be categorized into obstruction and ecological changes.

The construction of dam across a river results in the creation ofa reservoir. These constructions restrict the migration of the fishes andeffect the population. Even in certain cases there is a chance ofdisappearance of the fish races in nature.

QUESTIONS

1. Give a detailed account on dams and barrages on fish migrations.

2. Write a note on over fishing.

OVERFISHING, EFFECT OF DAMS AND BARRAGES ON FISHERIES


8. FISHING CRAFT AND GEAR

India, with its long sea-coast and extensive reverine and estuarinewaters, has a big wealth of fish fauna. In fact, the success of fisheries ina country depends on proper catch of its fish fauna, for which the use ofmodernised crafts and gears. In India, a large variety of crafts (boats)have been designed for marine and Inland fishing. The nets or gears andother devices for catching fishes are also numerous and ingenious. Butboth crafts and gears were invented centuries ago and probably haveremained static and have shown little or no change or improvement inIndia, unlike in other maritime countries. This has hindered or restrictedthe exploitation for our seas and Inland waters i.e. river, lakes, etc. It isonly in the last decade or two of 20th century that some attempts havebeen made to use motor boats and modern steam vessels for the purpose.Actually the capture of fishes is as important as pisci-culture methods.

8.1 FISHING CRAFT

Fishing crafts are most essential for cathing the fish in large scalein water bodies. Even these crafts are essential when the fishinggrounds are far from the coast. Before the advent of mechanisation offishing crafts, man living on the shores of oceans and banks of estuaries,was nourished by the fish that could be captured by using what even thecraft that he would use. In most countries usually indigenous,nonmechanised and locally built fish crafts are in vouge. These craftshave been design to suit the local conditions the population captured.

The types of fishing crafts of India falls under two generalcatagories. These are non machanised and machanised fishing crafts.The catagories of fishing craft types comes under non machanised arecatamaran, dugout-canoes, plant built canoes, masula boat, built up boats.The machanised crafts are line boats, trap boats, dolnetter, gillnetter,trawlers. Some of the different kinds of fishing crafts used in arediscussed below.

47

Fig. 8.1 Fishing craft a) dug out canoe, b) outrigger canoe, c) masulaboat. d) dinghi

FISHING CRAFT AND GEAR


Fig. 8.2 Mechanized Fishing vessels a). gill netter, b) stern trawler

49

Fig. 8.3 Mechanized Fishing vessels a). purse seiner



(i) Catamaran:

The simplest type of fishing craft may be taken as the one formedby a few curved logs of wood joined together forming a kind of floatingraft, such as the ones used along the east coast of India. Four variationsmay be recognised, namely the Orissa type, Andhra type, Coromandaltype and Kanyakumari type.

a. Coromandel type - It is probably the original Tamil Nadu type. It ismade up of 3-5 logs and the accessory pieces like stem parts and rowingsails are added. Rowing sails regulate the movement of the raft. Avariation of coromandel type with 7 logs called Kolamaram which isused in the capture of flying fishes of Nagapatnam.

Fig. 8.4 Mechanized Fishing vessels a). longliner

51

b. Orissa and Ganjam type- It is probably made up of 5 longs which arenot tied together by rope, but are pegged with wood. The planks are cutin such a way that the catamaran takes the shape of a boat. This type ismainly used in the coastal water of Puri and Ganjam district of Orissa.

c. Andhra type or Vishakhapatnam type : It is a variation of Orissaand Ganjam type, but larger (5-7 meters long) and made of heavy wood.The plants used in fitting the sides are strong, median logs.

(ii) Dug-out canoes:

A simple type of fishing craft for fishing within short distancesfrom the coast is a small-sized canoe made by scooping logs of wood inthe form of boat. The “Odams”, “Thonies”, “Vanchies” etc. of the south-east and south-west coasts of INdia are included in this category. Incalm weather, oars may be enough for propulsion; but if winds andcurrents prevail, sails may be used.

(iii) Plank-built canoes:

This is an enlarged variety of dug-out canoe made of planks onthe sides, largely used in localities such as Kerala.

(iv) Masula boats:It is made of nonrigid planks sewn together with coir ropes as

the ones along Andhra coast.

(v) Dhinghi: This is a carvel type of boat designed and constructed for a

variety of purposes including fishing.

(vi) Outrigger canoes: Some times plank-built canoes may be provided with a single

outrigger as in the “rampani” boats used for capturing mackerel inKarnataka.



(vii) Built-up boats: In most of the boats made at present, the carvel type of boats

are built up of planks. The best type of built-up boats are seen in centresalong the north-eat coast of India.

Mechanized boats : With the advent of mechanization of the fishigncrafts small and medium sized boats, 10 to 15 m long, are constructedwith engines operated by oil for venturing to distant coastal areas insearch of fishing grounds.

(viii) Hand line boat: Hand line boats can be operated both in the shallow and deeper

waters. The traditional hand liners use no winch. In India the gear usuallyconsists of a few meters of monofilament of 0.5 mm to 1 mm dia to theend of which is attached a hood and a sinkder, usually a small stone.They are used to catch all kinds of demersal fish from motorised as wellas small mechanised vessels.

(ix) Pole and line fishing vessel:Pole and line fishing vessels are fitted with a narrow platform

protruding all round the vessel at deck level, outside the bulwarks. Theplatform extends forward from the stern to the fore-end like a bowspirt.The crew stand on the platform with their backs to the reil when fishingwith the poles. The most popular craft for pole and line fishing in Indiais mass odi of Minicoy. It is a wooden craft 12.5m long and 3m wide atthe stern, made from venteak, coconut or aini wood. The aft end isprovided with a broad raised fishing platform. The propulsion of thecraft is by sail or by oars. There is a crew compliment of 20 to 25 menon each craft.

(x) Trolling vessel:Trolling line boats tow lines extending on either side to catch

pelagic species having high individual value and good quality: examplesare tuna and baracuda. A number of lures hanging from outrigger polesthrough lines are towe from a slowly moving vessel. The fish hookedafter snapping at the lure are brought on board as the line is hauled in.

53

Table. 8.1. Details of fishing crafts

.lSoN

sralucitraPtfarcehtfo naramataC

deliatgnoLdesirotomnaramatac

P.R.FappeT

adanikaKavaN

-sinahceMde

adanikaKavaN

.1 htgneL otsrtm4srtm7

otsrtm5srtm8 srtm9ot8 srtm9-6 srtm9-7

.2 maeB ot57.0rtm1 srtm2.1 rtm3.1-rtm1 57.1ot5.1

srtm57.1-5.1

srtm

.3 htpeD - - srtm5.0 srtm57.0 -8.0ot57.0srtm

.4 egamnoT)yrracot( not2/1 not2/1 5.1ot0.1

not not5.2 5.3ot5.2not

.5 roflairetaMnoitcurtsnoc

cnathgildoowpeehc

)xabmob(

dnathgildoowpaehc P.R.F kaeT kaeT

.6 noisluporP)rh/deeps(

&gniwortonk1lios

lios,rotomgnivordna

)stonk3(

lios,rotom;gniwordna

stonk4

&lios1gniwor

tonk

&rotomstonk4lios

.7esroH

forewopenigneeht

- P.H4 P.H5 - P.H02ot51

.8 wercfo.oN 4 4 4 5 5

.9 foemaNenigneeht - enidrabmal

ahamayenidrabmal

ahamay - reksolriknotsur

.01 ecnarudnE srh6-5 srh01 srh21 srh21nahteromeno(srh21

)yad

.11 gnidnaL erehwynatsaocehtno

erehwynatsaocehtno

erehwynatsaocehtno

erehwynatsaocehtno ruobraH

.21 noitavreserPseitilicaf liN liN liN liN sexobecI

.31ezishseMfo.oNdna

sten

ezis''2ot''2/1soN6-5

ezis''2ot''2/1soN6-5

ezis''2ot''2/1soN21ot7

ezis''6ot''2/1sten03ot02

ezis''6ot''2/1sten03ot02

.41 foepyTeniut/nday

onomtnemalif

PDH

onomtnemalif

PDH

onomtnemalif

PDH

onomtnemalif

PDH

onomtnemalif

PDH

.51 gnihsiFsdohtem

gnol,tenlligtsacdnaenil

ten

,tenlligdnatentsac

gnihsifenil

gnol,tenlligenil,tentsac

gnihsif

,tenllig&skooh

gnihsifenil

;tenlligenil&kooh

gnihsif



The lures afdter detaching the fish are put again into the water. Thevessel lengths vary between 25’ - 50’. and have normally a forwardwheelhouse arrangement. allowing a clear working deck aft.

(xi) Dol netter:The dol netters are used for operating the dol nets, which are

basically fixed bag nets. The dol netter varies form 8-14mm lenght ,1.5m to 3.6m in breadth and 0.8m to 1.8m in height. The carryingcapacity of each of such boats varies from 2-14 tonnes. Each of theseboats are fitted with 2-4 cylinder diesel engines.

(xii) Gill netter:Vessels of almost any size can undertake gill netting. The number

of nets used for fishing are adjusted to suit the size of the operatingvessel. The vessels vary in length between 25’ and 55’. The deck mustbe so laid out that the gear can be conveniently stowed, with a clearpassage from bow to stern so that the gear can be passed after haulijng.An arrangement with wheel house and engine room forward or aft maybe used depending on the operating method adopted. In a typicalarrangement with the engine and wheel house in the aft configuration,sufficient deck space must be available aft of the house for storing andhandling the net. A forward arrangement can also be used for sidehauling, in which case the wheel house is sometimes so located to providea clear working passage aft.

(xiii) Stern trawlers:Fishing over the stern can be a very efficient way of trawling.

Stern trawling is the most wide-spread method of fishing in India. Thevessels range in size from 32’ to 55’ in length and may be fitted with 60to 120 horsepower engine and above. Vessels above 45’ in length mayalso be constructed in steel. The most common deck layout is such thatthe wheel house is just forward of amidships with working deck aft.The winch powered by the engine is located behind the wheel housewith the warps leading to the gallows located at the middle or sides ofthe stern, from which the otterboards hang.

55

8.2 FISHING GEAR

The word ‘fishing gear’ is synonymous for ‘fishing net’ whichis used to catch the fish in the water bodies. Generally the fishing gearsare categorized as active and passive gears. The passive gear needsknowledge of behavioural biology of the fish to be caught, as the fishhas to enter the stationery gear voluntarily. In the case of active gears,they are operated (either towed by boat or moved by hand) in the pathof the fish concentration and general energy intensive, more productivethan the pissive gear. Fishing gears are also referred as drift nets or setnets depending on whether the nets are moved in water or made toremain stationery in water. Normally selection of a particular fishinggear (whether active or passive gear) is done according to the type ofspecies caught in the fishing grounds.

It is well known that the concentrations of fishes in water bodiesoccur in both horizontal and vertical strata. These fish concentrationscommonly referred as fish shoals. These shoals occur for many reasonssuch as food and feeding habits, spawning and migrations of fish species,which depends on many parameters such as water depth, bottomtopography, physio-chemical conditions of water bodies.

Occurrence of fish shoals may differ from region to region. Fishshoals are sometimes dense or scattered. For a dense fish shoal,encircling gears like purse seine, gill net are used to catch them sincethe fishes will not escape the gear easily, whereas in scattered fish shoals,gears like trawl net, longline etc., are used. From the point of ecologicalsustainance, the fishing gear should be environmental friendly, in that itshould not trap, kill or harm the unwanted fish species.

8.2.1. Fishing Gear Material

The various materials available for the preparation of fishinggear comes from three sources. They are (A) Natural fibres (fromVegetable sources) (B) Inorganic fibres (from mineral sources) and (C)Synthetic fibres (from chemical sources).



A. Natural Fibres :They are from vegetable materials which include Fruit ( coir for

making ropes).,Seed (cotton for making twine webbing.), leaf ( Manilaand Sisal for ropes) and Stalk ( Hemp, linen and Re nie for makingtwine). Natural fibres obtained from the natural resources and include“vegetable fibres” and “Animal fibres”. Out of these, vegetable fibresalone are used for making the fishing gear.

B. Inorganic fibres:They are from Mineral Sources like Iron, Zinc, Aluminium, lead,

copper, etc, for making hooks, floats, wires,

C. Synthetic fibres :They are of Chemical.origin and includes HOPE, Nylon , and

Plastics for making twine for webbing, ropes and floats.

a. Seed fibres:Seed fibres are found within the seed shell covering theseeds. These fibres are short and single celled. Eg: Cotton (Twine fornet webbing)

Cotton: The material, obtained from the twisted hairs, that surroundthe seeds of the cotton plant. These hairs are very fine and are about 5cms in length with a diameter of 25 micromes. These dimensions areobtained only from the best cotton . he American cotton is consideredas the best one which is known as Sea - Island cotton .

The American and Egyptian cotton fibbers are long and Indiancotton fibber is rather short. The surface of the cotton fibre is coveredwith a thin film of cotton wax. This melts at above 60 degrees centigradeand therefore immersion in boiling water for about 30 minutes wouldmake a preservative into the cell structure itself. The cells are notdamaged at the temperature of boiling water only. They disintegrated at160 degrees centigrade. These fibres are having a characteristics ofresistance to bent. If the fibre is exposed continuously or for a long timeto sun it becomes weak. So, fibres white colour with lustre are the best.The Dark, brown colour fibres, are inferior. It is the best natural fibre iscomparatively cheaper than other fibres for net making. Cotton in theform of yarns, twines or ropes is available.

57

b. Stalk fibres : It is produced from the inner beak of the stem or themain stalk of the plants. These fibres are long and multi celled. Eg :Hemp, Remie and Jute (Twine for webbing) Hemp and Jute are producedfrom the plants of (a) Cannabis sativa (True hemp) (b) Crotalaria Juncia(Sur hemp) and (c) Chorchorus capsulasis (Jute). The fibres of thehemp is stronger than that of linin but has less flexibility. The goodvarieties of these fibres have a length of about 7 feet. It absorbs morewater. The large meshed nets are made with hemp twine. The hempropes are cheap.

Remie: It is also called Chinese grass. The fibres are long and white incolour and have good elasticity, but have little flexibility .They are verystrong and good for lines but not good for nets as it breaks on the knots.The fibre is extracted from the bast of “BOCHMERIA” plant.

Linen: It is extracted from the flex plant, which grows to a height ofabout two feet. The fibres are strong and pliable and easy to card. Thestrongest threads are made from this material but high cost prevents usein fishing industry ;

c. Leaf fibres: Leaf fibres are the fibres extending lengthwise throughthe pulp tissues of long leaves or leaf stems. These fibres are also: longand multicelled. Eg : Sisal and Manila (for preparation of ropes)SISAL: The fibre is produced from the plant known as Agava rigidasisalana (related to pine apple plant). The fibre is about 4 feet long andit is not stronger than Manila. It absorbs wafer and swells whenimmersed. It has a less flexibility and it is to be greased duringpreparation. It is not used for making nets and only ropes are made.

Manila : These fibres are derivative from the leaf stalk of Agave Sisalamaplant known as Musa textiles. The fibres are strong and elastic but lessflexible than hemp. The Manila fibres are not absorber as hemp buthave to greased to raise the quality of flexibility. The fibres are from 6to 8 inches long length easily attain upto 12 feet (long. Manila ropesare the best.

d. Fruit fibres : These are produced from the busk of nuts. Coir Eg (forropes)



COIR fibre is produced from the fruit of the coconut palm and they are6 to 12 inches in length. The fibre is not as strong as other fibresmentioned above. It is having a qualities of flexibility and high elasticity.It takes up a little water and float but on continuous immersion it absorbswater and swells. Only ropes are made from coir.

Metallic fibresThey are made of iron material and used as cables, accessories for trawlnet etc.,

Synthetic fibres

The synthetic fibres are made available from cellulose, protein(Natural polymers) and chemical substances (synthetic polymers) havingthe composition of Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen etc A polymer isproduced by a process known as “Polymerisation”.

Synthetic polymers : They are divided into three main compounds basedon their formation. They a) Polycondensation compunds b) Polymericcompounds and c) Polyadditive compound. The synthetic polymers, andmixed polymers

Polyamide: It is a combination produced when dibasic acidcombined with deamine.Eg. Nylon, Kurlon

Polymerisation where no elimination of water molecules duringthe formation of the compound, gives compounds known as Poly vinylproducts They include Poly vinyl alcohol., Poly vinyl chloride, Poly,vinyl nitrate and Poly vinyl ethylene. The P.V.C synthetic materials areused for preparation of floats.

8.2.2 Other materials used for gear

A. Floats: Floats are lighter than water as they are made up ofbuoyant materials, which are very essential for nets to keep nets indesired position and shape during fishing operation. Float are of two

59

kinds. (1) Low density material like cork, wood, plastic, sponge, etc.(2) High density material, but which contain air, which makes themlighter than air.. The resultant force or lifting capacity of the float iscalled the extra buoyancy. The quality of a float depends on Buoyancy.Withstanding to the pressure. Resistance to abrasion and Rotting andless Water absorbency

B. Sinkers; Sinkers are used to keep a net in vertical position or to makethe bottom of net rest on or ride to the sea bed. While selecting thematerials for sinkers the specific negative buoyancy of the material isto be considered and not the specific gravity. The materials used arelead, chain, stones, cement concrete sinkers, etc. The lead is the bestmaterial for making sinkers.

C. Anchors: Anchors are necessary to hold the boats and as well asnets. Common Anchor, has the shank, the arms and the stock set atright angles to one another. Patent Anchor has a stock, but the arms aremovable and can Divert on both sides of the shank.Graphels Anchorhas four or more arms.

8.2.3 Properties of gear materials

1. Density: It is the quantity of matter contains in unit/volume.2. Strength: Strength is a term used for defining both tenacity and

tensile strength.a) Tenacity: Breaking load per unit resultant.b) Tensile strength: It is the load that can be taken just beforebreaking.

3. Breaking strength: It is the load which causes the material tobreak. Dry and wet breaking strengths are to be noted whileselecting the material for the fabrication of fishing nets.

4. Knot Strength : It is the breaking force of a libre or Yarn in whicha simple knot has been made (over hang knot).

5. Extensibility: It is the change in diameter of the netting materialsin the direction of load where a load is applied. The extension atthe time of breaking is called thebreaking extension or breakingstrength.



6. Elasticity: Netting materials are extended when they are understress and when the stress is removed this extension may decreasetotally or in part. The ability to recover the extension is calledelasticity.

7. Water absorbency: It is the property of netting materials to absorbwater when it,is immersed in water. The material which has lesswater absorbency may be considered as the best material forfishing nets. The absorbency of water is less in the case ofsynthetic fibres (e.g. nylon-6%, cotton - 43.9 %).

8. Rot resistance: It is the property of netting material to withstandor resist the attack of bacteria and fungus.

9. Abrasion resistance : It is the ability of netting materials towithstand wear and tear during usage.

10. Chemical resistance: It is the ability of the netting material towithstand the effect of chemicals.

11. Weather resistance: It is the property of netting materials towithstand the atmospheric variations like moisture, temperature,dust, etc.,

12. Visibility: It is the property of netting materials to be seen inwater during operations. A reduced visibility may effect bettercatches.

13. Shrinkage: Generally, the length of netting materials changeswhen they are immersed in water. Usually the length is reducedand this property is called shrinkages.

8.7. Terminology and numbering system of yarns

The size of thickness of yarn is expressed by a system known as“yarn numbering system

a. British system : It is count number based on length/unit mass and isnot being used in India.

b.Metric system : It is based on length/unit weight. It means when 1000metres or one kilo metre length of a single yarn weigh one kilogram Itis called code No. 1 (n.w.1) and so on

61

Denier System: It is used for denoting the size of synthetic yarn,expressed in terms of its weight/unit length. It is defined that a denier 5the number of gram of weight contained in 9000 metres of a singlemination of water molecules during they Cam weigh one gram it is called“one Denier”. Hence 9000 mtr.s of a gives compounds known as Polyvinyfs single yarn weigh 210 grams it is called 210 Denier. Hence, thevinyl alcohol., Poly vinyl chloride, Poly’ greater the denier thickerthe yarn would be 210 Denier is commonly used for the fabricationof fishing twines.

d. Tex System.: The tax system is adopted international system forexpressing the twine size. As in the case of Denier System this is’ alsoa direct numbering system. In this the length of the yarn is 1000 meteras against 9000 metres in the Denier system. Thus when 1000 metres ofa single yarn weigh one gram, it is called one Tex and so on

c. Combing: Additional strengthening or smoothening of the fibres whichis called “combing”.

d. Twisting: The yarn is twisted in one direction. It may either by “S”twist or “Z”’ twist. The manufacture of twine from yarn is performedby two twisting operations. In the first operation two or more yarns aretwisted together to form a strand or ply. In the second twisting’two ormore such strands are twisted together to form a twine. The twines aretwisted in different directions. But the direction of strand twist and twinetwist will be in opposite directions. Hence, twines are produced bytwisting in different directions.

Yarn Strand or Ply TwineS Z SZ S ZZ Z SS S Z

Number of strands in the twine:

Fish nets are made of two strands three strands or four strands.



The two strand twine has the merit that the strand is normally displaced.In this twine one strand is raiding over the other. But if one out of thetwo is slacked then the lead which is applied i fall on the other strand.The intensities of the stand get wider a round appearance is not obtained.Twines made of 3 strands are free from distortion. The sectional viewof the 3 strand twine is the form of a triangle. This form cannot beeasily changed and angle of lay is more acute than the two strand twine.The interstices are also narrower and the twine gets a round appearance.The four strand twine will not get a round appearance. Besides, thetwine easily be distorted.

8.2.4 Fabrication of Nets

a. Yarn: Yarn is a group of fibres or filaments which are twisted togetherform a continuous thread. Yarns are of two categories ; (a) Staple yarnand (2) continuous yarn. Staple Yarn are the filaments of cotton areshort in length and have to be spun to form a continuous yarn. Thelength of each fibre is called the “Staple length”. It is similar in Kurlonyarn also which is having more elasticity Continuous Yarn aremade of a number of continuous filaments which are grouped togetherto make the yarn. Ex:: Nylon, Terelyne, etc. Monofilament is a singlefilament of synthetic material and there will be no twist . Twines orropes can be made out by twisting filaments according to the thicknessrequired.

b. Webbing, mesh and bar: The webbing consists of a fabric of twine,the intersections of which are firmly knotted so as to form meshes offixed dimensions. A normal mesh of any webbing has four sides or calledas “bars” of equal length and it is the length of the bar that determinesthe size of the mesh. The webbing description will have denie number,code no. of the nylon yarn, mesh size and mesh depth. Machine madewebbing could also be “tailored” to desired shape by “point Bar” system.A point is a jointer i.e. a full mesh down. A bar is a leg between twoknots i.e. half mesh down. c. Braiding of Webbing: The usual termapplied to making webbing by hand is “braiding”. The tools needed forbraiding webbing are simple. The twine has to be wound on some formof needle. The needles are smaller than the meshes they have to pass

63

through. The size of the mesh has to be controlled by a gauge called as“mesh gauge” or “mesh stick”. A spike is useful for coaxing knots intoshape or unpicking work for repairs. A pocket knife with a thin blade isanother useful ccessory as also a pair of. scissors. A diamond - meshednets are Dmmonly used. The principal knot used is the common sheetbend weavers knot. The English or pink knot is used for small meshednlets. The double knots are very essential for nylon nets to preventslippage.

d. Shaping of webbing: The shape of piece of webbing may be alteredby ringing about a slope in one or both of its sides. This is done byaltering the number of meshes in successive rounds. The number maybe decreased by “bating” or increased by “creasing” Batinqmeshes. To bate or reduce the number of meshes of the previous roundin a single knot of the round bating should not be done in the middle ofthe round by near selvedge that is to be sloped. If the net is to be steeplysloped a bating will be made every round; lesser bating is done in 2nd,3rd, 4lh, etc, rounds as desired. Creasing meshes. is done by making asmall extra mesh besides the normal mesh, by making a second knot inthe same place, before peeking up the next mesh. In the next round thisextra small mesh is picked, just as if it were are ordinary mesh. It isusual to insert creasing meshes close to the selvedges. Fly Meshes. It isdesirable to have “fly meshes” which results from leaving out the lastmesh of the previous round. Fly meshing are selvedge resulting inreducing the width by mesh in every alternate round i.e., equal to batingone mesh in two rounds. Where special strength is required in flymeshes, they are doubled, by doubling are first mesh of each returninground i.e., the mesh that will become the fly-mesh in the next round. Around is [also called a “row”

e. Mounting of Webbing: Webbing has to be fixed to some kind of lineor rope, around some or all of their edges. The meshes of ordinarywebbing hang diamond wise. The shape of the diamonds can be variedby the way meshes are spread out on the rope at the ‘head line. Thecloser the meshes are spaced on the head line the [narrower and deeperthe meshes will be’.



f. .Fastening of webbing: Webbing is fastened to the lines in [differentways. (1) The easiest and quickest but least satisfactory way [is to simplyreeve a line through the head meshes and hitching every 6th 12m. 18th,24th etc; meshes with large meshes they can be close-hitched on a tubeand then passing the line through the pipe, dropping [the meshes off atappropriate distances. The fastening of the webbing to the lines is doneto ensure that hanging cannot shift over the line or become loose oncethe net is hung. The net - line hitch and rolling hitch are the best knotsfor making hangings to ca two or more meshes. The clove hitch lends tobecame loose unless locked an additional half-hitch. The back- handmarline hitch is the most secure for rigid fixing of webbing to line It isalso better to use rather heavy twine for hangings as it reduces wear onand cutting of selvedge meshes. In mechanically hauled nets, the hangingshould be kept short to avoid snagging. Quite often as in trawl nets, itbecomes necessary to join pieces of webbing, either of same mesh ordifferent size. Several combinations are possible and each is appliedaccording to the purpose of the joint.

g. Felling: The term “Felling” gives the relation between the amount ofslackness in the webbing and the line on which it is mounted i.e. itdenotes how much more webbing there is than line excess webbing X100. If 40 fathoms of webbing is mounted on 25 fathoms of line, thewebbing is hung in 62.5% of the line and hung with 37.5% of felling.

h. Head rope and foot rope: The top edge of the webbing is called the“Head”, the bottom the “foot” and the two edges at the top and bottomare the “selvedges”. The depth of the net is given in number of fullmeshes in one vertical line. The outer tips of end meshes hang freenormally; these appear untidy and are often “straightened” by takingup long arm of first mesh of every round its own knot. These are alsocalled double selvedges; they increase the strength of webbing at itsedges. Selvedges are usually attached to their mounting ropes bymarling hitchings. Instead sometimes simple half-hitchings are used.For flymesh selvedges a special kind of stapling is used. Each flymesh is included in two staples and each staple takes in two fly meshes.This provides a great deal of “give” in the selvedges

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i. Net: Any kind of net consists of webbing fastened to appropriate linesand ropes which give the net its form and strengthen its buoyant materialand weights keep the net in desired form under water during fishing.

8.2.5. Preservation of fishing gear

The main factors for reduction in strength are abrasion (wearand tear), rotting and damage due to atmospheric condition like humidityand ultraviolet part of the sun light.

Various types of preservatives are used like vegetable andchemical preservative to protect thegear. The best vegetable preservativeis tannin. The chemical preservatives are gamoi, cupronol, cunimile,tar + kerosene, copper sulphate, marstein, net life green, ‘an stil andmobilkote.

Vegetable preservatives : These are mostly composed of Tannin Materialslike root, stem or trunk, bark, twinges, leaves, fruits, seed coats, etc.,contain this material. But the barks and fruits are commonly used forextracting tannin as the percentage of tannin contain is comparativelymore in these two compared to their parts of plants. The percentage oftannin will vary from one type of bark to another. It is also governed bythe factors such as locality, season and age of the tree.

Extraction of tannin: Tannin can be extracted from bark by twoprocesses. 1) Hot process 2) Cold process.

1) Hot process: Chop the bark into small pieces and then boil the samewith sufficient water normally one Ib. of bark with 1 to 3 gallons ofwater. Boil the solution to 2 to 3 hours in a copper vessel of till it attainsa deep colour (Dicochin). After this remove the bark of the hot decochinof tannin. Then dip the net in this solution for about half an hour.Sometimes, the net is kept remained in the same solution for 12 to 16hours. The net is then taken out and dried. Some times the fishermentreat their nets after the solution is cooled down.

2) Cold process: In certain areas, the tannin solution is prepared by



simply keeping the crushed bark in sufficient water. The bark is allowedto soak in water for two to 3 days without boiling. During this period, itis occasionally exposed to sun-light to quicken the extraction. After thedesired time, the solution is filtered and then the net is treated as in thehot process. The trees that are having tannin content are detailed below.

Tannin preservation: Now a days, ready made tannin extracts areavailable in the market. Cutch is the most important out of these extracts.A solution of the treatment of the net can be made out of these solidextracts. Tannin is easily soluble in water. Therefore, if the net is treatedwith only tannin, it gets easily washed out as the net is in operationcontinuously. Hence, it becomes necessary to treat the net again andagain with tannin at frequent intervals. This involves wastage of timeand money and is also troublesome. It also causes shrinkage of the twinewhich will cause reduction in mesh size.

This is particularly greater in the case of vegetable twines like cotton.In order to avoid the frequent repetition of tannin treatment; methodshave been found out to fix up the tannin on fibres so that once the net ispreserved in the tannin and fixed by chemicals, the net can be used fora longer period before another treatment.

Procedure of preservation with tannin is

1. Prepare a solution of cutch in water. Preparation ¾ Ib to 1 Ib /1gallon of water. Boil the water in a vessel made up of copper orgalvanised zinc and should be treated in steel vessel.

2. Thoroughly soak the net in this hot dicochin for a few minutes.3. Remove the net from the solution and suspend it above the

container to allow the excess liquid to drain off.4. Spread out the net to dry in shade.5. Repeat the process two or more times.6. Usually for small net four times of the weight of the net of water

is used.7. In the case of bulky and big nets, seven times of the weight of

net of water is used.

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Fixation: Japanese method - Prepare the solution of potassiumdichromate by boiling in clean water. Preparation ¼ Ib / one gallonwater. Immerse the net (cutched and dried) in the hot potassiumdichromate solution. Allow it to remain in the solution for one to twohours.

During this time the net should be stirred well to ensure penetration ofthe solution into all parts. Remove the net out of the solution and dry. Ifthe potassium dichnomate has acted properly, the net now will be nearlyblack.

Fishing nets that are constantly wet should be cutched again after 6 to 8weeks of regular use. In this case, treatment with the potassiumdichromate solution is not required. The potassium dichromate treatmentneed to be given only after once in 12 to 24 months.

It is important that cutch and potassium dichromate solution must notbe mixed. Also the order of application should not be reversed. It isalso necessary to make sure that the cutched net is dried before thepotassium dichromate is applied.

Fixation by Dutch method (OLIC method): This method is suggestedby Olic in 1918 for fixing the net. In this prepare a solution of coppersulphate 1 lb/10 gallon of cold water. The amount of solution to preparedis 4 to 5 times the weight of the net. Add liquid ammonia. Thepreservative will be formed. Then add enough ammonia till thepreservative dissolved and the colour of solution turns deep blue.Immerse the net in the solution till the colour of the solution turnsbrownish black which serves an indication. On completion of the processof oxidation, take out the net and wash it immediately in cold water tillthere is no more smell of ammonia. Dry the net in shade.

The nets treated like this require retreatrnent only after about four monthsof continuous use in water. This method is found to be quite successfuland can be recommended. Like the tannin method, it has also got thedisadvantage of causing marked shrinkage of the fibres especially cotton.



Tannin plus coal tar treatment: The use of coal tar either exclusively oron tanned rets has been recommended by many fishermen. Treat the netwith cutch and fix the tannin. Prepare a coal tar mixture with tar andkerosene in the proportion of 3:1. The amount of solution to be preparedis 1.5 times the weight of the net. Mix well and dip the tanned net forabout ten minutes. After draining off the excess tar. spread the net inshade for drying. The drying can be stopped when the tar on the twinedoes not stick to the fingers.

This preservation is not suitable for gill nets. Coal tar treatment can beadopted for those types of nets which are immersed in water forprolonged periods of time like stake nets and trawl nets.

Chemical preservatives: These are not commonly used by Indianfishermen. Most of these preservatives are.imported. Chemicalpreservatives containing copper compounds, should be avoided intropical countries. The strong sun-light rapidly decompose thesepreservatives rendering them ineffective. The following are some ofthe important chemical preservatives that are used for preserving thegear.

1. Garnol 2. Cupronol 3. Cunimile 4. Tar + Kerosene 5. Copper sulphate6. Marstein 7. Net life green 8. Tanstil 9. Mobilkote.

Garnol: This is a product of Hampels marine paints, Denmark. Thispreservative is mixed with kerosene in the ratio of 1:3 and used. It isused for treating cotton trawls, long lines and seines. This preservativeshould not be used when the gear has already been treated with tar.Dying should be in shade.

Cupronol: There are different trade names viz., B.C. green cupronol,Standard green cupronol, brown cupronol and Cunittate 6111 F.N.T. areproduct of cupronol Ltd., London. The company recommends thepreservative for new and untreated nets. After treatment the excesspreservative is drained off and the net is dried in shade. Cupronol as asolvent spirit dries off quickly. It is costly.

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Cunimile: This is to be mixed with sprit or distillate nephalene in theproportion of 2:3 and it should be dried in shade. :

Tar + Kerosene: Tar should be mixed with kerosene in the proportionof 3:1. Soak the net for 10 to 15 minutes. Allow to drain off the excessivepreservative and dry the net in shade.

Copper sulphate: Prepare 0.1% of copper sulphate solution in water.After preparing the solution, soak the net for several hours. If sea wateris used, the copper sulphate turns into copper chloride and if exposed toair, the chloride will separate and deteriorate the net. So the net shouldbe used for fishing immediately after treatment.

8.2.3. : Types of Fishing gear:

Basing upon the usage of materials and construction, the fishinggear are catagorized into 1. Net fishing gear, where fishing gears arepredominatly constructed of netting eg. gill net, seines, trawls: 2. Tacklesin which hooks are an important part and 3. Miscellaneous gear coveringall the other gears such as traps, wounding gear etc. The following arethe various types of fishing gear presently in operation in Indian marinefisheries and other countries.

8.2.3.1. Gill net

Gill nets are used world wide inorder to catch every kind of fish,because the structure of the gear is very simple and one of the cheapestfishing gear.

A gill net is a net wall where lower end is held in vertical position inwater column by weighted sinkers and the upper end is held at the watersurface by floats. When fish shoals are confronted by the presence of agill net, frightened fishes attempt to pass through this net wall and duringthis process the fish get caught at their head portion. Gill net happens tobe one of the most prominent fishing gears presently used in fisherysector. Gill nets are operated as both drift nets or bottom-set nets.



GILL NETS

BASED ON THEPROCESS OF CARTUREAND RETENTION

BASED ON THESTRUCTURE

BASED ON THEMETHOD OFOPERATION

BASED ON THETARGET SPECIES(e.g.)

GILL NETSENTANGLINGTRAMMEL NETS

DRIFT NETSSET NETSENCIRCLING NETS

SHRIMP GILL NETSCRAB GILL NETSSARDINE GILL NETSSALMON GILL NETSHILSA GILL NETSTUNA GILL NETSSHRIMP TRAMMEL NETS

SINGLE WALLEDGILL NETS &ENTANGLING NETS

MULTI-WALLEDNETS

SIMPLE GILL NETS &ENTANGLING NETSVERTICAL LINE NETSFRAMED NETS

DOUBLE WALLEDTRAMMEL NETSTRIPLE WALLED]TRAMMEL NETS

Classification of gill nets

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Structure of simple gill net

A simple gill net consist of the float line, lead line, gavel lines(side ropes), floats, sinkers, buoys and buoy lines. The neting is mountedto the float line and the lead line according to a particular hanging ratio.Hanging coefficient determines the mesh shape and hung depth of themounted gill net. A few meshes along the upper, lower and side edgesof the main netting are generally stengthened eigher by using thickertwine size or by using double twine in order to protect the webbingfrom damage during handling and operation. A number of gill net unitsare attached end to end to form a fleet of nets.

Classification of gill nets

Depending on the type of fish to be caught and the fishing gravedconditions, the gill nets are broadly classified into 3 basic types. Theyare (a). Fixed gill net (b) Drift gill net and (c) Encircling gill net. Actuallythere are six types of nets in use in gill net fishery. Among these twonets, have been proved as the best catching capabilities. (Fixed bottomgill net and drift gill net for surface and middle-depth fishing).

Drift/surface gill net used to catch the fish, which swim near thesurface water. Either one end (or) both ends of the nets is fixed to thesea bottom to prevent the net from drifting away by the current (or)winds while in operation. This type of gill net does not requires anyanchor and is most suitable for the pelagic fishery in large scale.

Bottom gill net is fixed on the sea bottom with anchor to catchbottom dwellers. The total sinking power of the net, ropes and sinker islarge than the buoyancy of float.

Set gill nets or anchored gill nets are fixed to the bottom or at adistance above the bottom by means of floatation and ballast. In shallowcoastal waters they are fixed by means of stakes driven to the ground.

Encircling gill net is operated for catching fish shoals feeding ormoving in the surface layers. It is operated in the shallow waters and



the lead line usually touches the bottom. After encircling the shoal, soundand vibrations are used to drive the fish towards the net so that they areeither gilled or entangled.

Based on structure and method of capture, gill nets are groupedin to simple gill nets, trammel nets and combination gill net-trammelnet. Simple gill net consists of a single wall of netting supported byfloats and sinkers. The mechanism of capture is by gilling. The meshesin gill nets are large enough to allow a fish’s head but not the rest of thebody to pass through. When the fish tries to back out of the net it getscaught behind the gill covers.

Trammel nets are generally triple-walled with a loosely hungsmall-meshed panel between two large meshed panels which arerelatively tightly hung. The inner wall intercepting a fish passing throughthe large mesh on the outher wall forms a pouch after passing throughthe large mesh on the opposite side in which the fish is trapped. Trammelnets are usually operated as bottom set. Some trammel nets consistsof only two walls of netting.

Entangling nets are loosely hung single or multi-walled nettingof small mehes supported by floats and sinkers. The mechanism ofcapture is predominantly by entangling rather than gilling. The fish areheld by the protuberances and spines on the body of the target species.

Fig.8.5 structure of gill net

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8.3.2 Trawls

The trawl gear is a bag shaped gear dragged with in the waterwith the help of a towing boat. Its mouth is kept open by otter-boardsand towed on seabed or at the desired water depth. Generally the trawlgear has larger size of the mesh at its towing end and the mesh sizereduces gradually towards the cod end. The larger size of the mesh atits towing end is for the screening of unwanted fish species of certainsize and the smaller mesh size at the cod end for retaining shrimpvarieties. As such, the mesh size of the cod end webbing influenceslargely the size of fish caught by the trawl net.

Structure of a simple trawl

All trawls, whether small are large for both bottom and mid watertrawling are basically funnel shaped with extending sides in the front toform wings which will prevent the fish from escaping when the trawl isapproach. The trawl body is divided into cod end, extention piece, belly,baitings (top belly) square, lower wings, top wings, flapper and chaffinggear.

Fig. 8.6 structure of trawl net



The trawls generally have a top canopy called the squareextending forward from the top belly to prevent the fish from escapingover the top of the net. Panel sections are generally tailored frommachine-made webbing. Top and bottom panels are attached to the headrope (head line) and the foot rope (ground line), respectively. Flapper isa suitably shaped piece of netting of smaller mesh size fitted in front ofcodend in such a way as to prevent the escape of fishes that has enteredthe codend. Most commonly used buoyancy elements are spherical floatswhich are attached along the head rope. Floats along the head rope andweighted foot rope keeps the net mouth vertically open during operations.Rigid kites or flexible sheers devices are also used to maintain the verticalopening of the trawl mouth. Trawl mouth is kept horizontally open usingrigid sheer devices known as otter boards (trawl doors) which areattached to the wings either directly or by bridles or sweeps. Chaffinggear is some times provided underneath the codend of trawls operatedin rough grouds in order to protect the codend from abrasion.

Trawler requirements

Generally 2 basic requirements are common to all trawlers. Oneis the need for “towing power” and the other is the need for a “winch”(or) “mechanically hauling system”. In order to have a good towingpower, a trawler should have a reasonable draft (or) displacement andshould have a large slow-turning propeller.

Types trawlers:

The main types of trawl vessels are:

a. Otter trawlers (i) Side trawlers(ii) Stern trawlers(iii) Double rig trawlers

b. Pair trawlers (i) Bull trawlers/Bottom pair trawler(ii) Pair seiners(iii) Cod pair trawlers(iv) Mid water pair trawlers.

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c. Beam trawlers (i) Single rig(ii) Double rig(iii) Scallop dredgers(iv) Danish seiners

8.3.3 Line fishing

Lines are widely used in both traditional and modern fisheries.The basic principle in this method is based on the feeding and huntingbehaviour of target species.

Line fishing is an age-old fishing method practiced in India. Thistype of fishing is carried out, in India, mostly from the small traditionalboats in the near shore waters. Line fishing is basically composed of aline and a hook. Hooks are made up of galvanized (or) alluminium coatediron, brass (or) stainless steel, with different shapes and sizes. A simplehook generally consists of a head (by which it is connected to the line),shank, bend, point and barbs.

Fig. 8.7 structure of a hook



8.3.4 Purse seining

Purse seining is one of the most advanced and efficientcommercial fishing method for capture of shoaling pelagic species. Purseseines are also used to catch the demersal fish such as cod by modifyingits design to operate close to bottom. It probably catches the highestpercentage of total world fish landings than any other single fishingmethod. Purse seines are used in both small-scale and industrial sectors.Advances in purse seining was supported by introduction of high tenacitysynthetic twines of high specific gravity, improvements in vesseltechnology and gear handling equipment, such as fish aggregationtechniques and acoustic fish detection and remote sensing techniques.

Structure of purse seine

Design, shape and rigging of the purse seines vary greatly,depending on the method of operation, gear handling, depth of operation,target species and vessel characteristics. A typical purse seine couldconsist of the following parts:

Bunt: This is the section of netting where catch is concentrated prior toits removal by brailing into the vessel and is the last part of the net to behauled in. Netting used for bunt should be stronger and made of thickertwines than other parts. The bunt is either placed at the end of the wallof netting or at the centre, depending on the type of operation.

Main body: This is the largest part of the net extending from the buntwhich facilitate surrounding of the fish shoal during operations. It isconstructed by joining together large sections of netting of mesh sizeappropriate for the target species. Relatively thinner twines are used inthis section in order reduce the hydrodynamic resistance and increasethe sinking speed during setting.

Selvedges: Selvedge consists of a few rows of meshes of thicker andlarger mesh size, provided along the upper, lower and side edges of thenet body in order to protect the net from damages during operations.

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Float line, lead line, side ropes: The upper selvedge is attached to thefloat line (head rope)and the lower selvedge to the lead line (foot rope).Hanging ratio range from 0.5 to 0.9 depending on design. Hanging ratiois greater in lead line than in float line. Lead line is usually longer thanfloat line by up to 10% or in some cases equal in length. Selvedges onthe sides are attached to side ropes (gavel lines).

Bridles and tow line: Bridles are ropes attached to float line and leadline on either end and are connected a tow line of sufficient length tofacilitate setting and hauling operations.

Pursing arrangement: Purse line is used to close the bottom of thepurse seine after surrounding the fish shoal. The purse line passes throughpurse rings attached to lead line by short lengths of ropes. The purseline must have good abrasion resistance and high breaking strength andits length is roughly 1.5 times the length of the purse seine. Purse ringsare made of corrosion-resistant material such as brass or stainless steel.

Float and sinkers: Sinkers are attached to the lead line to attain 1-3 kg.m-1 for small purse seines and up to 8 kg.m-1 for large tuna purse seines.Total buoyancy of the floats is maintained at 1.5 to 3.5 times the totalunder-water weight of the purse seine net and its appurtenances. Higherbuoyancy is provided in the bunt area in order to counteract the sinkingforces due to weight of the heavier netting in this area and the weight offish while concentrating the catch.

Fig. 8.8 perse seine net



8.3.5. Other gear types

Similar to handlining, traps and pots are used in rocky areas for capturingLobster, Crab and other rocky fishes. Figure 4-8 gives pictures of someof these gear types. Scoop net, bag net, stake net, cast net etc., are usedin the estuaries and back waters. Some of these are very primitive fishingmethods still used by the fishermen on countryside. Shore seines in nearshore waters catch sometime fishes. Dole nets are traditional gearresembling trawl net, but are held on seabed with its mouth wide openwith the help of two wooden posts driven deep in the seabed. Bombayduck is the major share in the landings of dole net operation in themaritime States Gujarat and Maharastra.

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SUMMARY

The types of fishing crafts of India falls under two general catagories.These are non machanised and machanised fishing crafts. The catagoriesof fishing craft types comes0 under non machanised were catamaran,dugout-canoes, plant built canoes, masula boat, built up boats. Themachanised crafts are line boats, trap boats, dolnetter, gillnetter, trawlers.Some of the different kinds of fishing crafts used in marine sector arecatamaran, canoes, dhinghi and fishing vessel.

Different types gear are used during fishing operations. Gill, Trowl,Purse, Shore seine, Dole net and Longlines are used during fishing.Fishing operation methods are described.

QUESTIONS

1. Describe different types of fishing crafts used in the marine fisherysector.

2. Discuss different types of fishing gear used in the marine fisherysector.

3. Give an account on fishing methods in marine waters.

4. Describe the gill net and give its method of operation.

5. Describe the mechanised vessels used in marine waters.



9. FISHING METHODS

The way in which the principles of catch and strategies with boththe gear features and its techniques with a set of conditions for a set ofpurpose of catch is a “fishing method”. The general design of the gearand the combination of principles of catch decide about the ‘kind’ offishing method. The way in which the chief constructional featuresrealise the purpose of the catch decided the ‘type’ of fishing method.Themethod of fishing or capturing the fish resources largely depends uponthe habit and habitat of the species, constituting the resources.

Numerous fishing methods operating today are based on a fewbasic principles. The methods include both frightening and enticing fish.When frightened, fish naturally disperse and as such this method cannot be used for any length of time. The method of enticing, is found tobe effective to gather the fish and is therefore consider as a effectivemethod.

A wide array of harvesting methods are used in fishery sectorranging from the most primitive to highly sophisticated methods. Thesemethods have been broadly grouped into 13 categories of which someof the methods such as line fishing, fish traps, seine nets, surroundingnets, gill net and entangling net etc. were discuss in detail else where inthis chapter, some other methods such as fishing with out gear, in whichthe fish has been collected by bare hand or by foot; wounding gear whereharpoon, spear, arrows were used to catch the fish by wounding andkilling stupefying method, in which poison or under water explosiveswere used to paralized the fish and electrical fishing where applicationof pulsatile electric field is used to catch the fish.

9.1 ELECTRO-FISHING (ELECTRICAL PISHING)

Electric current as employed in fishing is harmless for fish ; itdoes not affect the growth, the viability and the reproductive capacityof the fish. Also, the electric field created in water during fishing doesnot influence the food of the fish. On the other hand, electric fishing

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saves time, labour, money and man-power. At present, the electric fishingis being successfully used in several countries and on commercial scaleboth for river fishing and sea fishing. In electrical fishing an electricfield is produced in water between two electrodes : anode and cathode.Electrical fishing operates on the principle of concentrating fish in alimited area between the electrodes, under the influence of an electricfield, and then collecting fish by netting or fish pumping. Concentratingfish under electric field is based on behavioral reaction of fish to a certainelectric current in fresh- or salt-water. The reaction of fish (falling inthe electric field) to the three types of electric current, direct (D.C.),alternating (A.C.) and interrupted (I.C.) is as follows :

a) Reaction offish to D.C. : the following reactions are shown :1. When voltage is low the fish are not influenced by the electric fieldand they may escape.

2. When voltage crosses a certain threshold value, a reaction calledelectrotaxis is shown. If fish is in transverse position to current direction,it turns parallel to it with the head directed towards the anode. If in aparallel position to current direction, the body is vibrated.

3. When a fresh pulse is given, all fish turn parallel to current directionand begin swimming towards the anode. This is called galuanotaxis.

4. The fish get stupefied before reaching the anode. They are unable tomove of their own and may turn up side down. This reaction is calledgalvanonarcosis.

5. If the electric current is now switched off, the narcotized fish areable to recover completely.

b) Reaction of Fish to A.C. exhibited :

The following reactions are1. When a certain threshold value of voltage is crossed, the fish show areaction called oscillotaxis. All fish between the electrodes take up aposition transverse to the current direction. They cease to swim, and

FISHING METHODS


are narcotized. The colour of the body fades as .a consequence ofcontraction of the pigments.

2. If the electric current is cut off, the fish do not recover immediately.For quite sometime (several minutes) the fish remain in a state ofhypnosis, unable to recover. Their body stays in lateral or dorsal positionduring this period.

3. After the period of hypnosis is over, the fish return to their normalswimming posture and may escape.

c) Reaction of Fish to I.C. : The following reactions are shown :1. When a pulse threshold is reached, electrotaxis is shown. The fishundergo heavy vibrations, and they swim towards the anode.2. If now the electric current is gradually increased and then abruptlydecreased, the fish turn about and swim towards the cathode.3. Galvanonarcosis follows in the same manner as it occurs in thecase of D.C.

The electric current depending upon its nature (D.C., A.C. orI.C.), intensity, opening and closing of the circuit etc. influences fish ina variety of ways. Some important features of which are enumeratedbelow :

1. A continuous flow of electric current has no effect on fish.

2. A fish is affected only when the electric circuit is either opened orclosed.

3. The closing of the circuit has greater effect on fish than the openingof the circuit has. The closing of the circuit is responsible for theattracting anodic effect upon fish, driving fish towards the anode.

4. The I. C. has the greatest narcotizing effect on fish. AC, comes next,and D. C, is in the last place. Narcotizing effect renders fish motionless,though living.

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5. D. C. and I. C. produce a blocking (frightening, driving) effect uponfish which are in the margin of the electric field. Under this effect, thefish are frightened away rather than attracted. The fish get excited, butsoon swim away from the electric field.

In an electric field, when the circuit is opened or closed the freenerve endings in the skin of fish are stimulated, The excitation isprocessed in the central nervous system, and it leads finally to tetaniccontractions of the muscles, Sustained individual contractions producemuscle cramps resulting in immobility of fish under narcosis. Accordingto Pfluger’s principle, the opening of the circuit produces smaller reactionthan the one produced by the closing circuit. Whereas the opening ofcircuit drives fish towards the cathode, the closing drives fish towardsthe anode.

Nerophysiology of fishs response to electric current Vibert (1963)has explained the anodic effect i.e. attraction to the positive pole Betweentwo electrodes, there is decreasing voltage as distance increases fromthe anode. Thus, a fish facin’g towards the anode and placed at a greaterdistance away experiences over its body a smaller voltage drop (+ to - )along its length. This means an inhibition effect upon the long motornerve fibres since these run backwards from the brain to the tailmyotomes ; swimming movements become weak and eventually cease.On the other hand, nearer the anode the effect of voltage changestimulates short sensory nerve fibres since these run forwards to thebrain i.e. in series with voltage change over nerve length. The inhibitionof motor fibres is eventually overridden ; swimming movements occurforwards and vigorously.

When fish is very near the anode inhibition of motor nerve fibresoverrides the excitation of sensory nerve fibres, owing to increasingvoltage drop. Fish becomes exhausted turning on its side or backalthough still moving forward under Inertia of swimming. The nearer itapproaches the anode, the more increase in voltage drop occurs alongits body. But since at this stage the potential gradient has become steepit excites the short oblique spinal sensory fibres ; this results inuncoordinated spinal reflexes which produce jerky forward swimming.

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When very close to the anode finally, the muscles of the fish are exciteddirectly by the potential gradient, and tetany occurs.

In a fish facing away from the anode and placed at a great distancefrom it, a reverse action occurs. The long motor nerve fibres arestimulated but the sensory fibres are inhibited. Therefore, the fish swimsaway from the anode and not towards it. When placed near the anodesuch a fish would have its muscles directly excited resulting in tetany.

Fish which are placed across the electric field have their suchspinal nerves as face the anode stimulated ; the body is bent and the fishis eventually turned towards the anode. Fishes in a state of tetany areoften turned to positions either across the electric field or towards theanode by the drifting current.

Thus a great majority of fishes from whatever position they arewith respect to the anode are eventually forced to move toward the anode.In the above effect, small sized fish experiences a smaller voltage-dropalong its length and so is less affected than large sized fish.

In commercial fishing, A.C. and D.C. are used in fresh water,while I.C. is used in sea water. The attracting anodic effect and theblocking effect are used to the advantage of fishery. The electrical fishinggear and equipment (such as electrodes, cables, source of electric currentsupply etc.) are designed keeping in view the following parameters : (i)condition of water and bottom such as currents, conductivity etc. ; (ii)type of species and size of fish to be affected, (iii) other localrequirements and conditions, and (iv) the purpose for which the electricfield is created, i.e. capture of fish or production of blocking effect.

Attracting anodic effect : This effect is produced to capture fish oncommercial scale both in fresh water and sea water, in case of freshwater, two electrodes are immersed in water ; the anode and cathodebeing 2 : 3 in size. The anode carries a hoop net at its base. The electrodesare handy, operated on battery. The stunned fish assembled at the anodeare removed by the hoop net. The entire operation is conducted from aboat.

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Here, electrofishing becomes something of an art. The operator’sskill in matching the machine to the fish species and to the water mattervery much in determining the efficiency of the whole operation. Thereis always great risk of scaring away the fish at the hands of unskilledoperators. It must be remembered that efficiency also depends upon anumber of environmental factors. Colour of water will lower visibilityof stunned fish. Conductivity and temperature of water affect ion-flowand this in turn the extension of the electric field about the electrode.Excessive tetany produced due to carelessness may result in spinaldamage in fish captured.

‘Electro-seine’ is a modified version to increase the efficiency.It consists of a series of alternating positive and negative electrodeshanging like a curtain from floats. The electro-seine is dragged throughdeep waters followed by netting.

In case of sea fishing, a condenser fed by a D.C. generatorsupplies the interrupted current. The electrodes are set at the mouth of atrawl net. As the fish are concentrated at the anode in a stunned state,they are captured in the approaching trawl net. In the place of trawl net,fish pumps are set near the anode to suck up the stunned fish collectednear the anode.

Blocking effect : This effect is produced in freshwater for manypurposes, such as (i) to force fish to enter fish ways, new river systems,bays and catching areas where these may be easily fished ; (ii) to frightenaway unwanted fish, thus fencing off a water area under managementfor angling etc., from such fish ; (iii) to prevent fish from entering intoturbines or pumps of the hydro-electric plants and dams ; (iv) to createbarriers so that migration of crabs etc. may be controlled.

9.2 Gill net operations

Gill nets are operated from a wide range of vessel classes ranging fromsmall traditional crafts to large vessels of 50 m loa and above. Gill netsand trammel nets are set across the current or the path of fish migration.The gear is set over the stern or over the side. The buoys and sinkers are

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thrown overboard manually to either side of the net to prevent tangling.Speed of the vessel during shooting may vary from 1 to 6 knots. Aftercompletion of the setting, in drift gill netting generally the end of thenet is kept tethered to the boat. Set gill nets are weighed with anchorand marked with buoys and flag poles. In large-scale drift gill nettingoperaing great lengths of nets, flag poles and marker buoys areattached at intervals and radio buoys and radar reflectors are connectedto keep track of the fleet. Length of buoy lines in drift nets are adjustedso that the nets occupy the desired depth corresponding to the swimminglayer of the target fish. Soaking time for drift gill netting is generally 4-5 hours. Bottom set nets are often set to soak over night.

9.3 Trawling methods:

Modern trawling methods are identified broadly in twocategories, they are

1. Bottom trawling and2. Mid-water trawling

9.3.1 Bottom trawling operation

Availability of fish, depth and nature of sea bottom in the fishign

Fig. 9.1 gill net operation

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ground are ascertained using the echo-sounder, fishery charts, fisheryforecasets, historical information and previous experience. Current andwind speeds are taken into consideration before operation begins.

One-boat bottom otter trawling - During shooting operation, codend isclosed properly and released first, followed by the main body of thenet. When the net is in water, with the sweeps connected to the otterboards, the vessel slowly steams ahead so the net, sweeps and bridlesspread out and open properly. The otter boards are then lowered to afew meters below the surface and kept there for a few minutes to ensurethat they are spreading properly. The gear is then lowered to the desiredfishing depth by releasing sufficient lenght of warp. The length of warpreleased in bottom trawling depends on the depth of the fishing groundand nature of sea bottom. The ratio of depth of fishing ground and thewarp released is known as scope ratio and is typically around 1:5. Inshallow waters less then 20 m with smooth ground, warp length couldbe 5 to 10 times the depth and in deep water operations using heavygear and in rough grounds length of warp used could be 2.5 to 4 timesthe depth.

After dragging the gear for a durationof 2 to 4 hours dependingon the catch, the hauling operation begins. The main warps are heavedin evenly on to the winch drums, until the otter boards reach the gallows.Sweeps and bridles are then hauled in followed by the main body netand finally the codend.

Bottom pair trawling - In pair trawling which is also known as bulltrawling. A single net is towed between two vessels. Otter boards arenot used in pair trawling. The horizontal spread of the trawl mouth,bridles and sweeps are maintained by the outward pull of the two vesselsoperating the gear. Horizontal distance between the vessels is generallyhalf the length of released warp. The net is shot and hauled in by onevessel and the wing end and sweeps to be operated from the other vesselis transferred by a heaving line and a messenger. Warps are always towedon the star board side of each vessel to facilitate steerage, except insmall vessels where it may be toward from a central point on the stern.Scope ratio between depth and warp length varies from 1:5 to 1:10 inpair trawling.

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Fig. 9.2 One boat and two boat otter trawl operation

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9.3.2. Mid-water trawling operation

One-boat mid-water trawling - In mid-water trawling, the vesselis steamed towards the shoal of the target species after its location bysonar. In mid-water trawl, towing tension is on the head rope and thevertical opening is primarily achieved by the depressor weights attachedto the lower wing-ends. Floats attached to the head rope help in keepingthe head rope clear during shooting and hauling operations. Thus inmin-water trawling, the combined length of the lower sweeps and bridlesbetween wing-end and otter boards are longer than the upper sweepsand bridles. In contrast, the towing tension is on the ground rope alongthe sea bed in the bottom trawl and the vertical opening is achieved bylifting the head rope from the sea bed by net design features andfloatation. Towing speed varies with the target species. A towing speedof 2.5 - 3.0 knots may be good enough for slow swimming target specieswhile for fast swimming species towing speeds of 4.5 - 8.0 knots areused.

Fig. 9.3 one boat mid water trawl

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In India, the bottom trawling is practiced to harvest the nearbottom animals, to catch demersal fishes such as Scianides, Rays, Skatesetc. To catch demersal and shrimps a Double-rigged shrimp trawling ispopular. Mid-water trawling is undertaken for catching coloumnar andpelagic fishes like Pomfrets, Seer fish, Butter fish, Silver bar, Ribbonfish, Sardines, Mackerels etc. Trawl net is the most popular and dominantfishing gear in terms of quantum of fish catches, since it covers maximumfishing area in a minimum duration of time.

During the operation of both kinds of trawl nets, several structuraland operational modifications have taken place resulting in thedevelopment of specific trawl gears for specific fishing. Recently, the‘Disco net formed” as an important gear for exploiting the columnarfishes. The progressive improvements in the trawl nets and accessories,the fishing craft as well as onboard deck equipment also have broughtin changes in the net design resulting in the improved harvesting of thefishery resources. The application of electronic gadgets onboard, thevessels have also greatly revolutionized the operational techniques.Because of these developments, the present day trawling operations arecompletely mechanized, bringing down the manpower needs to theminimum.

Due to the adoption of trawling by more fishermen, especiallyfor catching Shrimp in the near shore region, trawling has put tremendouspressure on the marine fisheries. Nearly 80% of the world’s trawling issaid to be taking place within 50m depth in the near shore waters. Thetrawl fishing technique is also a serious disadvantage associated withthis fishing gear being known as “destructive gear”. This is due to thefact that during fishing operations, the trawl gear practically sweeps thefishing operations, the fishing area taking in all animals that come in itsway, irrespective of the kind, size or age group. However the trawlgear, if used and designed properly would facilitates to catching thedesired size and age groups of fish species permitting the escape ofundersized fishes for sustaining the natural fish stock. In this direction,various countries and the fishery research institutes are trying their bestto improve trawl net design and, more importantly, diversifying thefishing methods from trawling to other fishing methods like long lining

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in order to retain the marine fishery resources at a sustainable level.

9.4 Types of line fishing methods:

Different methods of line fishing such as handlining, trolling, longliningetc., are in vouge of which few of them are described below:

9.4.1 Handlining

Fishing in the shallow rocky areas using conventional gill netsand trawl nets is very risky and may damage the fishing gear. As such,fishes which inhabit in hiding places like fissured rocks, crevices andon rough ground are generally caught with handlines attached withhooks. Because of its operational simplicity, small time artisanalfishermen find it profitable to practise handline fishing in such areas.Moreover, it is a low energy fishing technique requiring minimuminvestment.

Normally, each handline consists of a main line made up of nylonmono-filament attached with a sinker and a branch line. The main lineis around 100m long having a diameter of 2 to 2.5mm. At the end of thesinker, branch line made of a stainless steel wire rope with hooks isattached. Hooks used for the handline are generally smaller. Iron nut,bolt or lead weights around 30 to 50 g are attached at the end of themain line to keep the hooks closer to the bottom. The handline includingthe main line, branch line, hooks and sinker is wound on a small woodenplank and reeled off while in use.

Fishermen use conventional wooden dugout canoes and FRPcanoes in handline fishing. While fishing, fishermen wind one end ofthe main line to their legs to feel the bite of fish. When the bite of thefish is sufficiently felt, the line is hauled up quickly, fish removed, baitedand the line cast again. Medium sized whole Ribbon fish, Mackerel,Squid and Shrimp are the commonly used baits. Fishermen also usemore than one handline at a time. In such cases, one line is kept in thehand and a few wound to their legs, while others are attached to someplaces in the canoe. Thus simultaneously each fishermens operates nearly

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6 to 7 main lines et at time simultaneously. Actual fishing operation iscarried out for 6 to 7 hours during daytime and about 1 to 15 kg ofdifferent varieties of fishes are caught per boat. Sometimes during thehandline fishing operations, the main lines withhooks get snapped whenbigger fishes are caught or lines entangled in the rocks. The existinghandline fishing methods for the artisanal fishermen are being improvedby using hand reels, Kirby bent hooks and increasing the number ofbranch lines for better hooking rates.

Now a day, handline fishing is also used in other countries indeep waters for catching Shark, Tuna, Seer and other predatory fishes.Bigger trawl boats are used for this purpose. On reaching the fishingground, the boat is allowed to drift along with prevailing water currentand wind. The lines are dropped in the direction of the water currentwith one end of the line fastened to the water depending upon the waterdepth. One end of the line is held by the fishermen to feel the bite of thefish. When fish bite is felt, the line is given a sharp jerk so that the fishgets hooked properly. The lines are, then, hauled up gradually. Largesize fishes are further hauled up on deck by hooking the fish at the heador belly portion using a gaff hook. The gaff hook is made of mild steelrod of 8 to 10mm diameter and is about 1 to 1.5m long. The fish isremove from the gaff hook and fishing operation is continued afterputting fresh bait.

If the fish catches during handlining are not very promising, then,the fishermen change the fishing grounds or change over to trawlingoperations. Generally, one or two rounds of trawling is also carried outon their way to new fishing grounds for collecting bait to be used in linefishing.

9.4.2 Trolling

Troll line fishing consists of a line and troll jig attached to thevessel, which moves at a speed of 3 to 8 knots. It is the most active typeof angling operation. Location and persuit of a school of fish, seetingthe proper trolling depth for the fishing line and the performance of thefishing hooks and bait are the important points involve in the trolling

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operation. The trolling fishery is broadly divided into two major types.They are type-I and type-II.

In type-I method, the lines and hooks are towed horizontally nearthe water surface. The fish caught by this method are piscivorous specieswith a large migrating range, such as, middle to large sized tuna, spanishmackered, yellow tail. In case of small fishing boats, one to three linesmay be towed, but in middle to large sized boats may extend poles fromeither side of the boat to allow 6 to 8 lines to be towed.

In type-II method, the lines and hooks are towed vertically tomiddle water depth to catch migrated fishes, such as sea brean, yellowtail, trout and flat fishes. The lines are equipped with devices like sinkers,underwater plates and floats that cause the line to troll in the middle tobottom water depths. The line is filled with multiple lures.

Fig. 9.4 trolling methods

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9.4.3 Pole and lining

This is another method of line fishing. Presently, in India, poleand line fishing is practiced for catching Skip-jack tuna in and aroundLakshadweep islands using local country boats. In this, a flexible woodenor fiber glass pole of 4 to 6 meter in length is used to connect one endto line joined to a lead coated iron hook. The line is usually a littleshorter than the pole and the material used in recent times is PAmonofilament of 1.00 dia. In Japan, pole and line fishing is practiced ona commercial scale from large fishing vessels with several men operatinghand held pole and lines.

Fig. 9.5 pole and line structure and fishing

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Pole and lining operation

Tuna and other pelagic predatory fishes when they are detected,are attracted close to the vessel by scattering live baits into water. Thisprocess is known as chumming. Simultaneously water is sprayed on thesea surface from nozzles arranged along the fore or aft and side edgesof the vessel using pumps. Water spraying ruffles the sea surface andsimulates prey movements which attracts the target fishes and excitesthem into a feeding frenzy.

When the school of fishes is attracted around the vessel, the vessel isstopped and fishing operation is started. Fishing is carried out usuallyfrom the stern and sides of the vessel. When tuna is struck, it is swungaboard and unhooked in a swift operation by the skilled pole and linefishermen. The barbless hooks makes it possible to unhook the fish by askilful jerk of the rod.

Live baits are small fishes such as anchovies, sprats and sardines andjuveniles of carangids, mackerels and other fishes. The are kept aliveonboard in bait tanks equipped with circulating sea water system or inthe case of small-scale operations, in floating cages. Availability of livebait and their maintenance are important factors determining the successof pole and line fishing.

9.4.4 Longlining

Longlines are passive fishing gears. Of all line fishing gears,longline fishing is the most popular method in which fishes like Tuna,Shark, Seer, Barracuda, Cat fish, Spanish mackerel and other predatoryfishes are caught. It is known to be highly fuel-efficient eco-friendlyand size and species selective. These can be operated for bothe pelagicand demersal fihes, covering the entire water coloumn. This can beoperated from a wide range of vessel classes ranging from small coastalvessels to large automated tunalineer. A longline consists of a mainline and many branch line, also called snoods or gangions. The mainline is of polyethylene mono-filament, usually, 4 to 10mm in diameterand 400 to 600m long and is attached with branch lines of 2 to 3mm in

FISHING METHODS


diameter. The branch lines are also of polyethylene mono-filament about10 to 20m long and 50m apart. Baited hooks are attached at the end ofeach branch line. Some time, steel wire rope of 2 to 2.5mm diameterhaving a length of 0.5m is used so that the fishes do not cut the lineeasily. Depending on the size of the fishing vessel and the deckmachinery carried by it, the total length of longline can extend in sets of400 to 600m measuring from 60 to 90km.

With prior knowledge of the fish shoal depth, the longlines withbaited hooks are let to set at desired water column. Dragging the mainline along with branch lines captures fishes that attack and engulf thebait. Sometime, branch lines are attached with artificial lures like jigs,spoons etc., which imitate like sick fishes by their tumbling or whirlingmovement to make the predator think it as easy prey. Basic principlebehind hooking is swallowing temptation of the fish for bait as a wholeand getting entangled with the hook. Fish easily gets hooked with themoving bait rather than the motionless bait. This kind of fish behaviouris exploited by the fishermen to catch the migratory fishes like Tunawith the lines kept on drift.

Fig. 9.6 long lining

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9.5. Purse seine fishing operations

Success in purse seining depends on the speed at whifch theschool is encircled, sinking speed of the net and speed of pursingoperation.

Purse seine is operated from a single vessel or a pair of vessels.Fishing operation consists of active search, chase and interception ofthe shoal or attraction and concentration the fish by luring techniquesor aggregation devices; encircling and pursing operations; concentratingthe catch in the bunt by progressively hauling in the net; and brailingout the catch before concluding the operation. Net haulers, pursing winchand purse gallows were the major gear handling equipment on boardpurse seiners. Power block is used for net hauling system.

9.5.1 One-boat purse seining:

Fish shoal is detected traditionally by colour, texture, jumpingfish or flocks of birds hovering over the school. In the night, fish schoolscan be found by bio-luminescence of the plankton caused by the schoolmovements. Modern techniques, bird radar and aerial observation ofsurface schooling fish from air plane or helicopter.

After the detection of the shoal of target species of sufficientcatch potential, the shoal is chased at full speed. Work boasts arelaunched. The skiff to which the one end of the net is secured is launchedand the net is set at full speed by the purse seiner and the shoal issurrounded. On completion of the encircling, skiff transfers the end ofthe seine passing a messenger rope to the purse seiner and hauling ofthe purse line is started by operating the pursing winch. Purse rings arelifted and stored on ring stripper and the main bag of the net is hauledgradually by operating the power block or other net hauling equipmentsuch as triplex or net drum. Purse rings are pulled off the ring stripperas the net is stacked. When the catch is concentrated in the bunt whichis held between the purse seiner and the skiff, the fish is transferred bybrailing or operating fish pump. Work boats assist in keeping the vesselssteady during catch transfer and in preventing the escape of fish from

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Fig. 9.7 one boat purse seining operation

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the net by herding. During night operations they are used as light boatsfor attracting and keeping the shoal aggregated, before encircling. Speedand direction of the target school, speed and direction of the wind andcurrent are taken into consideration before the final approach andbeginning of encircling operation.

Fig. 9.8 two boat purse seining

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9.5.2 Two-boat purse seining

In the two-boat purse seining system, two large seiners eachcarrying half the gear are operated simultaneously to encircle the school,setting the middle part of the net first. The bunt is located in the middleof the net. In the two-boat system, a large net could be operated and theoperation could be much more faster than in single-boat system. Two-boat operations are conducted generally during day-time, due tothe additional skill required for co-ordination of the two vessels duringoperation. The net is usually set out against the direction of the currentif the wind velocity is less. If the wind velocity is high, the net is setalong the direction of the wind. Two-boat purse seining is declining inimportance, due to disadvantages of investment requirement for anadditional vessel and the need for better technical skill and seamanshipfor two-boat operation.

SUMMARY

Numerous fishing methods operating today are based on a fewbasic principles. The methods include both frightening and enticing fish.When frightened, fish naturally disperse and as such this method cannot be used for any length of time. The method of enticing, is found tobe effective to gather the fish and is therefore consider as a effectivemethod. These methods have been broadly grouped into 13 categoriesof which some of the methods such as line fishing, fish traps, seinenets, surrounding nets, gill net and entangling net etc. were discuss indetail else where in this chapter, some other methods such as fishingwith out gear, in which the fish has been collected by bare hand or byfoot; wounding gear where harpoon, spear, arrows were used to catchthe fish by wounding and killing stupefying method, in which poison orunder water explosives were used to paralized the fish and electricalfishing where application of pulsatile electric field is used to catch thefish.

Questions1. Describe the electro fishing method in fish sector.2. Give an account on purse-seine fishing operation.3. Explaing the various line fishing methods.

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10. FISH PRESERVATION AND PROCESSING

Fish preservation is a very important aspect of the fisheries.Normally the fish farms or other fish capturing sites are located far offfrom the market place and there is chance of fish decomposition and theuncertainties of their sale in market. When the fishes are caught innumbers, greater than the amount of consumption, their preservationbecomes a necessity for their future use. Preservation and processing,therefore become a very important part of commercial fisheries. It isdone in such a manner that the fishes remain fresh for a long time, witha minimum loss of flavour, taste, odour, nutritive value and thedigestibility of their flesh.

10.1. Freshness of fish

Freshness is usually judged in the trade entirely by appearance,odour and texture of the raw fish. Since assessment depends upon thesenses, these factors are known as sensory or organoleptic. The mostimportant things to look for the freshness of fish are:

i) The general appearance of the fish including that of the eyes, gills,surface slime and scales and the firmness or softness of the flesh.

ii) The odour of the gills and belly cavity;

iii) The appearance, particularly the presence and absence ofdiscolouration along the under side, of the backbone.

iv) The presence or absence of rigor mortis or death stiffening;

v) The appearance of the belly walls.


10.2. Causes of spoilage of fishes

In the cooler regions of the world the fish preservation is notrequired for a few days after their capture. This is because, thetemperature is low enough to discourage the bacterial growth and sothe spoilage of fishes is minimized.

In tropical regions such as India, the hot climate favours rapidgrowth of bacteria and so the spoilage of fish flesh becomes inevitable.Landed fishes may ordinarily remain fresh for not more than 8 hoursand begin to decompose rapidly after that. The decomposition orspoilage of fish flesh occur mainly due to various chemical, microbialand the enzymatic action.

10.2.1. Chemical action

The chemical action involves oxidation of fat, contained withinthe fatty tissues of the fish. It is more pronounced in fat fishes (e.g. oilsardine, mackerels, catla, trout, grass carp etc.) which as a result becomedecolourised. The oil starts getting oxidized as soon as it comes incontact with the atmospheric air, which is known as rancidity. The colourof the fat and its viscosity changes and the fish becomes strong tasted.Methods employed to prevent rancidity include application ofantioxidants like polyphenols or other viscous fluid and minimizingexposure of fish to atmospheric air.

10.2.2. Microbial action

Microbial action involves bacterial decomposition of the fish flesh.The bacteria are found in the lower part of the gastrointestinal tract andon the general body surface of the fish. They may also be contributedfrom the surrounding in sanitary a most suitable place for their growthand multiplication. Proteins, constituting 70 - 90 % are degraded byproteolytic organisms such as Pseudomonas, Proteus, Chromobacterium,Halobacterium, and Micrococcus , etc. The Carbohydrates, present insmall amount in the fish flesh are spoiled by carbohydrate fermenting

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organisms like Streptococcus, Leuconostoc, Micrococcus , etc. Fatsconstituting 3 - 5 % of the flesh are digested by relatively few gramnegative bacteria. Degradation process occur through the processes asfollows:

Proteolytic micro-organismsProteins Amino acids + Amines +

Ammonia + Hydrogen sulphide

Fermentive micro-organisms

Carbohydrates Acid + Alcohols + Gases

Lipolytic micro-organismsFats Fatty acids + Glycerol.

10.2.3. Enzymatic action

Enzymatic action is due to action of various enzymes found in thebody tissues / cells of fishes. They spoil the tissue by the process ofautolysis and makes the fish susceptible to bacterial attack. Proteinasefor example can digest muscle proteins of the fish, catalase, the gillspoilage and ATPase brings about a complete disappearance of ATP,from muscle tissue in 6 to 8 hours. Autolysis of protein results information of amino acids and other nitrogenous products, which onfurther decomposition produces ammonia, carbon dioxide, volatile basiccompounds like various amines and fatty acids, and foul smellingproducts like indole, skatole, etc.

10.3. Methods of preservation

Preservation can be done, both for short and long duration:

10.3.1. Preservation for short duration

Chilling: This is obtained by covering the fish with layers of ice.

FISH PRESERVATION AND PROCESSING


However, ice alone is not effective for long preservation, because meltingwater brings about a sort of leaching of valuable flesh contents whichare responsible for the flavour. But ice is effective for short termpreservation such as is needed to transport landed fish to nearby marketsor to canning factories, etc. Here autolytic enzymic activities are checkedby lowering the temperature.

10.3.2. Preservation for long time

When the preservation is required for a long period of time, thefishes are passed through the cleaning, gutting and conservation andstorage.

10.3.2.1.Cleaning:

During cleaning, the caught first are fish washed thoroughly incold, clean water to remove bacteria, slime, blood, faeces, and mud,etc. from the body surface of the fish. It is being done under propersanitary conditions.

10.3.2.2. Gutting:

After cleaning, the fishes are cut along their mid ventral side,and their visceral organs are removed. By removing viscera, the bacteriain the gastro intestinal tract and enzymes of visceral organs are removedalong with it to prevent bacterial decomposition and enzymic autolysisrespectively.

10.3.3.3. Conservation and storage:

Conservation is necessary to keep the dead fish in fresh conditionfor quite a long time. This is achieved by employing any one of themethods like freezing, drying, salting, smoking and canning.

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10.4. Freezing

Freezing means removal of heat from the body. To check theenzymal, bacterial action and putrefaction it is preferred to store thefish under lower temperatures. The fishes are chilled in ice when theyare to be stored for a few days. Ice is put inside the body cavity in largefishes. The fishes are arranged in tiers in shelves or boxes and stacked,and should not be dumped in heaps in cold storage. It is preferred tostore at a temperature below 6.6oC to prevent microbial spoilage offish. The formation of ice to some extent causes damage to the biologicalmaterial, like growth of crystals of ice ruptures the structuralcomponents, releasing the enzymes and precipitation of liquid waterand thereby causing precipitation of proteins effecting the change ofpH making it more or less dry.

The ice formation is initiated when the temperature of fish islowered to about-1oC with a change in the concentration of inorganicand organic compounds. Freezing continues to fall with the loweringof temperature. At - 50oC to -60oC the entire water in the fish is frozen.The maximum freezing of water is between 1oC and 5oC with differentsized crystal formation of ice. Ice formation occurs at a place whereheat is extracted and then spread to warmer areas from where heat isconducted to refrigerating medium. The size of the crystals dependsupon the nature of freezing in slow or quick freezing. Large crystalsformed in slow freezing, ruptures the tissues more since it penetratesthe cell wall easily and forms the drip. Drip is the flow of tissue fluidsfrom the frozen fish or muscle during freezing of the fish or muscle.This drip is due to the cell damage caused in freezing. This drip leachesalong with soluble protein, vitamins and minerals and gives anundesirable appearance. The formation of drip affects the appearanceof the product and results in the loss of weight. Hence, drip is consideredas one of the criteria for judging the quality of the frozen products.

Uses of ice:1. Fish preservation time can be extended by using ice.2. Ice reduces fish body temperature and keeps the body cool for



more time.3. Water, formed due to ice melting, cleans the mucous, and other

material of the fish body.4. Ice is useful as good preservative due to its melting point 0oC and

latent heat 80 cal./gr.5. Due to high relative humidity of ice, it is very good for preservation.6. Ice is cheap and very effective preservative.

10.4.1. Deep or quick freezingWhen fish is intended to be stored for a long period, quick freezing

is preferred which inhibits bacterial action. During quick freezing everypart of the product comes within the range of 0o to -5oC. Properlyfrozen fish at -20oC retains its physical properties and nutritive valuesfor a year or more and is almost as good as fresh fish. Smaller sizedcrystals, shorter time taken for freezing less time allowed for diffusionof salts and evaporation of water and prevention of decomposition aresome of the advantages in quick freezing. There are three ways effectingquick freezing: a) Direct immersion of fish in the refrigerating medium,b) Indirect contract with the refrigerant through plates and c) Forcedconvection of refrigerated air directed at heat transfer surfaces. Thereare several methods of quick freezing. Among the various types ofquick freezing plants installed in India the carrier air blast type is widelyused.

Preserving of fish in cold storage is practised on a small scale inIndia. Cold storage preservation of fish is practised at the places wherestorage facilities are available. The fishes are preserved overnight incold storage and marketed the next day. With the increase in availabilityof ice, fish is transported in ice by different modes of transport like rail,trucks, motor launches, etc. The west coast has a large number offreezing plants at places like Bombay, Mangalore, Cochin, Trivandrumwhere freezing of prawns, lobsters and frog legs are undertaken. AtBombay fishes like pomfrets, jew fishes, etc., are frozen and stored forseveral months.

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Oil sardines, mackerel and seer are the three commercial importantfood fishes used in the application of refrigerated sea water forpreservation. These fishes were stored in artificial sea waters preparedby dissolving common salt to give a sodium chloride content 3.5% at atemperature of -1.1 to 0oC. In general the fishes stored in refrigeratedsea water had firmer texture and better appearance than ice-stored ones.The oil sardines stored upto 2 days did not show any difference comparedto ice samples. Further storing resulted inferior quality of the fish.Similarly mackerel and seer could be stored for 4 to 6 days and 12 to 14days respectively.

In general different methods of freezing are adapted through sharpfreezer. air blast freezer, contact plate freezer, vertical plate freezer,immersion freezing, liquid freon freezing, liquid nitrogen freezing,fluidized bed freezer, cryogenic freezing, sub freezing, etc. All themethods of freezing shall help in absorption of heat and in preservingthe initial qualities of fish. Among the various methods of freezing theblast freezer is mostly in use in India. The air blast freezer is in theform of a tunnel and heat transfer is effected rapidly by the circulationof air. The temperature used ranges from 0 to 30oC and air velocityvaries from 30 to 1050 meters/mt.

10.4.2. Freeze drying

This is modified deep freezing, completely eliminating all chancesof denaturation. The deep frozen fish at -20oC is then dried by directsublimation of ice to water vapour with any melting into liquid water.This is achieved by exposing the frozen fish to 140oC in a vaccumchamber. The fish is then packed or canned in dried condition. Anyloss of flesh contents by way leaching during melting of ice is thusavoided. The product is quite fresh looking in appearance, flavour,colour and quality.



10.4.3. Filleting and freezing of fish

The processing industry also adopted freezing of fish in the formof fillets at times when prawns are not available. Fillets are nothing butthe strips of flesh cut parallel to the backbone of the fish. Fishes likemilk fish, cat fish, perches, mullets, carps, eel, etc., are suitable forfilleting and freezing. Filleting can be done by hand which is economicalor by using a filleting machine. Fillets may be with or without skin andit fetches a much higher price in the luxury market. Fillets are drippedin brine to enhance their appearance and to reduce the amount of dripand it also gives a salty flavour. The freezing of fillets can be anindividual quick freezing of block freezing. After dropping in brine,the fillets wrapped in polythene sheet and frozen in contact plate freezerat -35

0C to 40

0 C. In block freezing the fillets in known weight 500gr.,

1Kg., 2Kg. are packed in polythene bags lined with wax and sufficientquantity of glazed water is poured to cover the fillets. The fillets areput in a freezer at -35 to 40

0 C and stored at -23

0 C.

10.5. Drying

Drying involves dehydration i.e. the removal of moisture contentsof fish, so that the bacterial decomposition or enzymic autolysis doesnot occur. When moisture contents reduce upto 10%, the fishes are notspoiled provided they are stored in dry conditions. Fish drying isachieved either naturally or by artificial means.

10.5.1. Natural drying

In natural drying the fishes after being caught are washed and driedin the sunshine. They are suspended or laid out flat on the open ground.The process, however, has a number of disadvantages. It is slow andresults in much loss, through putrefaction. It can be carried out only indry, well aerated climate receiving sunshine which is not too hot. It,thus depends upon the environmental factors and availability of space.Lastly only the thin fishes can be preserved by this method, because the

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fat fishes have much flesh allowing bacterial decomposition to continuein deeper parts of their body. An additional disadvantage is that driedfishes require a long soaking period to restore water and that the sundried fishes are not usually relished.

10.5.2. Artificial drying

In artificial drying the killed fishes are cleaned, gutted and havetheir heads removed. They are then cut lengthwise to remove largeparts of their spinal column, followed by washing and drying themmechanically.

10.6. Salting

Salting is a process where the common salt, sodium chloride, isused as a preservative which penetrates the tissues, thus checks thebacterial growth and inactivates the enzymes. Salting commences assoon as the fish surface of the fish comes in contact with common saltand the end product shall have the required salinity with taste and odour.Some of the factors involved in salting of fish which play an importantrole are purity of salt, quantify of salt used, method of salting and weatherconditions like temperature, etc.

During the process the small fishes are directly salted without beingcleaned. In the medium and large sized fish the head and viscera areremoved and longitudinal cuts are made with the help of knives in thefleshy area of the body. Then the fish is washed and filled with salt foruniform penetration through flesh. Large fishes like sharks are cut intoconvenient sized pieces. Generally, sardines, mackerels, seer fishes,cat fishes, sharks and prawns are used for salting.

The salt used should be pure common salt so as to keep the qualityof the fresh fish. Traces of calcium and magnesium caused whiteningand stiffening of the flesh and gives bitter or acid flavor to the product.In addition it does not allow the easy penetration of common salt. Dry



salting, wet salting and mixed salting are the three methods employedin salting of fish.

10.6.1. Dry salting

In this process the fish is first rubbed in salt and packed in layersin the tubs and cemented tanks. The salt is applied in between the layersof fishes in the proportion of 1:3 to 1:8 salt to fish. The proportion ofsalt to fish varies with the fish since the oily fish require more salt. Atthe end of 10 - 24 hours the fishes are removed from the tubs and washedin salt brine and dried in the sun for 2 or 3 days. Large fish lose aboutone third and small fish about one half of their dressed weights.

10.6.2. Wet salting

The cleaned fish are put in the previously prepared salt solution. Itis stirred daily till it is properly picked. In some fishes like seer, blackpomfret, Indian salmon etc., the gut is removed and filled with salt in 1: 3 proportion. First the salt is filled in the gut region of the fish andstacked, on the following day further addition of salt is done since thesalt settles down at the bottom. Finally the process is repeated to ensurethe proper filling up of salt and left undisturbed for 7 - 10 days allowingthe liquor to flow off. This method is mostly followed in eastern partsof our country. In western parts the gut is removed and the salt is appliedin one lot and they are arranged in bamboo baskets. The fishes preservedin wet salting process are to be consumed before the rain sets in and thefishes are marketed without drying.

10.6.3. Mixed salting

In this process, simultaneous use of salt and brine is followed.The salting process is continued till the concentration of salt in thesurrounding medium equalises with the concentration of salt in the fishtissue. The salting process may affect the shape, structure and themechanical features of muscle tissue.

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10.6.4. Pit curing

It is another process employed in south and south east of our country.In this process the fish treated with salt are buried in pits lined withleaves. After 2-3 days they are removed and marketed directly.

10.7. Smoking

In this method, landed fish is cleaned and brined. It is then exposedto cold or hot smoke treatment. In cold smoking, first a temperature of38oC is raised from a smokeless fire. After this heating, cold smoke ata temperature below 28oC is allowed to circulate past the fish. In caseof hot smoking, first a strong fire produces a temperature around 130oC.This is followed by smoking at a temperature of 40oC. The smoke hasto be wet and dense. Good controls are necessary over density,temperature, humidity, speed of circulation, pattern of circulation andtime of contact with fish of the smoke. The phenol content of the smokeacts as an antiseptic and it also imparts a characteristic colour and flavour.Some condensation of tars and resins also adds to the taste. Stricthygienic conditions are maintained throughout this operation. For bestresults, fishes are hanged on special structures in special installationscalled smoke houses. Some are produced by burning wood in the smokehouse itself or are conducted to it through pipes from fire produced at adistance. For making fire and smoke, only hard wood (Conifer wood,Saw dust etc.) are used. Smoke house has a chimney at the top for exitof smoke. It also has a number of galleries for hanging fishes. Thesmoke house is made of fire proof material and is very well insulated toretain heat.

10.8. Canning

Canning is a method of preservation in which spoilage can beaverted by killing micro-organisms through heat. It is generally wellknown that food carries micro-organisms which cause spoilage if left



unchecked. These micro-organisms are to be eliminated and the entryof other are restricted. The canning process involves pre-treatment offish, preparation of can, filling and closure of the can, technique ofheating the filled cans to kill micro-organisms without damage to fish,finally cooling, cleaning and storage of the product.

The raw material should be processed properly since it containsmost dangerous Closetridium botulinium which should be destroyed.This is found in protein rich food such as fish which has pH 6- 7 and isnonacidic. There are some other heat resistant bacteria like Clostridiumsporogenes which can be eliminated at a temperature of 5 - 6 timesmore than Clostridium botulinlum. It needs a temperature of 120oC for4 minutes or at 115oC for 10 minutes to kill them in large numbers.

10.8.1. Cans

Cans are made up of tin plates in canning industry. The tin plate isa thin steel sheet coated with tin on both sides. It has a combination ofstrength of steel and protective properties. The tin plate has corrosionresistance, since it is covered with 4 layers namely alloy, tin, protectiveoxide and oil, in addition with special enamels or liquors which havebeen developed. Various types of inorganic liquors are used to absorbsulphur. Seafoods when canned produce sulphur ions which may reactwith the coating of tin. These sulphur ions are not detrimental to healthbut affect the appearance of the product. Other materials like sulphurresistant black plate, steel coated with aluminium, zinc, nickel or titaniumhave been tried but its application is found to be very little. Glass jarsare also tried which requires longer processing time than tin plates.

The prepared cans should be protected against damage and corrosionand should be stored in dry closed room. The cans should be thoroughlywashed with boiling water before filling to avoid dust and micro-organisms if any present in the tin.

10.8.2. Methods of canning

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10.8.2.1. Filling:

Empty cans should be packed carefully by employing the manuallabour or through mechanical device. While packing, care should betaken to see that no air pockets are left which cannot be removed byexhausting. At the same time too tight packing should be avoided. It isalways better to leave some space at the top for accommodating gasreleased while processing. Fatty fishes (salmon, herring, mackerel,etc.) results in acceptable products when salt is added. Non-fatty fishescall for special additives to improve flavour and texture. Brine is usedwhen fish is not salted properly as an additive for enhancing flavour.Monosodium glutamate is used as additive for canned fish at aconcentration of 1.6 gm / Kg fish. Vegetable oil and olive oils are alsoused for filling the cans.

10.8.2.2. Exhausting:

The air and gas from the can should be removed before its sealingprocess. This can be done by using exhausting which minimizes thestrain on the can through expansion of air during heat processing.Removal of oxygen to avoid internal corrosion and creation of vacuumwhen the can is cooled are indication of sound packing since it protectscolour and flavour of products and retains vitamins, etc. Further it checksthe growth of organisms which requires air for growth. Later sealing isdone to obtain air tight seal between the cover and the body of containerso that the spoilage agents cannot enter the sealed container after thecanned fish has been sterilised.

10.8.2.3. Processing:

Removal of air as completely as possible is an important factorin steam processing. The container along with the contents fish is heatedin a retort at a temperature which is sufficient to kill the potential inactivespoilage agents without any damage to the fish inside. The retort systemscan be operated continuously or in batches. In the recent times open



boilers are being tried. Thus pressure processing either by steam or bywater is delayed in this processing.

The majority of retorts, may be horizontal or vertical still, orrotating, are fed by steam. The retort shall have an inlet at the topthrough which steam enters. The weight of the steam that entered theretort and the incoming steam both put together drives the air out fromthe bottom without mixing. Air pockets if present in a retort may giverise to uneven processing and lead to under processing while interferingbetween pressure and temperature. The processing time and temperaturerequired for each food depends on various factors like types of pack,size of cans retort system, etc.

By adopting the above heating process the majority of the spoilageagents or bacteria are killed. If any bacteria remains unkilled they canbe eliminated by subjecting it to rapid cooling immediately afterprocessing. The can should be cooled to a temperature of 35oC whichis sufficient for rapid drying of the can surface. It protects against rusting.Chlorinated water of 5 ppm can be used for cooling purpose. Evenafter careful regulation of pressure during and after processing, the cansare sometimes exposed to temporary leaks. Through these leakages thebacteria may enter-after processing. Hence, to minimise this, chlorinatedwater is used for cooling.

The canned product should not be transported immediately sincethe salt pellets and others additives used may take some days for equaldistribution throughout the can contents. It is advised to store for 3months before final quality control. During this period all cases of leakcontamination would show up.

10.8.2.4. Microbial spoilage:

Sometimes the canned fish show signs of microbial spoilagewhich may be due to insufficient pre-treatment especially inadequatecooling or improper preservation of raw material. It exhibits signs ofspoilage accompanied by the presence of dead bacteria. These bacteria

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may at times withstand the processing during cooling and storage.Insufficient processing leaves back a number of heat resistant sporesforming bacteria in the canned product. The commonly observed sporeformers are mesophilic anaerobes (Clostridium sporogenes, C.putrificum) They produce putrid swells, mesophilic aerobes (Bacilussp) produces flavour and changes colour and softens the contents.Thermophilic bacilli produce flat sours which are rare. The bacteriahas got ability to produce gas and to interact with the material insidethe can. The gas accumulated at the head region in the can helps indetermining the kind and cause of spoilage. The swelling of cans mayalso be due to CO2 and hydrogen formed due to microbial spoilage.

Finally the canned product is thoroughly examined by variousmethods like examining the product organoleptically, chemically andmicrobiologically for the quality of final product. Then it is properlylabelled which should exhibit the name of the product, meat contentsand any specific information if required. The processed cans can bestored at a room temperature which should be just above the freezingpoint of canned products.

10.9. Demerits of fish preservation

Although the preservation and processing constitute a veryimportant aspect of the fish industry, it has certain draw back, as well,particularly with respect to retaining quality of fish flesh these arediscussed briefly.

1. Chilling brings about denaturation of flesh. This is because of icecrystals formed during chilling and causing mechanical damageto the muscles. Cell walls burst, structure gets deformed and theflesh loses much of flavour and taste. The flesh also becomesdehydrated and losses texture.

2. If proper hygienic measures are not taken during the processes



like washing, guttation and evisceration, etc. more harm would bedone to the preserved material, owing to increase in the bacterialpopulation.

3. Incomplete or poor preservation leads to decarboxylation ofhistidine of fish flesh into histamine. The latter some other relatedsubstances, collectively called saurine, are common causes of foodpoisoning.

4. Drying reduces weight, nutritive value and the digestibility of theflesh.

5. Excess salting allows growth of salt tolerant bacteria, causing pinkeye spoilage of fish flesh.

6. Salting combined with smoking results in loss of protein, about 1to 5 % due to salting and 8 to 30 % due to smoking.

7. Smoking also accelerates rancidity of fat and so reducesdigestibility of fat products.

8. Canning leads to much loss of vitamin B1, panthotenic acid,vitamin-Cand pteroxylglutamic acid.

SUMMARY

When the fishes are caught in numbers, greater than the amountof consumption, their preservation becomes a necessity for their futureuse. Preservation and processing, therefore become a very importantpart of commercial fisheries. It is done in such a manner that the fishesremain fresh for a long time, with a minimum loss of flavour, taste,odour, nutritive value and the digestibility of their flesh. Thedecomposition or spoilage of fish flesh occur mainly due to various

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chemical, microbial and the enzymatic action. Employing any one ofthe methods like freezing, drying, salting, smoking and canning achievethe preservation of fish

QUESTIONS

1. Describe the resons for spoilage of fishes ?

2. Explain various methods of prservation of fishes ?

3. What is canning ? Discuss the method of fish canning ?

4. Give an account on freezing of the fishes ?

5. What are the demerits of preservation and processing the fish?



11. BY-PRODUCTS OF FISHES AND VALUEADDITION FOR FISHERY PRODUCTS

Fishes are consumed as food in fresh condition. Some of them arealso utilized after the preservation. During preservation and processing,some materials of fish and prawn are discarded as waste. Similarlysome trash and distasteful fishes are unsuitable for human consumption.These waste material and above fishes become an important source toproduce fish by-products. Which in turn are used to produce differentuseful fish by-products by different fish by-product industries. Thefollowing by-products are described in detail.

11.1. Fish meal

The waste obtained after the fish processing for oil extraction iscalled as fish meal. It is prepared either by wet or dry processing,depending on the raw material. The good quality fish meal is used foranimal feeding and other is used as manure. The chemical compositionof fish meal has 50 - 70 % proteins, 5 - 10 % fats, 10 - 20 % mineralsand 6 - 12 % moisture. The fish meal is considered as very rich sourceof proteins. Calcium 5%, phosphorous 4%, a variable amount of iodineand vitamins B1, B12, A, D, K are also found in fish meal, whichpromotes the growth of animals. It constitutes a valuable source offeed for farm animals.

In dry method the fish meal is exposed to high temperature like inflame dryers or in steam drums under partial vaccum. In wet methodlarge sized fishes are chopped and boiled to extract oil. These are thencovered with canvas and screw-pressed to form the cakes. Dried cakesare pressed in hydraulic pressure to recover oil and are redried in steam,before being sterilised and packed for marketing. The fish meal is storedin gunny or coir bags as they are insect and vermin proof. The tincontainers under an atmosphere of nitrogen are also employed.

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The fish meal of inferior quality is used as manure in tea, coffeeand tobacco plantations. The spoiled fish can also used as manure. Thefish manure contains N-5-7, P2O5 - 4-6 and Ca O - 4-6 % . Fish wasteis buried in pits for 35 - 60 days, then dried, fermented and used asmanure which is known as pit manure.

11.2. Fish oils

The oils from the fish are obtained by extracting from the entirebody of the fish or only from the liver. The oil obtained from the entirebody are known as body oils and are grouped into drying and semi dryingoils. The drying oil comprises oils of sardine, salmon, herring, mackerel,anchovy, and white fish, while the oils of sprat and carp constitutesemidrying oil due to the low iodine content. The body oil is edible andused for industrial purposes. Liver oil extracted form the liver, is ofmedicinal importance and contains vitamin A. The flesh with rich oilcontent possess liver with low oil content and the liver with rich oilcontent is associated with flesh with low oil content.

Freshly extracted oils are differently coloured from colourless togolden yellow, greenish yellow or even red. The oil extracted from thestale fish is darker in colour and concentration of the oil also variesfrom fresh to stale along with iodine content.

11.2.1. Composition of fish oil

The fish oils differ very much in their composition and against thecomparable oils of other terrestrial animals and vegetable fats. The fishoils are much more complex and the fatty acids are composed of chainlengths varying from C-14 to C-22 and in some instances even C-24.Higher chain lengths are not uncommon. These fish oils have alsovarying degrees of unsaturation ranging from mono upto penta (5) andhave 6 ethylenic acids. Oils of marine fish varieties have a higherconcentration of C-20 and C-22 and lower concentration of C-16 andC-18 acids. The saturated acids mainly palmitic, form only 15 - 20 %of the total acids. The fatty acid composition of flesh and liver oils of

BY-PRODUCTS OF FISHES AND VALUE ADDITION FOR FISHERY PRODUCTS


fish are similar with body oils containing higher proportion ofunsaturated C-20 and especially C-22 acids.

The fish oils comprise a mixture of triglycerides which arecomparatively more complex. Simple triglycerides are either absent orof very rare occurrence. The most common triglyceride is a compoundcontaining three different fatty acids although occasionally two radicalsof the same fatty acids are found over a single glyceride molecule. Theamount of unsaponifiable matter in fish oil shows great variability. Sharkliver oils are rich in its constituent. The unsaponifiable matter iscomprised of a variety of alcohols and other hydrocarbons. All fish oilscontain cholesterol.

11.2.2. Liver Oil

Fish liver oil consists of vitamin A mainly and D in some species.These vitamins may be formed due to metabolic activities which mighthave been made their way into the liver and to be stored. Unsaponifiablematter in the liver oils of food fishes is lower in 0.1 to 2.4 % in cod thanin other liver oils i.e., 80% in few sharks.

The livers of fishes are grouped into three classes depending uponthe commercial utility viz.

1. High oil content with low vitamin A potency in cods with 60 -75% of oil and 500 to 20,000 IU/g. vitamin A potency.

2. Low oil content with high vitamin A potency in large tuna with 4- 28 % of oil and 25,000 to 6,00,000 IU/g. vitamin A potency.

3. High oil content with high vitamin A potency in shark with 25 -75 % of oil and 3,00,000 IU/g. vitamin A potency.

Vitamin A mainly gets stored in the liver. But in large fishes thisvitamin gets accumulated in viscera also in addition to liver. The age,

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sex, availability of food, season, etc., play an important role in theactivity of vitamin A and can be obtained from the large sized fish withina given species. No such correlation of size and concentration of vitaminA can be made among the fish of different species. The dark colouredliver in sharks yields higher concentration of vitamin A than the lightcoloured ones. Vitamin A content of liver lobes are varied markedly indifferent lobes. Vitamin A which is associated with the protein of theliver and partly with the oil exists as fatty acid esters (96 - 100 %).Vitamin A comprises Vitamin A2 which is 40 % active as A1. VitaminA1 is of greater importance inview of its availability in commercialscale.

Three cis-isomers viz. neovitamin A, ‘iso-a’ and ‘iso-b’ have beenisolated from the liver oils but are less potent than vitamin A1. Somefish liver oils are rich in vitamin D. Tuna liver oil and cod liver oilcontain 2,50,000; 500 units per gram of oil respectively. Vitamin Dcontent is available in greater quantity where the oil is less in the liver.The vitamin D is present in the form of D3, available partly in free stateand partly as esters. Vitamin E in liver oils protects any oxidation ofvitamin A. Hydrocarbons, cholesterol, pigments, fatty glycerol alcoholand others form various constituents of the oil besides glycerides.

11.2.2.1. Extraction:

For extraction of the oil from the liver it is advisable to collectthe livers from the fish stored till the process of extraction. Visceraalso are collected from some large fishes and are stored separately. Thematerial thus collected must be given preservative treatment to preventmicrobial decomposition of oil and formation of free fatty acids. VitaminA is quite stable within the liver. The material may be preserved incommon salt or frozen or treated with formalize.

Sound livers, fresh or suitably preserved, are used for the productionof medicinal grade oil while diseased or discoloured livers are used forthe production of technical grade oil. Hence, the process of extractiondepends mostly on the presence of oil content in the liver and the vitamin



A potency. A simple method of steaming is followed for obtaining oilfrom the livers of fish such as cod which has high oil content. The liveris minced and cooked in tanks at a temperature of 85 - 90o. The livercells disintegrate and the oil floats to the surface of the steam condensate.The oil is then skimmed and collected.

In another method known are floatation process, the procedure issome what elaborate. First the liver is collected and preserved withaquacide ( a mixture of paraldehyde and sodium carbonate). Thisdenatures the protein and yields a pulp when the separated aqueous liquidis drained off. The pulp is then allowed to pass through a series oftanks or cylinders with a stirrer, which are connected to warm waterpipes. The emulsion of oil and water formed during the treatment breakssuddenly and oil floats to the top.

In the steaming process, oil cannot be fully extracted from the fisheswhich are poor in oil content but high in vitamin A potency. The proteinspresent in the liver hold up the release of liver oil. In such cases othertechniques like digestion of liver protein with alkali is adopted as in thelivers of tuna and sharks. The material is ground mixed with dilutedcaustic soda 1 - 2 % by weight or sodium carbonate 2 - 5 % and digestedwith live steam at a temperature of 82 - 88oC with constant stirring forabout an hour. The material is passed through centrifugal machine.Liver may be treated with sardine oil for separating the vitamins.

The enzyme alkali digestion process can also be undertaken forthe extraction of oil. In this process minced liver is mixed with anequal volume of water, pH adjusted to 1.2 to 1.5 by addition ofhydrochloric acid, pepsin (0.5% by wt of liver) added and the materialdigested at 43 - 49o C. At the end of the process sodium carbonate isadded to raise the pH to 9.0 along with the rise of temperature to 80 %to cook the material for about 1 hour. Later the oil is drawn off andfiltered. The yield obtained in the digestion process is comparativelylow than the yield obtained by employing solvent extraction used forseparating the oil from livers. The oil obtained through this process isdarker in colour and with high viscosity and is to be refined afterextracting free fatty acids from the liver.

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The oil thus collected from any one of the methods should beallowed to stay undisturbed for sometime till water and soil particlessettle to the bottom. The oil containing the stearin in the form of sedimentis passed through filtration, centrifuging and treatment with fuller’s earth.The oil is extracted and stored at low temperature. The stearin can beseparated by cooling the oil at 0 - 10oC, the oil is filtered at lowtemperature. Liver oils with low potency are used as vitaminsupplements to animals and those with high potency is used for medicinalpurpose. Liver oils are found to be very active sometimes reducing theblood pressure of animals.

11.2.3. Cod liver oil

Cod liver oil is obtained from different types of cod fishes likeGadus callarius and Gadus morrhua and other cods. The fresh liver ofthese cods are passed through steam cooking process and later cooledat OoC to eliminate the stearin. A good quality cod liver oil is paleyellow and slightly soluble in alcohol and mixes with solvent ether,chloroform and light petroleum and remains bright at OoC.

The liver oil consists of fatty acids which vary differently indifferent fishes. Sometimes the unrefined oil contains iodine (3 - 15ppm) and traces of arsenic (1.4 to 5.1 ppm). The inferior quality oil isof dark colour, acrid or bitter and acidic. Vitamin A in the oil getsdestroyed when exposed to sunlight and the oil becomes thicker whenexposed to air. Hence, the oil should be properly stored to avoid thedestruction of vitamin A by addition of certain preservatives likenordihydrogualaretic acid (0.05%) and ascorbyl palmitate (0.01%).

In view of rich concentration of vitamin A and D with digestiblefat, it is found to improve nutrition and calcification in patients withrickets and tuberculosis when used. It can also be used as supplementfor children and can be applied to wounds and burns. Iodinated oil isused for several skin infections like eczema and mycoses.

The cod liver oil can be extracted from partially or completelydecomposed livers. The oil is considered as low technical grade oil and



is used in the manufacture of leather, lubricating greases and soaps ofinferior grades. The stearin separated at low temperature is used insoap making or as fish tallow in leather curing.

11.2.4. Shark liver oils

Sharks of Indian waters except few are considered highly importantfrom the yield point of oil from liver which consist of high vitamin Apotency. (av. 12,000 IU/g of oil). Oils as rich as 3,00,000 IU/g. havebeen obtained. The shark liver oil obtained from species of sharks likeGaleocerdo tigrinus Carcharhinus melonopterus, C. menisorrah, C.limbatus, Scoliodon palasorrah and S. walbecchmi have varieddistribution in east and west coast. They also vary in different seasons.The oils from the livers are extracted by employing a simple method.In this method the liver is collected from various sharks and the entiremass is heated till the oil is separated and set free. The oil thus collectedis filtered and dehydrated with anhydrous sodium sulphate. The oilafter refining is diluted to the required vitamin A potency by deodorisedgroundnut oil and enriched with synthetic vitamin D.

Development of rancidity, bacterial contamination and metalliccontamination from containers exposure to light and air during extractionand storage may cause destruction of vitamin A. Hence, the livers shouldbe rendered as easily as possible after landing of sharks. Organicperoxides in the oil also affect the vitamin A content in stored oil. Toprotect vitamin A content, antioxidants e.g., isobutyl gallate (0.2%) +citric or tartaric acid (0.01 %), O - triacetyl - gallyl -phloroglucinaldehyde are used. Dilution with ground nut oil retardsdeterioration.

The freshly extracted oil is yellow, orange or brown in colour withmild fishy odour, and low acidity. The dilute shark liver oil is preparedby the addition of refined groundnut oil with vitamin D. The fatty acidcomposition of liver oil varies differently in different species. Thesaturated acids in Indian fishes are 40 % than that of elasmobranchsliver oils from foreign sources. The latter has 20 % unsaturated fattyacids like hexadecenoic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, gadoleic and tertracos

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- 12. 16 - dienoic acids have been found from the fishes of Indian waters.Glycerides isolated from shark liver oil include linoleno - diclupano -donin, arachidono - diclupanodonin, linoleno - arachidono -clupanodonin, triolein, etc.

11.2.5. Body oils

The whole fish is processed to obtain the fish meal and the bodyoil. Commercially important oils include sardine, herring and salmonoils. The fish with rich oil content and low oil content are processedthrough wet and dry processes respectively.

In the wet process the fish is crushed to a pulp and cooked withsteam continuously in vertical cylindrical cooker. The cooked materialis pressed and oil alongwith a mixture of fish solubles known as stickwater is drawn into settling tanks and later passed through centrifugalto separate the oil. The material after the extraction of oil is dried,powdered and marketed as fish meal.

In dry process, fishes with low oil content are processed as the oilrecovery is low. The fillet waste and shark carcasses are disintegratedin a grinder and cooked under regular stirring in a cylinder heated bysteam. The oil is then pressed out.

Raw oils have a disagreable odour and taste. Throughhydrogenation this can be eliminated or minimised. Free acids areneutralised by caustic soda and the oil is deodorized by superheatedsteam at reduced pressure and finally dehydrated by heating at 105oC.Seasonal fluctuations in the oil content of different species have beenobserved. This variation may be related directly with availability offood. Presence or absence of the dinoflagellates and the copepods inthe plankton has contributed to the variation in fat content.

The oil consisting of fatty acids and the glycerides afterdeodorization and hydrogenation are used for edible purpose. Oils with



low iodine content are used in the preparation of laundry soap, cheapergrade toilet soap, etc. Sulphonation, polymerization, saponification arethe processes followed in getting an excellent quality soap. Fish oilsare used in the leather industry in making leather flexible. Oil withhigh iodine content is used in application of paint, varnish, etc. Heattreated fish oils and destearinate fish oils mixed with driers are used inblends with linseed or tung oil since it gives flexibility and heat resistantfilms. The other important uses of fish oil are manufacture of candles,lubricants, cutting oils, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, rubbersubstitutes, water proofing compositions, printing links and core oils.Oil containing vitamins are used in animal and poultry feeds. Fish oilacts as a fungicides when applied to citrus trees. Fatty acids of the oilsare suitable for concentrating low grade iron ores.

11.2.6. Sardine oil

Sardine oil is extracted from Sardinella longiceps and is consideredas cottage industry. The large scale extraction of oil generally takesplace between August and March. The collected fishes are put into thewater bath with little water and heated for 30 to 45 minutes. The oil isset free from tissues and floats to the surface and is collected separately.The residual matter is put into the coir bags and pressed. The oil alongwith the water separates out and collected in tanks. The oil then floatsto the top which is separated and filtered. The yield of oil is 10 - 15 %.The residue known as guano is dried and used as manure. Freshlyextracted oil contains vitamin A which is reduced during storage and isused for edible purposes. Technical grade oil is used for batching juteand dressing leather, and lubricant, for insecticidal soaps, for temperingof metals, for painting bottoms of country boats.

11.3. Fish manure

The dried and putrefied fishes are used for the preparation of fishmanure. Fish manure are prepared as mentioned in fish meal. Prawnmanure are also prepared in similar way from the leftout things likehead, tail, appendages and body shell. It contain 5 - 6 % of nitrogen, 3

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- 4 % of phosphates and traces of lime. Fish guano is prepared from thefish materials left after the extraction of oil. It contain 8 - 10 % ofnitrogen and considered a rich nutrient for the plants.

11.4. Fish flour

Fish meal is prepared by solvent extraction process on commercialscale. This can be blended with wheat or maize flour and is used asenriching component in bread, biscuits, cakes, sweets and soups. Itforms an ideal protein supplement to human diets. Gruopers and seerfishes are used commonly for preparation of fish flours.

11.5. Fish flakes/wafers

Thread fin breams and cat fishes are used in the preparation offlakes or wafers. Fish flesh is boiled, then mixed with maida, salt, etc.to prepare flakes or wafers.

11.6. Breaded prawns and fish sticks

Body shell and digestive tract are removed from prawn body andboiled for 15 minutes in 7% salt solution. Fishes are cleaned and cutinto 10 cm length and 1 cm width pieces. These are dipped in egg,maida, salt mixture, and then are added to bread powder to preparesticks.

11.7. Fish salads

The fishes are cleaned and pieces are boiled with steam. The boiledfish or prawns are mixed with tomatoes, salt, garlic, maida, pepper andoil to prepare fish salad. This can be used in fresh condition or can bestored.

11.8. Fish sausage

Fish flesh is ground and mixed with sugar, fats, masala and



preservatives. Small bags are prepared with above mixture and boiledto prepare fish sausage.

11.9. Fish cakes

Tuna and mackerels are used commonly to prepare fish cakes. Fishesare cleaned and steam boiled, then separated in layers. Potatoes areboiled with salt, pepper and citric acid. Layered fish are mixed with theabove mixture and packed in vaccum to prepare fish cakes.

11.10. Fish silage

The fish is mixed with formic acid, sulphuric acid and molasesresulting in the formation of semi stuff. This silage is preferred overfish meal since the vitamins are not affected and do not produce fishodour.

11.11. Isinglass

Isinglass is the carefully washed and dried fish sounds or airbladders, made into special forms by mechanical means. Russianisinglass from sturgeon, is the best, but good quality isinglass ismanufactured in Iceland, Canada, India, Philippines, West Indies andUSA. The fish sound is a hollow compressible sac, containing air onthe specific gravity of the fish to rise or sink. The swim bladder consistsof several tissues, the outer layer of which is thick and fibrous containingcollagen. The inner layer has guanin, a lustrous material.

If fresh sounds are used, they are split open and carefully washedwith cold or warm water to remove blood, membrane and otherextraneous matter. If dried previously, they are soaked in water forseveral days, with frequent changes of water to soften them and permitremoval of membranes. They are then dried in large trays. The laterprocessing done in cold weather, as higher temperature melts anddecomposes the isinglass. Weather, as higher temperature melts anddecomposes the isinglass. They are soaked in water, chopped into small

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places, and passed trough rollers (hollow cylinders, with running coldwater) a scraper removes isinglass in strips 1/8" to 1/4" thick and 6" to8" wide, and of any desired length. They are then pressed through ribbonrollers, from which the sheets emerge 1/64" thick. The ribbons arequickly dried, to prevent putrifaction and rolled on wooden spools intocoils, weighing less than a pound each.

Isinglass does not dissolve in water, but merely swells slowly andabsorbs some water, but not as much as gelatin. Isinglass is collagen.When heated with water, it hydrolyses to form gelatin which dissolvesupon cooling, it becomes a tough gel (resembling animal gelatin gels) aclear, colurless glue of great adhesivensess. Isinglass is insoluble waterand has a fishy odour. But isinglass has little insoluble salt and ash.

1. For cleaning of wine and beer, the isinglass is first made to becomeswollen in water, and then in wine, till it is transparent. It isthroughly beaten with more wine, after which a little tartaric acidis added. The isinglass is then strained through lines and stirredinto the bulk of wine. The solution is not heated and so the isinglassdoes not dissolve although disintergrated into fine suspension. Itsfibrous nature is not destroyed but entangles in its meshes thecolloidal bodies that produce undesirable turbidity, A small doseis enough to clarify the wine.

11.12. Fish glue

The fish glue industry is one of the minor by-product industry inUSA, England, Norway and Japan. The great obstacle confronting thisindustry is obtaining a regular supply of suitable glue stock in sufficientquantities.

The conversion of animal skin and bones into gelatine has been thesubject of many researches. The hydrolysis of fish sounds, or air bladdersnot merely resemble the manufacture of hide glue for when the tissue isheated with water, it dissolves, and upon evaporating and cooling theresultant solution forms a gel which is a gelatine of high purity. Fish



skin and bones contain much collagen and other similar proteins. Uponcareful hydrolysis with steam, or boiling water, the collagen and otherrelated proteins yield gelatine. Fish glue is soluble in cold water, whilehide glues merely swell in cold water and do not dissolve until the wateris heated.

Waste products of cod, haddock, etc., form the raw materials forthe manufacture of fish glue. They are ordinarily graded as head, wasteand skin stock. The skin of cod fish is thicker, and yields larger amountsof a better grade of fish glue, than haddock. Skin yields 70 gallons ofglue per ton; head 25 gallons, and wastes 25 gallons. The stock must befree from salt or be fresh before use. It is agitated in running water freeof chlorides, and pitched into cookers. A preservative is added, toprevent the decomposition of the glue liquors, during storage. A smallamount of acetic acid or other moderately strong acid, is also added, toact as catalyst, to hasten hydrolysis. The stock is covered with water,steam turned into the outer jacket, and cooking continued for 6 to10hours. The glue liquor is drained off, pumped into tanks and theninto evaporators, the liquor is being filtered as it is passed through. Avacuum evaporator is the most efficient though evens heated with steamcoils are also used and treating continued till proper viscosity is attained.

Best grade is used (i) for photo-engraving and half tone plates (ii)as flexible glue for court plaster, stamps, labels and book binding (iii)ready to use adhesive in shoe repairs, etc., (iv) as balt cement, for leathercements, with hide glue (v) sizing operation and (vi) chipping of glassand for translucent glass and furniture works.

11.13. Fish proteins

The proteins of the fish have high digestibility, biological andgrowth promoting value. Hence, it plays an important role in humannutrition. The available amino acids are more evenly balanced than theother proteins of animal origin. Amino acids like lysine and methionineare rich in fish protein. In general, fish protein is somewhat superior toegg albumen, bean protein and casein and perhaps equal to chicken

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proteins. 15 - 25 % of protein is obtained from the fish muscle whichforms the chief source. About 95% of available protein can be obtainedby using sodium chloride solution. The proteins present in the cells i.e.intracellular consist of myosin 66-75 %, myogen 6%, myoalbumin 7%,globulin 8%, etc., along with collagen and elastin contributing to stromaproteins together with crude protein of 3 % of total proteins, and otherproteins including nucleoproteins and haemoglobins.

The fish proteins are extracted with dilute caustic soda solutionfrom fish fillets or waste after removing the fat. The extracted materialis dried after neutralisation. This powder is white in colour without anyfishy odour and taste containing 80 - 90 % of solubalized protein. Thisis used as a substitute for white of the egg in baking, confectionary, icecream and pharmaceutical products. This is also used in paint, varnish,textile, paper, cosmetics, moulding powder and foam type extinguishers.Hydrolysed fish protein can be extracted from the flesh of Indian sharksand rays. The 85% of protein content, a cream coloured product, isobtained in yield of 10 % of the raw material. It is easily soluble inwater and as greater whipping power than that of egg albumen and goodkeeping quality.

11.14. Shark fins

The fins of the large sharks except caudal fin are cut near the root,washed in seawater, mixed with wood ashes and lime and dried in thesun or smoked, this product which is crisp and brittle are used in soupsand regarded as delicacy in China and Philippines.

11.15. Fish roe Fish roe is a good source of vitamins B,C, D and E in addition tovarious aminoacids present. Viz. thymine, citruline, creatine, taurine,tyrosine, xanthine and hypoxanthine. Fish roe fat possesses high lecithin(59%) and cholesterol (14%). Roe protein is colourless and tastelesswith digestibility coefficient and biological value at 81 and 88 %respectively. It is used in various food products and for the manufactureof glue and synthetic fibre.



TABLE 11.1: Utilization of fish: Products & by products

Source Products/by-product Uses

Fat of liver and body 1. Fish liver oil + Vitamin A Pharmaceutical2. Fish body oil Pharmaceutical

Protein of muscle 3. Fish flour, sausage, ham Human consumptionAnd other tissue 4. Fish meal Animal feed

5. Fish silage Animal feed6. Fish soluble Animal feed7. Fish manure Agricultural8. Fish guano Agricultural

Collagen of body tissues 9. Fish glue IndustrialCollagen of air bladder 10. Isin glue IndustrialSkin 11. Fish leather IndustrialScales 12. Animal charcoal Industrial (Purification of liquids)

13. Guanine Industrial (artificial pearls)14. Shagreen Industrial (abrasive)

Fins 15. Dried fins Human consumption (soup)Eggs 16. Fish roe Human consumptionSterols 17. Cholesterol Pharmaceutical

18. Squalene Industrial (mordant indyeing)

19. Lecithin Industrial (Antibloom agentin chocolate industry)

Enzymes & harmones 20.Enzymes & harmones Pharmaceutical

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11.16. Fish leather

After tanning and removing denticles the skin of sharks and raysprovide a strong and highly durable leather. In Japan, the skin of pufferfish is used for preparing latrious. The viscera is removed from thebody and the skin is dried. The candle is burnt inside the jacket, theskin useful as a transparent shade. Dried and treated skins are used formaking belts, shoes, bags, suitcases and other ornamental wears.

11.17. Shagreen

It is the skin of the sharks and rays. These are armed with sharppointed placoid scales. It is used in polishing wood and other materials,for covering jewellery and sword covers.

11.18. Helmets

The skin of whales are used for the manufacture of helmets.

11.19. Fish soaps

The fins of various sharks are dried and exported to other countrieswhere they are used for the preparation of soaps.

11.20. Fish insulin

The pancreases of large fishes are removed to obtain raw materialfor manufacturing insulin.

11.21. Artificial pearls

The material obtained by scalping the silvery coating of the scalesof certain fishes, is used for polishing the hollow glass beads. Thesebeads are then filled with wax and marked as artificial pearls, used injewellery.



11.22. Ambergris

This is a solid, buoyant waxy or fatty inflammable substance, grey,dull or speckled in colour and musky in odour, which occurs as aconcretion, in the intestine or stomach of the spermwhale. Usually sickmembers vomit it. It is generally found floating in the sea or in theshore, in hot latitudes, usually during the cold and wet months. Piecesof considerable size have been found on the west coast of Sri Lanka.Ambergris is different from amber, a vegetable product of the sea.Formally it was thought to be fungoid growth, etc. It is usually foundin all parts of the intestines, and is mostly a concretion of undigestedsquids and cattle fish; with the nuclear mass being horny beaks ofcephalopods. Next to pearls, ambergris is the highest priced product offisheries. It acts as a preventive to child - bearing if taken by femalesand use it in medicines. When picked up wet, it is soft and emits a rankrepugnant odour. It is wrapped in cloth and dried. Exposure to airmakes it harder, lighter, opaque, waxlike, and inflammable. It is used inflavour dishes. But at present its only use is in the perfume industry.

11.23. Value addition of fishery products

Landings of high value marine products throughout the world areshowing a state of stagnation as a result of unplanned exploitation ofresources. At the same time, a significant amount of total catch consistingof low cost by catch fish remains underutilized. On a global scale, moreand more consumer are beginning to look at fishery products as healthfoods, since unlike red meat, fishery products are good sources oftherapeutically important polyunsaturated fatty acids, easily digestibleproteins and several micronutrients. Further, fishery products are a majorcommodity of international trade and a source of foreign exchange forseveral countries particularly those from Asia. Therefore, there is a needfor total utilization of the catch to meet the increasing global requirementof the commodity.

Fish, however, is regarded as a smelly product cumbersome tobring it to a consumable form at home. In addition, lack of knowledgein preparing fish for a meal is another reason for the occasional lethargic

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attitude towards the commodity by housewifes and others. In mostcountries, consumers prefer processed food products including fish itemsin super markets in ready-to-serve form. Such a preference is favouredby change in work culture and life styles due to availability of additionalincome and lesser leisure for household work. This has resulted in rapidexpansion in catering services and fast food chains, which continuouslyadded semi-prepared ready meals to their menus. The fishery sectorshould take advantage of these changes to expand markets throughdiversification of processing popular food items throughout the worldwhich are generally consumed with a sprinkling of mussels, prawns,and squids. For example, Italian creations of ‘fish and chips’, spaghetti,pizza, pasta etc. are popular food items throughout the world which aregenerally consumed, as stated above,with a sprinkling of mussels, prawnsand squids. This contribution will discuss some of the technologies andpotentials for value addition and development of convenient-to-useseafood products.

11.23.1Technology

A number of techniques are available for making novel productsfrom marine and freshwater aquatic resources. These include individualquick freezing, sous vide, cook-chill, high pressure processing, breadingand battering, developing products from fish mince, surimi and sea-food analogues, fish fillets and steaks, modified atmosphere packaging,and products through improvement of traditional processing techniquessuch as canning, curing, smoking etc.

The IQF products allow the processor to supply the customer withfrozen seafood in small, ready-to-cook quantities. The products may beprepared by cryogenic freezing of the product by directly applyingcarbon dioxide gas (boiling point, - 790C) or liquid nitrogen (boilingpoint, - 1960C) or by the more common mechanical refrigeration.Fluidized bed freezers are normally used for small sized shrimps. Inthis type, the products is frozen in a tray with perforated bottom, throughwhich cryogens or mechanically cooled air is circulated. The upwardmovement of the air carries the product through the freezer by the sameblast that freezes them. Normal handling capacities are 250 to 1000 kg



per hour. For larger shrimps, spiral belt freezers are commonly used.

Super markets are turning to high quality ‘heat-n-eat’ refrigeratedfoods, through ‘cook-chill’ technology, which imparts convenience,freshness and quality to the product. These foods, generally individuallypacked in a variety of retail packages, allow consume to make theirown favourite meals by mixing various side dishes, within a short timeafter purchase. In sous vide processing, the food is prepared, seasoned,vacuum sealed and subsequently cooked at controlled temperaturesfollowed by chilling immediately to a temperature below 40C and storagebetween 0 to 40C. The treatment gives the product a shelf life of about3 weeks. It is reheated before consumption. The technology can be usedfor preparation of fish-based ready-meals. Many processing plantsthrough the EU are at present using this means of production.

Breading and battering is a technique to prepare tasty productsfor diverse seafood items including crustacea, fin-fish and cephalopods.The raw material is first predusted with flour or dry batter andsubsequently conveyed through a special batter. The battered shrimpare usually frozen before or after frying. The fried products are heatedin microwave oven before consumption. Automation in the processallows efficient handling, processing and freezing operations.

In the emerging modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)technology, normal air in the package is replaced by a mixture ofnitrogen, carbon dioxide and oxygen (usually 30,40 and 30%,respectively) to reduce the spoilage rate. The CO2 dissolves in themoisture of the food forming carbonic acid, lowering the surface pH,which in turns retards the growth of bacteria. To prevent rancidity infatty fish, oxygen in the packages may be completely replaced bynitrogen. ALL MAP products have to be stored below 30C to preventthe growth and toxin formation by Clostridium botulinum. The itemsmay be wrapped by a shrink film for better freshness and to avoid dripformation. MAP products may be skinless and boneless fish fillets, freshor cooked crustacean species.

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Meat mince from low cost fish can be collected by mechanicallydebnoing. Several products including pates, saucs, sausages, patties,sticks, balls and dried products can be manufactured from the mince byincorporation of ingredients such as vegetable oil, milk proteins, gluten,alginates, carrageenan, zanthan gum or pectin, sugar, salts andpreservatives. Surimi is mechanically deboned, washed and stabilizedfish flesh, and is widely used as an intermediate for fabrication ofproducts including kamaboko, fish sausage, fish ball, fish cake andseafood analogues such as crab ligs, shrimp etc. development of theseproducts is made possible by the characteristic property of surimi toundergo gelation in the presence of salt and heat.

Table . 11.2.Some technologies forvalue additon of fishery products

1. Breading and battering2. Canning3. Cook-chill processing4. Extrusion cooking5. Fermentation6. High pressure treatment7. Individual quick freezing (IQF)8. Lamination and dehydration9. Low dose irradiation10. Marination11. Modified atmosphere packaging12. Smoking13. Sous-vide processing

14. Retortable pouch packaging

A number of fish species such as tuna, mackerel, saridine etc.,and mollusks like clams and oysters are ideal for canning. Cannedproducts(in fancy packs) such as tuna-based salads, marinated itemsand elaborated mackerel-based preparations are becoming popular inEurope. Salted and dried small fish such as anchovies is a popular dish



in Japan, where dried fry and half-grown anchovy are referred to asshirasu-boshi and are delicacy snack items. Bombay duck (Harpodonnehereus) is one of the low-valued seasonal fish available throughoutthe west coast of India. A process to prepare dehydrated laminates ofthe fish has been developed. The laminates have a shelf life of 6 monthsat ambient temperature and is a source of good quality protein. Laminatesof ribbon fish have also been developed.

Texturised products such as sausages have been prepared by highpressure treatment of Pollack, sardine, skipjack tuna and squid by thetreatment. Several such fish items have started appearing in Japanesesupermarkets. Others technologies for fish items have started appearingin Japanese supermarkets. Others technologies for fish processinginclude accelerated freeze-drying, smoking, extrusion cooking,production of fish sauces by fermentation, marination, etc (Table 11.2).

11.23.2. Raw Material

11.23.2.1Crustacea:

There is good market for IQF lobster tails. Shrimp can be tradedas live, fresh/chilled IQF, dried fermented etc., in head-on, headlies,peeled, peeled tail-on, breaded, spiced, bottled and paste forms (Table11.3). At present, there is good demand in the European market for awide range of such value-added products. In several Southeast Asiancities, supermarkets are selling ready-to-eat sushi shrimp. Some of theother Japanese delicacies from shrimp include stretched shrimp[(Nobashi), sushi shrimp)], skewered with vegetable, single Kebab,butterfly shrimp and stretched shrimp.

11.23.2.2. Cephalopods and bivalves:

Molluscs consisting of cephalopods (squids, cuttlefish andoctopus) and bivalves (mussel, clam and oyster) have become majorcommodities in the seafood market. In India, during 1985 to 1995, theannual production of cephalopods has increased from 31,000 tonnes toover one lakh tonnes, out of an estimated potential of 180,000 tonnes.

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Compared to the western markets, in Asia, consumption of cephalopodsis varied as raw (suchi/sashimi), cooked, chilled, fried, seasoned,smoked/roasted, battered/breaded, marinated etc. the cephalopodsprocessed as whole cleaned, fillets, tubes, slices, stuffed, chunks, ringsand small tidbits, are marketed to both institutional and retail outlets.Export of fried cephalopods has also started recently. The most preferredproducts from cuttle fish and squid are whole cleaned and whole frozenforms. Some of the other popular products are half-shelled oysters, clams,scallops and mussels in sauces, vacuum packed mussels, IQF products,breaded crab balls, stuffed crab, and crab claws.

Vacuum packed, cooked and frozen molluscs are also gaining inimportance. Dried ousters and oyster sauce are important items inChinese cuisine. While these products are mainly produced in chine,oyster sauce is being processed in several Asian countries. Cooked driedoysters are produced by keeping washed oysters in peanut oil and saltand boiled till they become firm and elastic. The cooked meat is drained,cooled, spread and dried. The fluid obtained during cooking is alsoconcentrated to give oyster juice.



Peeled tail on shrimp Peeled tail on stretched Shrimp (Nobashi) Butterfly tail on shrimp Heat on shell on shrimp Blanched/boiled peeled Shrimp Accelerated freeze-dried Shrimp Breaded butterfly shrimp Breaded round shrimp Breaded baby clams (pre-fried) Shrimp delights Peeled shrimp Breaded baby clam

Squid ring Squid tubes Stuffed tubes Peeled squid Double skinned Cuttle fish fillets Dried squid Head-on squid, Cuttle fish Products in boil-in-bag packs Oysters, clams in sauce

Fish fillets (Vacuum packs) Composite fillets from mince Raw tuna steaks Grilled tuna steaks Cooked tuna lightmeat Breaded and stuffed product Fish burger Seafood cocktail Tuna kebad (raw)

Seafood skew Seafood salad Grilled tuna steak Cooked tuna lightmeat Tuna mini crisp

Crustacea Cephalopods Finfish

11.23.2.3. Finfish:

Depending upon the species, a variety of novel products can beprepared from marine or freshwater finfish. These include IQF fillets,steaks, smoked and canned items. Meat mince can e prepared from lowcost fish such as sardine, lizardfish, eel, barracuda, striped mullet, leather

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jacket, needlefish, mackerel, threadfin bream, big-eye snapper etc. Avariety of products from mince can be developed as mentioned above.The eu markets, especially france and spain started surimi productionin the middle of the eighties, the production being about 40,000 tonnesin 1996. france has developed domestic production of surimi productssuch as imitation crab and sticks as well as lobster tails from surimibase imported from japan and republic of korea.

US, Europe and japan consume tuna in the form of tuna loins,fillets, steaks, minced products, smoked products etc. these can be usedto season western style soups, sauces, pastes and broths for seasonng/flavouring. Some of the other novel tuna products include teriyaki tuna,tuna sheet, flakes etc. canned mackerek and sardine are also popularitems. Shark meat does not attract much consumer interest in many asiancountries including India. Novel restructured products in the form ofcutlets, steaks or paneer have been developed for value addition of sharkmeat based on its gel forming property, at the author’s laboratory. Cook-chill products for pomfret steaks and also for shrimp have also beendeveloped at the laboratory. The products have a shelf life of three weeksat 0-20c, and can be consumed with minimum preparation.

The Food Technology division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre,Mumbai, has been interested in the application of low dose radiationtreatments for shelf life extension of fresh and hygienisation of frozenand dehydrated fishery products. In addition, the division has developedsome processes for value addition of low cost fish items such as shark.These are summarized in Table 3.

11.23.3.Machineries

A number of sophisticated machineries are available for productionof fancy seafood items depending upon the requirement. These includespiral and tunnel freezers for the production of IQF products havingcapacities from 500 to 2000 lbs per hour. Gutting machines that belledand gut fish such as cod, haddock, hake etc., of 50-90 cms in length,without damaging their roe or liver at a speed of 30 fish per minute,have been fabricated. Machines for descaling, evisceration as well as



filleting for finfish with attached automated pin bone remover are usedfor the preparation of boneless fillets. State-of-art peeling, deveining aswell as grading machines for shrimp have come to the market. InNetherlands, single processing line is available for processing more thanone species of shellfish. Automations for making oyster products,machineries for processing squid and cuttle fish, surimi makingmachines, micro-processor controled cold or hot smoking oven suitablefor fish having capacities of 20 to 500 kg, are all available.

With the recent expansion in breaded products, sophisticatedmachineries for predusting, and applicators for large crumbs have cometo the market with facilities for applications of batter. Development ofnew microwaveable products for the fast food markets require newmethods of cooking natural and coated products. Automatic fryingsystems and cookers allow food products to be fully fried or cooked,with minimum cooking loss. Forming machines for tuna processingsystem for cooking and vacuum cooling operations have been designed.Others include commercial deboning machines that can handle 400 to500 kg fish per hour and moulders for the production of fish ball thatcan produce 160 to 460 balls per min. High pressure food processingsystems are available in USA, Europe and Japan.

The growing need of consumers and the retail trade for btterpackaging for new products is being met by parallel progress inpackaging technology. Consumers in the US, Europe and Japan areseeking a wider range of prepacked foods including fishery productswhich offer convenience and considerable saving in time and labour.The unit packaging material in direct contact with food should haveadequate barrier properties to protect the product from dehydration,oxidation, discolouration and off flavour in order of offer shelf lifeextension, ease of distribution and presentation, convenient preparation,and information to the consumer.

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Table 11.4. Some value added products developed at the FoodTechnology Division, Bhabha Atomic Research,

Centre, Mumbai.

Restructured, breaded and battered shark gel steaks/ cutletsShark paneer for convenient useSpray dried powders from low cost fish such as croaker, threadfin bream etc.Dehydrated Bombay duck laminatesDehydrated ribbon fish laminatesBiodegradable film/coating from low cost fish meat for frozen high valuefish itemsJawala protein hydrolyzate for aquafeedCook-chill process for extended refrigerated storage of shrimp and whitepomfret steaksRadiation processed fresh fish for extended refrigerated shelf lifeDehydro-irradiated shrimp

New packaging films trays are being developed to suit differentprocessing methods such as freezing, heating, vacuum-packaging, ormicrowave cooking. These packaging materials may be polymers(polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide, polyester), paper or metal(aluminium) foil, or co-polymers of two different types of plastics(ethylenevinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride or polyvinylidine chloride),which give required tensile strenth, puncture resistance, provide barrierto oxygen, water vapour and aroma retention, light permeability andantifogging properties. Vacuumised boil-in-bag packs are used forprepared foods which require light cooking. Packaging foods inretortable pouches are replacing conventional canning in metalcontainers. The pouches are made form laminates. The pouches are madefrom laminates generally consisting of polyester/aluminum film andpolyethylene or polypropylene which are bonded together with a highperformance adhesive. The product is sealed in the pouches and subjectedto heat sterilization as in canning. Expanded polystyrene is widely usedin making trays which can carry the fish products, which may beoverwrapped or vacuum skin packaged. The latter technique for packaging involves shrinking of a clear plastic film around a product invacuum, thus forming an extra ‘skin’. This is an extension of vacuum



packaing which can be applied to both film-to-film and film-to-traysealing. Table 4 shows some of the packaging possibilities for productdevelopment.

Table 4.5. Packaging possibilities

Trays and form-fill packs made of rigid plastics (polystyrene, expanded polystryrene and polyvinyl chloride, PVC).

Permeable to oxygen. May need extra protection by overwrapping by PVC Celing film or skin packaging.

Packaging options Advantages

Single ply films (polyethyelene 50-100 micron), Co-polymers (e.g. Polyvinylidene chloride [PVDC, commonly known as saran], ethyl vinyl alcohol). PVDC has the lowest water vapour, oxygen and CO2

Permeabilities.

Commonly used packaging material. Good rigidly and protection. (e.g. for frozen foods).

Laminate packs (e.g. Polyester/polyethylene or nylon-polyethylene laminates).

Better protection to foods

Crystallised polyester based trays. Manufactured also from specially treated polystyrene pellets.

Thermostable, microwaveable

Shrink wrapping (shrinkable polyethylene)

Protection by flexible films covering the trays carrying the

Stretch wrapping using elastic films. Tight draping around the product by machine for better protection. Ideal for heat sensitive products.

Retorable pouches (Polyester [PET]/ aluminium/adhesive/ polyprolypene)

Cooked products with long shelf life at ambient temperature.

Vacuum packaging (Polyester, PVDC)

Better refrigerated shelf life

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11.23.5.Marketing

Preference for a particular type of fish varies with respect toconsumer seqments. Therefore, the products should essentially derivedfrom species of consumer choice. The constraints I the export promotionof value-added fishery products include high international competition,large number of exporters for some products, lack of marketing tie-ups, need for additional investment on machinery, high cost of productionand fear of rejection. Suggested strategies for export promotion includeinformation on markets, training of work force, and promotionalactivities for image building apart from the availability of required rawmaterial in good quality and the necessary technology. In India, theMarine Products Exports Development Authority Cochin is conductingregular workshops for entrepreneurs on production of value-addedseafoods. The seafood industry should avail of the opportunities tomarket products of mass appeal and quality. There is also vast scope forthe development of these products for the expanding domestic markets.Apart from the marine resources, such products can also be developedfrom freshwater fish including aquacultured fish. Availability of efficientcold chain, refrigerated transport and storage facilities are highlyessential for handling these products for both domestic as well as foreignmarkets. Successful efforts in this direction can help in the totalutilization of the fish catch for commercial purposes as well as to meetnutrition requirements of population.

SUMMARY The following by products are prepared from fish – Fish meal;Fish oil: Fish manure : Fish floor: Fish Flakes/ Wafers: Breaded prawnsand fish sticks: Fish salads: Fish sausage : Fish cakes: Fish silage: Isingglass: Fish proteins: Shark fins: Fish roe: Fish leather: Shagreen: Fishsoaps: Fish Insulin and artificial pearls.

QUESTIONS1. What are by products? Explain various types of byproducts of fish?2. Desacribe value added products from fish?3. Discuss the methods employed for the production of fish oils?



12. MARKETING AND MARKETINGINTERMEDIARIES

In earlier days, the term marketing of fish meant buying and sellingof fish at the landing centre. After the second world war, the conceptand function of fish marketing have taken a new role in businessactivities. The fisheries have now become highly industrialized in alladvanced fishing nations. The new marketing techniques have beenadopted so as to sell more fish. The modern fish marketing system laysemphasis in meeting the existing demands for fish, besides tapping thepotential demand in the important markets. In many advanced countriesthe improved methods of fish marketing are being adopted with theadvancement of fisheries development. A progressive fish marketingsystem will also provide remunerative price to the primary producerthough the interest of the consumer is also protected.

In many developing countries traditional system and fish marketingis adopted. The methods and practices in trade dealings are based onsome customs. These practices have remained unchanged andunimproved over decades. The fish marketing is normally done at thecollection centres which are mainly situated in the area of fish landing.Fish has peculiar feature at its own and gives a big strain and stress onthe method of its marketing. The fish marketing should not have theobject of only catching and selling of fish but should have the widescope for exploitation, production, distribution, preservation andtransportation of fish in addition to actual sale of fish by reducingmiddlemen.

12.1. Characteristics of marketing

1. Perishability of the commodity2. Large number of intermediaries involved.3. Handling and treatment, icing, peering, curing and packing4. Seasonal concentration of landing5. Scattered landing places

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6. Small quantity produced by each fishermen, to be assembled, storedand transported

7. Non-uniformity of landing, quantity, freshness and size.

12.2. Factors affecting fish marketing patterns

1. Concentration of landings as a result of construction of improvedport and landing facilities increases maneuverability of boats inthe course of fishery development.

2. Increased size of capital requirements for fishing activities oftenwith outside investors coming to fisheries. Increases the scale ofoperation resulting in economic growth. The above factors willlead to greater bargaining power of fishermen or producers.

3. Increase of processed or frozen fish.4. Institutional development by Government intervention, eg. fish

marketing organization, state fishing corporation, Government loanschemes and fishermen’s co-operatives are very likely to affectand change fish marketing patterns.

12.3. Preparation of fish markets

The fishermen visit the fishing grounds and tend to bring theproduce to the nearby market for sale as soon as possible. In somecases the fish catch may be of good size and variety acceptable to thecustomers while in some cases it may be poor. There are no effectivemeans for regulating the catch or forecasting the varieties of the fishthat would be landed. The quantity of catch is also uncertain, therefore,creates gults and shortages which affect the fish marketing and pricingof fish. The fishermen who actually catch fish play only an insignificantrole in the disposal of catches. Their role is only an insignificant role inthe disposal of catches. Their role is only to hand over the fish catch tofish merchants at the landing centres for sale. The final distributionand marketing of catch is done by commission agents who step in atthis stage.

MARKETING AND MARKETING INTERMEDIARIES


12.4. Types of markets

Based on the marketing place, production importance and products,the markets can be classified into the following types.

1. Whole sale market: More amount of fish comes to this market,then distributed to other types of markets. These are two types:

a. Primary whole sale market: More amount of sale of fishtakes place in this market. Collection of the fishes fromsurrounding places and selling the fish to wholesalerstakeplace. This type of markets are found either in a villageor a place covering a group of villages or towns or cities.These are known as shandis.

b. Secondary whole sale market: These are also called as gunjs.The fishes are brought from the primary whole sale marketsand sold to the wholesalers.

2. Terminal markets: The fishes are sold to the retailers orconsumers or to the agents.

3. Retail markets: The fishes are sold to the consumers by the retailersor wholesalers.

4. Fairs: These are found temporarily during festival times or in fairs.The fishes are sold directly to consumers.

12.5. Functions of the fish market

Fish markets are bridges between producers and consumers. Thefollowing are the functions of the market.

1. All types of fishes are brought together for selling.2. Transportation of fishes

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3. Storage of fishes4. Business problems can be solved5. Fishes can be graded here6. Money transactions take place in markets7. Time and distance is saved.

12.6. Fish marketing intermediaries

There are many fish market intermediaries from fish producersconsumers to forms a complicated network which is given below:

Fish market intermediaries NotationFish farmers FFFishing workers FWFish farmers-cum-contractors FFCFish farmers-cum-contractor-cum-wholesellers FFCWFish farmers-cum-wholesellers FFWFish farmers-cum-retailers FFRFish farmers-cum-fishing workers FFFWCommission agents CACommission agent-cum-wholeseller CAWWholeseller WWholeseller-cum-retailers WRFishing worker-cum-retailers FWRFish Farmers-cum-vendor FFVFishing worker-cum-vendor FWVFish contractor FCRetailers RVendor VConsumer Cum

12.7. Marketing systemThe marketing system of fishes can be analysed in terms of use

flows, physical flows and channel flows.



12.7.1. Use flows

The production from inland resources is largely consumed in freshform. A negligible quantity is dried by traditional method and used fornon-edible purposes. Ice is used to preserve the freshness of fish. Veryrarely the facilities of cold storage are used. When fish is sent tooutstation, it is packed with ice but processing is done.

12.7.2. Physical flows

Due to food habits and economic conditions of the people in andsurrounding the fish production centres, fish flow to other stations,mainly to urban centres. In India, Calcutta alone consumes more than10% of fresh water fish of production and about 30% of reservoir fishespecially of major carps. A major share of production from pond andriverine resources is consumed locally or nearby production centres.Unlike pond and riverine fishes, the catch from the reservoir is mainlyconsumed in urban centres, away from the production centres. This ismainly because of poor local consumption and due to high price andbulk production from reservoirs. As the fish marketing is controlled bypowerful marketing intermediaries, they prefer to send the fish tooutstation and distant places, where the demand and price of the fishare very high.

12.7.3. Channel flows

The fishes are distributed in different marketing channels.Srivastava (1985) identified 16 marketing channels and also stated thatall the channels are not in operation in fish markets. Some channels aremore popular than other. Four popular channels identified are:

Channel I: Fish farmer (producer) sells fish directly totheconsumer.

Channel II: The fish farmer sells fish to retailer, who sells toconsumer.

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Channel III : Fish farmer sells fish to wholesaler, who sells toretailer, then to consumer.

Channel IV: The fish farmer sells fish to commission agent, whoagain sells to wholesaler, he sells fish to consumerthrough the retailers.

Out of the above four channels, middle two channels (II and III)are most popular and common in Indian fish markets. In case riverineand reservoir fisheries the fishermen get more profits than other marketintermediaries, because of the low input cost. More profits are found inshorter channels.

12.8. Fish marketing Procedures

12.8.1. Sale proceed at markets

At the landing centres, the fish is sold in many ways. Although, itis not possible to draw an exact time of demarcation between differentmethods of marketing in India. At the landing centres, the fish isassembled and sorted out by the agents or wholesalers or fishermen’sgroup leaders. At Chilka lake area in Orissa, the fish is collected by theleader of fishermen party who is known as ‘bahanias’. Similarly, inKakinada area, of Andhra Pradesh, the fish is mostly collected by thePettamdars , whereas in Kerala, Thruvilarya. In Gujarat and Maharashtrathe primary collectors are known as Tindels. The fresh water fish inmost of the cases is sorted out species-wise and also size-wise. Thenthefish is packed in ice and kept in bamboo baskets or wooden boxesfor despatch to the distant markets particularly in Calcutta. Theseactivities are done by the agents on behalf of the wholesalers or onbehalf of the commission agents. In some cases, the primary co-operativefish marketing societies directly consigns the fish to the private traders.The fish is filled in empty gunny bags and transported to the nearestfish market for disposal. The fish before reaching to the market ishandled by 5 - 6 middlemen in case of fresh water whereas 3 - 4 personsin case of marine. In Haryana only 2 - 3 persons handle fish becausethe owner of the waters is generally a commission agent in case of



notified water. Of course, incase of private owned waters or ponds, thenumber of middlemen do increase. By and large the prevalent methodsin fish marketing are given below:

(i) In the primary fish markets, the fishermen or producer directlysell fish to the buyers without having intermediaries. In manyplaces the buyers may be wholesalers or fish merchants ormiddlemen. In the Southern States particularly in Maharashtra,Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, the women who belong tofishermen’s family traditionally sell fish in retail markets unlikethe upper eastern or northern India. The prices are usuallynegotiated between individual fisherman, seller and buyer.

(ii) The fishermen send fish to the commission agents as consignments.The commission agents auction the fish and the gross sale proceedsare remitted to fishermen after deducting various marketingcharges.

(iii) Selling of fish is also done by contact method. The prices arefixed before the fishing season starts. The traders make someagreement for the delivery of catches by fishermen at stipulatedprices. All the fish caught is disposed of at the fixed price. InGujarat, the Mandela Committees are formed where the fishermen’srepresentatives, Government representatives and traders assembleand fix the price based on the previous year’s prices and also tosome extent on the Bombay fish market prices. In this casegenerally, prices do not fluctuate much.

Mostly it is observed that the fish being a perishable commoditysis brought to the nearest fish markets and mostly cleared daily. In allmarkets the fish is put for sale without gutting and cleaning. However,the sorting is done size-wise and group-wise. As a usual practice inalmost all the fish markets the entire catch is assembled at the wholesalefish markets for disposal by auction to the merchants and the retailersbetween fixed time from 9.00 A.M. to 11.00 A.M. The fish is generallyauctioned in small heaps. The vendors or retailers assess the weight of

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fish and give the bid as per his estimate only. The bid is released to thehighest bidder for the particular heap and weighed after the auction.The spoilage starts in fish no sooner it is taken out of water. Hence,care is taken at every stage to maintain the quality of fish. Unpreservedfish become unsalable within eight hours.

There are several variables in fish marketing practices. Theseincludes sale, preservation, processing method, partnership, selling priceby variety. Payment and borrowing by producers from fisher merchants.There are many channels of flow for sale.

12.8.2. Sale proceed at production centresThe fish producers sell their produce at the ponds site to the rural

masses at the time of harvesting. It is not a popular practice and only afraction of total production is sold in this manner.

12.8.3. Sale at district headquartersThe producers bring their produce to the district headquarters and

sell fish door to door as vendor. It is also not a popular practice andonly small quantity is sold in this manner.

12.8.4. Intra-districts marketingAlthough there is a Government contractors shop at every

headquarter, fish is transported from one district to the popular fishmarket of other district with the idea to have good price.

12.8.5. Sale of fish at the fish markets, outside the stateIt has been observed that good portion of fish is sent to the markets

outside the state for sale.

12.9. Role of co-operative in fish marketingA four-tier structure gets operated in by fishery co-operatives:

National Federation of Fishermen’s Co-operatives, State Level Co-operatives, Central Co-operatives (mostly at district level), and Primary



Co-operatives. The co-operatives at central and primary levels aredivided into two sectors - marine and inland (some have jurisdictioncovering both the marine and inland sectors).

Mercantile orientation is primarily limited to easy-to-handle inputs.Very few societies attempted to market fish. Those who marketed fishoperated as follows:

i. Bulk of the fish marketed by co-operatives come from reservoirs/ponds under their own monopoly management (usually in the formof lease).

ii. A negligible number of societies sell fish directly to retailers orvendors.

iii. Only a few societies have their own outlets.

iv. Majority of the societies prefer to sell fish through contractors(wholesalers) on an annual or bi-annual fixed price contract system.In the way societies pass on all the risks of price fluctuations towholesalers and similarly pass on the possible profits.

v. Wherever the societies themselves despatch the fish to terminalmarkets for sale through private commission agents. The fish isusually auctioned or sold in the absence of the supervision of co-operative personnel. Thus, the commission agents are in a positionto manipulate the prices, especially due to the nature of fish marketwhere price fluctuation was significant on the same day. This isevident from the fact that actual commission earned is more thanthe contract rate of commission in all terminal markets.

vi. Almost all societies selling fish dealt with private trade, and veryrarely a primary society sell through central or apex society.

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12.10. Price and price determinator of fishThe fluctuation in fish price is very prominent. The changes are so

frequent to predict any trend. There may be one price in the morningwhile another in the evening in the same market. Sometimes priceschange at short intervals of time. This happens not only due to thesudden supply and demand of particular variety of fish but also due toprices of other varieties in the market. The perishability tendency offish, has a definite role to play in determining the price of fish at themarkets. The fish price often varies from spot to spot in one fish marketwhen many auctions take place simultaneously. When fresh fish reachesearly in the morning a high price is quoted. Generally, the fish pricesfall as the day advances. The uncertainty of supply and demand plays agreat role in price determination. In the fish markets at the time ofauction, the pace of selling fish is so fast that it cannot permit news oflow prices. There is a great price risk because of high perishabletendency of fresh fish. The fish markets are having certain timings.Generally, the auctioneers start the bidding price based on the experience.It is also observed that some buyers in some instances purchased onetype of fish at a higher price from one particular agent while someother brought the same fish at a lower price from a neighbouring agent,indicating a big variation in prices. Time factor plays a prominent rolein almost all the fish markets. It is also observed that increase in marketarrival cannot create a steady demand of fish. Therefore, there is awide range of fluctuation in prices which indicates the instability inselling and purchasing of fish.

For any extremely perishable commodity like fish, the method ofauction is most feasible because it reflects the tendency of consumer’sdemand in the wholesale market through the retailers. The fish producersand fishermen hardly gets any remunerative price for the produce inwholesale fish markets where the monopoly of fish contractors exist.Normally, the producer share to sell his produce at the lower ratesforegoing his profit with the fear of blockage of money and spoilage offish. It is seldom possible either for producers or seller to impose ahigher price at the wholesale markets. The short-term changes in demandand supply are responsible for frequent price variation to some extent.



The long term demand and supply are the important factors in bringingdown the cost of production for the whole industry.

The aggregate supply of fish in the short period, theoreticallyspeaking, will remain constant over a momentary time and space; andeven if there is some change in actual supply and demand of fish, it willremain constant for finding out the equilibrium market price. Undersuch circumstances, if there is a high demand, it will give a higher priceand vice versa. Huge supply of fish normally means that, if there isunchanged demand, buyers will ask for fish at a very low price. Thelow price can be increased if any public agency or Government purchasesthe excess supply of fish by giving a higher support price. So as toregulate the price of fish, the report on fishery policies in Western Europeand North America have rightly observed, Measures aiming at stabilizingfirst hand prices, it may be justified on account of the heavy fluctuationin catches in many countries. With the aim of contributing the overalleconomic stability in the industry, for which it is necessary that thefishermen receive an adequate return for catches, the Government orthe industry itself of member countries have established more or lesselaborate measures. In Norway, for instance, a minimum price policywas introduced by the sales organizations, which are co-operatives incharacter, in consultation with the government. When fishermen/fishfarmers in the past were virtually unprotected against heavy fluctuationsin the prices caused by frequent changes in supplies, then price supportmeasures were introduced. All the fish produced in Norway cannot besold lower than the minimum price i.e. first hand wholesale prices,stipulated under the Raw Fish Act, 1951. The White Fish Authorityand Herring Industry Board of the United Kingdom now called ‘SeaIndustry Authority’ and the Agriculture Marketing Board of Swedenhave also adopted such price measures in regulating price of the fish.The need for a similar minimum price system is highly required in Indiato give a boost to fishery trade.

12.10.1. Factor affecting pricesThe following are the factors influencing the prices of fish in fish

markets.

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12.10.1.1. Elasticity of demand :

Whenever there is a demand of fish markets, the price of fish tendsto rise. In period of no demand of fish during the particular days nearfestivals, the fish consumers take no fish due to religious conception.Similarly to take no fish also plays important role in affecting the pricepattern.

12.10.1.2. Type, sex, weight and quality of fish:

Large size and fresh fish fetches good price in the markets. Sexnever plays any role in fixing the price. In few places, for example inAndhra Pradesh, people like black fish like murrels and cat fishes, mostlythey prefer live fish in markets. In other places (ex. West Bengal), peopleprefer major carps.

12.10.1.3. Distance of procuring centres to markets:

The distance of procuring centre to fish markets also plays animportant role in the pricing of fish. Low catch is normally transportedby buses early in the morning. In number of occasions the bus conductorsrefuse to allow the fish to be placed in the bus. The fishermen tend tohide it from the conductor and pack it in such a way to escape from theeyes of the conductor. With the result of that the quality of fish generallyget spoiled. The larger the distance so covered, the greater would bethe spoilage which naturally has adverse bearing on the fish price.

12.10.2. Fishermen’s share in consumer rupee

Since fish moves from producer to consumer through marketintermediaries, there is no unique price of fish even for a particularquality, at one point of time, and at one particular location. Instead,there is a price which the fishermen/fish farmer receives which equalsthe price the first intermediary pays, and so on, the last being the price,



the last intermediary receives or the one the consumer pays. Since eachof these intermediaries incur certain cost in the channel and havecommercial motives behind their operations, the prices at several levelscannot be the same. In fact, each successive price in the channel ishigher than the previous one, with the result there is a positive gapbetween the price the consumer pays and the one which farmer receives.It is often alleged that because of this gap, neither the fishermen receivesa remunerative price for his produce nor the consumer gets hisconsumption basket at a reasonable price. Incidentally, it should bepointed out that the presence of intermediaries is not necessarily harmful,for they are productive as they add value to the fish by transporting itfrom places of supply to the places of demand and by storing the productbetween the time of harvest and the time of purchases by the consumer.

12.11. Strategy for fish market developmentSince all the fish markets are not organized in well manner, a thrush

is required to reform the markets by modernizing the traditional fishmarketing methods by introducing new management techniques. Thestrategy of fish market management can be created by analyzing thepresent pattern of marketing, setting the objectives, developing the fishdemand, formulation of new plan, marketing operations and marketcontrol which has been given in figure 10.1.

There are many environmental opportunities for fish marketing asthere are many places where fish is not marketed. The tourist complexesestablished by tourism corporation where good fish sale stall can beestablished. Like wise, in University campus and sports school muchstalls can be set-up. This kind of environmental possibilities exist inmany areas and more areas can be found out by conducting survey.

A fishery firm can take up a relevant marketing action in which itis likely to enjoy a differential advantage over the firms. This is becauseof its experience and technical resources available with the firm. A fishfirm can set up ice plant and net fabricating unit to give a boost to thefish marketing process.

A particular firm can have the specific advantage by dealing the

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particular kind of fish. Cat fish group is in great demand particularly inwinter season. The need of people can be met by importing cat fishfrom neighbouring states and exporting the major carp group in lieu ofthis. It can also explore the possibility of marketing of major carp aswell as miscellaneous group side by side the cat fish.

AnalysisMarket analysis Setting of objective

PlanningFormulation of Developing of fish demandnew scheme

ControlMarketing Marketing controloperation

Fig.5.1. Strategy of fish market development

A core marketing need to be designed for the market development.This system has three type of classifications - Intensive growth,Integrative growth, Diversification growth.

12.11.1. Intensive growth

Some opportunities are hidden in the present marketing efforts ortraditional marketing which have to be explored. The following methodscan be adopted to intensify the growth in the market.

12.11.1.1. Market penetration:

It includes the more aggressive fish marketing efforts to increasethe sale of fish. These efforts include the publicity of the fish by variousmethods to depict the nutritional value. It has been accepted throughoutthe world for the fish is rich in protein and phosphorus. Fish is considered



as one of the best nerve tonic. Fish can be supplied instead of meatproducts in school and college messes. In addition to this, there are anumber of people who like to take but do not know the process of cookingand fish recipes. Short term courses can be conducted by the foodprocessing institutes to impart the knowledge of fish cooking. Freedistribution of palatable fish products can be distributed to the generalpublic to create taste.

12.11.1.2. Market Development:

Efforts of present fish sales from those markets can be divertedto new markets where new sale centres can be opened in different areas.Identification of the regions, according to consumer’s taste is necessaryso that new segmented market may be approached for future marketingof fish or fish products.

12.11.1.3. Products development:

The main hindrance in the sale of fish is its peculiar odour. Newfish products can be evolved which have no smell and can give a goodtaste to the consumer. Improved fish products can be created like fishbournvita, fish biscuits, fish fillets, fish fingers, fish wafers, etc.

12.11.2. Integrative growth

The basic fish market may be combined with another concern unitby making backward or forward or horizontal integration.

12.11.2.1. Backward integration:

A firm selling fish may seek the ownership in other firm who isapplying fish or fish products. A wholesaler can combine with

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commission agent or can do the work of fish exploitation. By clubbingthe wholesale with the commission agent as well as fishing workers thenumber of intermediaries can be reduced to provide more profit toproducers to wholesaler and consumer.

12.11.2.2. Forward integration:

The fish production and distribution are the two main componentsof fish marketing. The fish marketing machinery if combined with thedistribution authority then market development would be easier. If thewholesaler combines with retailer and fish hawker then the inter-competition between channel who tends to earn more profit can bereduced. Thus consumer would get good fish at reasonable price apartfrom promoting the market in future.

12.11.2.3. Horizontal integration:

A fish firm can join hands with other parallel firms who areproducing ice, baskets, packing material, etc. so that the competitioncan be recuced to stabilize the market.

12.11.3. Diversification of growth

The fish markets should also take up the act of diversification ofproducts for promotion of the market.

12.11.3.1. Concentric diversification:

Introduction of products which are technically market synergies,with the present fish commodities, can promote the fish marketing. Theintroduction of new products like fish ham and fish sausages may attractmore customers. This type of change will also create interest to thenew customers who intend to take fish.



12.11.3.2. Horizontal diversification:

If a new products like frozen fish kheema or fillets are suppliedalongwith the chilled fish, the customers number would increase. Ifthe dressed fish is also sold along with the raw fish then more customerswould be attracted as the dressing of fish for non-traditional fish eateris a tedious task.

12.11.3.3. Conglomerate diversification:

It comprises to add new product to the new customer because ofdeficiency of old one. In addition of above, the following factors mustbe taken into account for the development of fish markets.

12.11.4. Setting up of firm object

The objectives of a firm should be clear-cut with the firm’s targetto obtain the goal. The strategy should be designed in such a mannerthat firm objectives can be achieved easily.

12.11.5. Segmentation

Market segment is the basic factor. Every market should havedifferent needs, tastes, styles and links of the buyers. No single type offish and fish product would satisfy all buyers. The market segmentslike, geographical situation, use of the products, types of buyers, etc.must be taken into account.

12.11.6. Marketing positioning

A particular pattern of market concentration can give the maximumresults to achieve the main goal. The firm cannot go to all places evenif there are opportunities. It should go after viable positions. The mainfeatures are as under:

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(a) currently the market segment is of sufficient size.(b) Segmented market is not over occupied by present competition.(c) It should have the potential of growth.(d) Segmented market has some relative unsatisfied needs in which a

particular firm can serve well.

It is observed that one type of marketing of product is noteconomically advantageous, but in combination with two or threeproducts, marketing becomes economical. If a retail fish merchant sellsaquarium fish along with other meat products like eggs, meat, etc. thenmarket of all the products would increase.

12.11.7. Market entry strategy

It is seen that many fish merchants leave the trade when they areunable to have notified waters on lease from the Government. TheGovernment should render support to them who have the thoroughknowledge to trade. The established firm should have technical stafffor conducting survey.

12.11.8. Marketing mix strategy

This is one of the main factor to see the response of the buyerstowards the product. Advertisement for sales promotion and feed backmethod should be adopted to make the people familiar with the fishand firm. These products should be tried in public at reasonable rates.

12.11.9. Timing strategy

Proper timing is the important factor for promotion of fish markets.If a regular fish customer takes a particular variety of fish then he maybe asked to try the fish of other kind also, which might create a goodtaste for him and expand the market as well.



12.11.10. Formulating plans

A firm and sound planning is necessary to obtain the objectives ofthe firm. The commitment of targets should be achieved with full efforts.A sale target based on the past experience, areas, regions etc. be fixed.The market budget should be based on the targets. The FisheriesDepartment, while auctioning the fishing rights of notified water shouldalso fix the sale target of exploited fish. Government should render thehelp to the contractors in achieving the targets.

The management of fish markets is not up to the mark. The patternof marketing is traditional. All the existing markets need improvementsin working on the basis of modern management techniques as alreadymentioned. All the components of the marketing such as production,exploitation, transportation, preservation, distribution and eventechnique of using fish as food requires improvement for the promotionof fish marketing system. The Fish Farmer’s Marketing Co-operativeSocieties should be formed for performing combined fish marketingactivities.

SUMMARY

After harvest of fish the fishes are marketed either in fresh conditionor in preserve condition. Various factors such as concentrations oflandings, size of the capital requirements, fishing activity, processed orfrozen fish, Govt. intervention, etc are affecting the patterns of the fishmarketting. Various types of markets are existing for the sale of the fishlike whole sale, terminal, retail markets and fairs are some among them.The fish markets are acting as a connecting link between producers andconsumers.

Various fish marketing intermediaries are found. The commonmarketing intermediaries are producers, commission agent, whole saller,retailer, vendor and consumer. The marketing system of fishes can beanalysed interns of use flows, physical flows and channel flows.

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Various marketing channels are used to distribute the fish. Thepopular channels are channeling II III IV and I. Out of these fourchannels, II and III are most popular and common in Indian fish markets.More profits are found in short channel.

The fluctuation in fish price is very prominent in markets. Thechanges are so frequent to predict any trend. There may be one price inthe morning while another in the evening in the same market. Sometimesprices change at short intervals of time. This happens not only due tothe sudden supply and demand of particular variety of fish but alsodue to prices of other varieties in the market. The perishability tendencyof fish has a definite role to play in determining the price of fish at themarkets. The fish price often varies from spot to spot in one fish marketwhen many auctions take place simultaneously. When fresh fish reachesearly in the morning a high price is quoted. Generally, the fish pricesfall as the day advances. The uncertainty of supply and demand plays agreat role in price determination. In the fish markets at the time ofauction, the pace of selling fish is so fast that it cannot permit news oflow prices. There is a great price risk because of high perishabletendency of fresh fish. A number of factors such as elasticity of demand,type, sex, weight and quality of fish and Distance of procuring centersto markets are having marked influence on the prices of fish in fishmarkets.

All the fish markets are not organized in well manner, a thrush isrequired to reform the markets by modernizing the traditional fishmarketing methods by introducing new management techniques. Thestrategy of fish market management can be created by analyzing thepresent pattern of marketing, setting the objectives, developing the fishdemand, formulation of new plan, marketing operations and marketcontrol.

QUESTIONS

1. What is market? How it is useful to sale the fish?2. Describe various marketing intermediaries and Explain their role in fish marketting?3. Discuss various fish marketing channels?4. Give an account on determination of fish price in markets?5. Discribe the factors affecting on the fish price in markets?6. What are the measures to improve the marketing facilities in India?



13. FISHERY ECONOMICS-SOCIO-ECONOMICSTATUS OF THE FISHER FOLK AND

CO-OPERATIVES

Our country is blessed with vast inland water resources in theform of rivers, estuaries, natural and man-made lakes, brackish waterimpoundments and mangrove wetlands. The length of coast line of Indiais about 8,041 km. In addition to this it has 2.25 million hectare of freshwater ponds and tanks, 1.3 million hectare of bheels and derelict waters,0.12 million hectares of irrigation canals and channels, 2.3 millionhectares of paddy fields and 1.41 million hectares of brackish waterand estuarine area. Such a vast water resource, yet under exploited, couldbe wisely used to boost Indian economy to a greater extent. Aquaculturestands as a plausible answer to it and India is all poised towards “Bluerevolution”.

13.1 Role of Fisheries sector in India’s Economic Development:

The role of fisheries sector in the country economic developmentis amply evident. It generates employment for a large coastal and otherpopulation, raises nutritional standards, increases food supply and earnsforeign exchange. According to quick estimates of the Central StatisticalOrganization (CSO), the contribution of the fisheries sector to grossdomestic product (GDP) in Rs. 10,693 crore (1.28% of total GDP) atcurrent prices and net domestic product (NDP) has shown a four foldincrease from Rs.1, 478 crores in 1984-85 to Rs. 9,826 crore in 1995 –96 (1.29% of total NDP) at current prices.

A fishery in present economic sence is identified as the sunrisearea that offers the scope of rapid growth for sustainable development.India is placed eleventh with a share of only 2% in the 45 billion globalmarkets. The current marine fish production of 2.2 million tones awaitsa boost to3.9 million tones. Similarly, the fresh water fish culture isexpected to provide 5.0 million tones of fish by 2025. The marinefisheries find a growth rate of 4.32% in comparison to inland fisherieswhich is 6.25%. During the last 40 years, fish production has shown asteep rise from 7.5 lakh tonne to 42.30 lakh tones of which inlandfisheries approximately 55%.

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The fisheries growth in India is essential to meet three major targets:

(i). Increase in production to meet protein requirements.

(ii). Development of export potentials.

(iii). Improving the socio-economic status of fishermen.

13.2 Contributions of fisheries sector: The fisheries sector is contributingto Indian economy mainly through the following ways.

(i). Food supply – The per capita yearly consumption of fish has been3.2 kg on an average up to 1992 (5.13 kg for fish eating population /year) as against the estimated requirement of 11.0 kg. Pisiculture hasthe potentiality due to its on the spot food characteristic, balancednutrients and above all, affordable price.

(ii). Raising nutritional standards – Fish is considered as the “poor man’sdiet”. It costs much less in comparison to its food value. It is an almostzero carbohydrate food, good for diabetes and other such patients. Fishis a rich source of protein, vitamins and minerals with approximatecomposition as crude protein 14.2 – 22.8%, fat 0.6 -2.4% and energy 76– 161 Kcal/100 gm. A special feature of fish flesh food is content ofvitamin B12 which is absent in plant food and also a good source ofcalcium and vitamin A. Fish also contains poly unsaturated fatty acidswhich are known to provide protection from cardio-vascular diseases.This has got advantage over the other flesh food like meat. Fish has abetter biological value (BV) and protein efficiency ratio (PER) thanother meat food.

The monthly per capita consumption of fish in India was highest inLakshadweep (3.38 kg) followed by Kerala (1.59 kg) and Goa (1.38kg). It can be noted that per capita requirement is 12 kg as recommendedby ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research) and assuming India’sfish eating population till 2025 to be around 6.90 million, the requirementof fish will be around 8.2 million tones.

FISHERY ECONOMICS-SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FISHERMEN & CO-OPERATIVES


(iii). Employment generation – Fisheries sector provides employmentto about 24 lakh full time engaged fishermen and 36 lakh partiallyengaged fishermen. Around 10% of these are engaged in allied activitiesrelated to fishing, marketing, net making, fish curing and processing.

(iv). Income generation - The average gross income for all categories offarmers is Rs. 13,944/ha and Rs. 16,554 /ha for small, Rs. 18,270/ha formedium and Rs. 19,049/hafor large scale formers.

Quick growth of fisheries has also created positive impact on ancillaryindustries like packaging, cold storage and ice plants, transport byinsulated vans, excluding net and other such materials manufacturingenterprises generating additional employment opportunities. Severalexternally aided projects are under-way which may provide employmentto shrimp farmers and allied workers.

It is worth mentioning that, fish farmers, artisan fishermen andfisherwomen engaged in fish culture, collection of fish seed from naturalresources, fishing in closed and open inland and coastal waters,processing, transport and marketing etc., are the primary producers ofthe fisheries sector and as such they are the focal objects for sectoraldevelopment and welfare schemes.

(v). Foreign exchange – In last three decades fishery exports hasdrastically increased from 16,377 tones valued at Rs. 3.92 crore to1,39,419 tones valued at Rs. 893.37 crore. During the last three – fouryears particularly sea products displayed a quantum jump of 50% byvolume and 100% by earnings. Frozen shrimps accounts for about 70%of the foreign exchange earnings. Other items of exports are frozen fish,lobsters and dried fish items. The major markets of these products areJapan, US, Western Europe and West Asia. With systematic planningand management, there is a good scope for improving India’s share inthe International market from 2%..

13.3 Potentials:

Indian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is 200 nautical miles into the

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sea and the total area is 2.02 million sq. km, the potential of which 2.57million tones is awaiting a total production limit of 3.92 million tones.This zone is exploitable in accordance with the UN’s guidelines of “rightto fish is conditional and accompanied by the duty to manage andconserve resources for present and future generation”.

It is considered that marine fish production towards the end of X fiveyear plan would increase to 3.25 million tones with the inland fisheriescatching up with it soon. A potential market for fresh water fisheries,particularly Indian carp is West Asia. The actual yield from inlandfisheries is about 40 – 50 thousand tones in total.

13.4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FISHERMEN

A fisherman is a person who fishes. There can be commercial fishingonly with fishermen. There can be any number of devices to facilitatefishing, but fishermen will have to be there to operate the nets. Thefishing results are directly related to the efficiency of fishermen. It istherefore axiomatic that the fishing activity will develop well only whenfishermen are developed.

The problem of development of fishermen is often looked into from anarrow angle all over the country. The development of fishermen isoften restricted to traditional fishing communities. Traditionalfishermen’s communities should no doubt receive all attention, however,fishing activities are now no longer the monopoly of traditional fishingcommunities. Persons from other communities have now entered thefield and several have become fishermen, irrespective of caste andcommunity. All these fishermen deserve all facilities from theGovernment to upgrade their skills and rise up in their profession.

All those belonging to traditional fishing communities are not in thebusiness of fishing at the present day. Several of these pursue avocationsother than fishing. The aspect has to be borne in mind in implementingschemes providing for assistance to traditional fishermen.



A long range policy is necessary in harnessing and developing thecapabilities of existing fishermen on one hand and adding to the availablenumber on the other. While a new class of fishermen, from communitiesother than traditional fishermen’s communities is coming up, the bulkof the fishermen will continue to be from fishermen communities forlong. It is therefore imperative that close attention is paid to them, sothat they can contribute substantially to the national fishing effort.Traditional fishermen, by and large, have no faith in the capabilities offisheries departmental officials. There is some justification for this,for, most of the officials do not have adequate professional knowledgeof the type necessary to deal with the fishermen. The traditionalfishermen are proud people. They think that it is impossible for otherto know more than what they know of. When departmental officersvisit them they deal with them with deference and tolerance. Sincethey are poor, they check on only one point - whether the visiting officercan get them something free, materials or money. Their interest, mostly,does not go beyond this. Unless their attention is captured and theirattitudes are attuned to upgraded and higher - income - yieldingtechniques, progress cannot be made. In order to achieve this, there hasto be a long range plan.

13.4.1. Social interaction

Representatives of Government i.e. fisheries officials have to firstbecome part of the fishermen community. The relationship should beso intimate that it should pave the way for planting new ideas. Fishermenhave a great attachment towards their traditional festivals. These shouldbe recognized by the government and some grants should be given fortheir celebration in a fitting manner. The fisheries officials shouldparticipate in these festivals. The customs and beliefs of the communityhave to be closely studied and understood. With this background, itwill be easier to gain their attention and enlighten them. The oldergeneration can then only been lightened. There can at last be partialsuccess with the middle-aged and younger generation, in planting newideas and making them to accept improved techniques.

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13.4.2. Catch them young

More than these, action that is necessary is to catch the fisher childrenin their tender age and educate and train them in fisheries schools,specially set up for them. Government have to set up such schools andattract as many fisher boys as possible from the age of 8 or less. Thisapproach is the surest way to develop our traditional fishermen. Whenthey complete their training such boys should be able to end up asskippers or engineers or vessel-owners, with various facilities providedby the Government. With their training they will be in a position toappreciate the facilities and avail of them.

The training institutes we have at present are meant for grown-ups. Fewgrown-up traditional fishermen will have the qualifications to join theinstitutes. Hence it is necessary to have schools to provide profession-oriented education training to fisher boys for about 12 years continuously,combining general education as in higher secondary schools withprofessional training and education. All boarding and lodging andeducational expenses have to be borne by the Government. Such schools,need not, in fact, be exclusively meant for boys from traditional fishingcommunities. Other boys, interested in the line can also be givenadmission.

People representative (MPs and MLAs) from constituencies withpredominant fishermen population, have to champion the cause oftraditional fishermen in their area, unless this is done and fishermen aremade into men capable of undertaking improved method of fishing thatwould give them higher economic returns, the fishery sector cannotprosper.

13.4.3. Mechanisation on the socio-economic status

Mechanisation has been introduced through power-driven fishing craftor by motorization of the traditional craft. These reforms have enabled



the fishermen to increase the rate of fish catch along the off-shore region.Thus Fishing is regarded as powerful income and employment generatoras it stimulates the growth of a number of subsidiary industries(Srivastava etal, 1982). Introduction of modern fishing techniques hasincreased fish catch compared to traditional methods, which has led toincrease in the income of fishermen. The impact of technologicalchanges in fishing depends on the level of control over resources andmarkets, the economic and social background of the beneficiaries andthe traditional fishermen and the nature of technological changes in termsof labour displacement /absorption.

13.4.4. Problems identified

Increase of income of fishing households, leading betterment of theirliving conditions are inhibited for the following reasons.a. Poor management of fishery resources - absence of closed season,

closed area, adjustment of number of fishing units among differentfishing gears resulting lower catch and thereby income.

b. Absence of fishing harbours - makes it impossible to enlarge thesize of fishing boats.

c. Absence of fish auction market - makes the price of fish soldunreasonable.

d. Absence of fishery co-operative society - makes it difficult forGovernment to render various services to all fishermen.

e. Lack of ice supply - makes the fish price lower due to loss offreshness of the catch.

f. Poor condition of road to consuming areas - makes fish marketingdifficult.

g. Lack of side jobs during slack season of fishery - results lowerincome of fishermen.

13.4.5. Credit for fishermen

Fishermen need fund. For the purpose of production , acquisition of

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fishing boats, improvement of conversion boats, purchase of engines,purchase of fishing gears and equipments, construction of fish ponds,fuel oil, maintenance of engine and gear, advance to crews, housing,purchase of daily necessities, education of children and medicare care,ceremonies such as marriage.

13.4.6. Difficulties of fishermen to obtain credit and theconsequences

Poor financial standingSmall scale and dispersedLittle collateral to offerRisky nature of fisheriesNo proper insurance arrangement.

Consequences:

i. Commercial banks are reluctant to lend money.ii. Fishermen to go individuals, private money-lenders, middlemen

for funds both for production and house hold expenses.iii. High rate of interest.iv. Pledge to sell the catch to middlemen.v. Chronical debt and vulnerable to exploitation.

13.4.7. Need for Government intervention

i) Establishment of Government loan fund for fisheries.ii) Allocation of fund for fisheries by national development banks.iii) Establishment of special financial institutions for fisheries (fishery

banks).iv) Promotion of credit fishery co-operatives.v) Government loan guarantee.vi) Interest subsidy.vii) Government assistance to fishing boat insurance.



13.4.8. Suggestions

The socio-economic condition of the traditional fishermen usingnon-mechanised craft areas are far from satisfactory on account of lackof infrastructure and communication facilities.

An apprehension has been created among the traditionalfishermen that harbours are hampering than basic having mainly becausemechanised vessels owners try to catch fish in the exclusive zone of 5km earmarked for the traditional fishermen.

There is a great need to improve the living conditions of thesetraditional fishermen. Efforts should be made to provide basicinfrastructural facilities like pucca road, drinking water supply, sanitationfacilities, transportation, schools, and medical facilities etc.

Vigorous efforts are called for to motivate these fishermen forundergoing training so that bank loans are availed by them for thepurchase of mechanised vessels or craft with assistance from State andthe Centre.

The absence of an organised system for marketing of fish havepushed the traditional fishermen to depend upon the middlemen/fishmerchants resulting in poor financial return for their catch. It isimperative to evolve a proper marketing plan by organising traditionalfishermen into co-operative societies by the State Governments. Retailoutlets may be opened for the fish collected from the traditionalfishermen.

As a part of the harbour activities, schools may be constructedupto the primary level in these villages so that the objectives of NationalLiteracy Mission are realised.

In time of cyclonic weather and other adverse conditions theauction hall may be utilised as night shelters for the crew. The approachroads need to be widened for the movement of trucks and to move freely.

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13.5 CO-OPERATIVES IN FISHERIES SECTOR

Collective efforts in a trade are known as co-operative movement.This movement has gained importance in fisheries trade also. Thismovement guards the interest of small entrepreneurs in the trade, savesthem from the clutches of the exploitation of middlemen and promotesthe trade. Fishermen are living at a line below poverty level, and havean unorganised trade, hence the fishermen cooperative societies areextremely essential to get things done smoothly. To solve the fishermenproblems and to enhance their status the fishermen cooperative societiesare formed. Besides, importance of fishermen cooperative movementsis realised depending upon the needs and economic condition of thefishermen. Cooperative movements are directed towards improvementby introduction of more mechanisation and more sophistication in fisheryoperations at all stages from fish capture to marketing. The fishermencooperatives strive to make improvements by solving socio-economicproblems of fishermen, fighting against their ignorance, their exploitationby middlemen, and providing credit facilities and other facilities ofequipment and marketing.

13.5.1. Fisheries development in cooperative sector

An astonishing paradox is that while the harvests have been good,fishermen remain underfed. 50% of the consumer’s money goes to themiddlemen. Therefore, one method and probably the only method tocheck such exploitation would be to encourage cooperatives offishermen. Moreover, fishing itself is a cooperative activity, therefore,there is a need that fishery cooperatives are encouraged and supported.The cooperatives have a large responsibility of providing a wide rangeof services required by the fishermen to support their production,marketing programmes and also to promote their welfare.

In India fishermen cooperative societies are found. TheGovernment is also trying to improve the condition of cooperatives.These include enactment of fishery regulations, subsidies and loanfacilities to fishermen through cooperative movements, better education,



training and research centres, extension services and rural integrationprogrammes.

13.5.2. Principles of cooperatives

Principles of cooperatives gradually evolved after the cooperativemovement started in England (1844). Six principles of cooperativeswere amended and adopted at the ICA conference in 1966. These are

1. Voluntary membership, election, or appointment of office bearersin an agreed manner by members.

2. Cooperative societies are democratic organisations, their affairsshall be administered by persons elected. Members shall enjoyequal rights of voting - one member one vote, and participation indecisions affecting their societies.

3. Share capital shall only receive a strictly limited rate of interest, ifany.

4. The economic results, arising out of the operation belong to themembers of the society and shall be distributed in such a manneras would avoid one member gaining at the expense of others, whichshall be achieved

i. by provision for development of the business of the societyii. by provision of common servicesiii. by distribution among the members in proportion to their

transactions with the society.5. Societies shall make provision for the education of their members.6 Collaboration among cooperatives at local, national and

international levels having as their aim the achievement of unityof action.

The cooperative society has a minimum of 11 members and nomaximum limit. Every person should pay Rs.10-00 to become a memberand get eligibility for voting. The society also gets money from memberswho go for fishing in society tanks and ponds. Whatever profit they

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get, is distributed among the members equally. Each member contributes10 % of his profit to the society for its smooth maintenance. The tanks,ponds or reservoirs are leased to the society by the Government.Previously they used to give a three years lease, and then extended tofive years. But, at present, the Government is giving only a one yearlease to avoid the problems in long leasing. State Fisheries Departmentdecides the lease amount for a waterbody and is collected in one ormore instalments.

The primary fishermen cooperative societies are found at villageor mandal levels. Each society has one or more waterbodies for fishingactivities. Generally these societies have few members depending onthe fishermen population of that area. At the district level, thecooperative societies are found with more members. The regionalsocieties have more members than above two societies. All are underthe control of Fisheries Department.

Along with members, directors, co-committee members, auditorsare also found in each society. Directors execute the business andrepresent the cooperative. Auditors supervise the cooperative’s businessexecution and accounting. Other staff such as managers and accountantsare employed to carry out activities under the instruction of the aboveofficers.

A general meeting consists of all members of the society, whohave voting rights. A minimum of two meetings should be conductedin every year. All aspects like amendment of by-laws, expulsion ofmembers, business operation, loans, fishing rights, elections,management of fisheries, etc. are discussed in the general meetings.

Societies get financial assistance for fishing activities from StateFisheries Department, NCDC (National Cooperative DevelopmentCorporation) and all nationalised banks at a nominal interest.



13.5.3. NCDC and fishery development

NCDC started promoting and developing fisheries cooperativesafter its Act was amended in 1974 to cover fisheries within its perview.In order to discharge its functions effectively, NCDC has formulatedspecific schemes and pattern of assistance for enabling the fisheriescooperatives to take-up- activities relating to production, processing,storage, marketing, etc. Such assistances provided to fishermencooperatives for the following purposes:

1. Purchase of operational inputs such as fishing boats, nets and endlines.

2. Creation of infrastructure, facilities for marketing (transportvehicles cold storages, retail outlet, etc.)

3. Establishment of processing units including ice-plants, coldstorages etc.

4. Development of inland fisheries, seed forms, hatcheries, etc.5. Presentation of feasibility reports6. Appointment of experts under technical and promotional cell

scheme.7. Integrated Fisheries Projects (marine , inland and brackish water)

13.5.4. Activities of societies

The business and non-business activities of fishermencooperative societies are:

i Credit

Society receives deposits, current or ordinary deposits and timedeposits. Member’s deposits are encouraged by regular depositing of apart or whole of the proceeds of member’s fish catch. Deposited fundsused for

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a. extending loansb. reserve for paymentc. capital funds of the societyd. purchase of craft gear and fish seed.

ii. Loans

Loans for both production and consumption purposes arenecessary to cover fishermen’s needs. An important consideration is tofix a maximum amount of loans to be extended to one member at thegeneral meeting, so that as many as members as possible can get thebenefit of the credit. By and large, normal banking business proceduresare followed e.g., collaterals, securities, guarantors.

Co-operative banking system consists of primary fishermen’scooperatives, their regional credit federation and Central Co-operativeBank facilities adjusting both at regional and national levels surplusand deficit of funds of cooperatives to meet the credit need of the memberfishermen.

iii. Supply

A supply business either in the regional or national scale throughregional federation and primary cooperatives is essential to maintainsupply both for production requisites and household consumption goods.

iv Marketing

Also includes related activities such as, ice making, storage,transport, processing. Marketing is the most important business amongothers in terms of turnover, even through a little risk is involved, as thebusiness is conducted on a commission basis regarding the proceeds ofmember’s catch sold at auctions operated by cooperatives.



v. Joint utilisation

Service facilities, e.g. slip-way, dock facilities, boat and engine repairservices, and net repair facilities are made available by the cooperatives.

vi Advisory service

Co-operatives can render educational and informational servicesto their members by the way of ,

i. Consultation or advice-giving regarding fishing techniques, planof operations, business management.

ii. Education and informations by means of bulletins, seminars,meetings andextension work.

iii. Welfare and cultural activities.iv. Prevention of accidents.v. Promotion of fishing boat insurance, mutual aid.vi. Representation of fishermen’s interests to the Government

authorities for the purpose of legislations, financial assistance.vii Fishing

Although fishermen’s cooperatives normally gives services(credit, marketing, supply) to member fishermen, who are independentand carry out their fishing on their own account, some cooperatives areengaged in fishing activities themselves, apart from their services tothe members. In such cases, the Fishery Co-operative Law providesthat one half or more of the workers shall be the members of thecooperative and that a written agreement is required from two thirds ormore of the members of the cooperative.

In Japan, most of the fishery co-operatives have their own shopfor supply of engines, spare parts fishing materials, etc. In terms ofbusiness turnover, the supply of business is comparatively small in Japan.

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viii Insurance

In Japan, separate cooperatives have been set up to deal withfishing boats and fish catch insurance. The Government gives financialassistance in the form of premium, subsidy and reinsurance, thusspreading the risk of the insurance.

13.5.5. Administrative problems

In general whatever the organised cooperative structure, theproblems common to every society are either administrative or financial.Generally the fishermen societies are organised involving the weakersection communities, and therefore, at times, social problems areexpected to take place. The present statistics and observation generallyspeak about the common problem that can be sorted out. This pose adifficult task for a member of society which needs a reconsideration tostrengthen the crisis situation by appropriate solution. The followingare certain common problems identified.

The cooperative societies act in operation in every state is according tothe prevailing situation. There are certain sections with appropriaterailings to suggest and take action for an identified situation. As thecategories of cooperatives, fisheries cooperatives are also a part of thisact. The problems are:

1. Registration of a society.2. Enrolment of membership whether community oriented or

professional/defaulter/header.3. Area of operation resource-wise or village-wise.4. Amalgamation and deletion of area5. Removal of default members.6. Problems obtaining waterbodies.7. Purchase of seed , sale of fish at competitive rates.8. Distribution of sale proceeds and meeting expenditures.



9. Secure working capital and running the business / management.10. Disputes between the submerged Government and private lands

and running waters.11. Encroachment and control of fishery cooperatives by the merchants

who act as middlemen.12. Political crisis/competitors for leadership management within

political groups.13. Lack of Government support and institutional finance.14. Overall illiteracy which restricts the member in understanding,

planing and follow up management.15. Almost the whole population is under the superstitious binding of

the community in all respects.

Government authorities should take care of the above problems toprovide a smooth life to fishermen and their cooperatives.

SUMMARY

A vast water resource, yet under exploited, could be wisely usedto boost Indian economy to a greater extent. Aquaculture stands as aplausible answer to it and India is all poised towards “Blue revolution”.The role of fisheries sector in the country economic development isamply evident. It generates employment for a large coastal and otherpopulation, raises nutritional standards, increases food supply and earnsforeign exchange.

In India fishermen cooperative societies are found. TheGovernment is also trying to improve the condition of cooperatives.These include enactment of fishery regulations, subsidies and loanfacilities to fishermen through cooperative movements, better education,training and research centres, extension services and rural integrationprogrammes. The business and non-business activities of fishermencooperative societies are credit, loans, supply, marketing, jointutilisation, advisory service, fishing and insurance.

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A fisherman is a person who fishes. The problem of development offishermen is often looked into from a narrow angle all over the country.The development of fishermen is often restricted to traditional fishingcommunities. Traditional fishermen’s communities should no doubtreceive all attention, however, fishing activities are now no longer themonopoly of traditional fishing communities. Persons from othercommunities have now entered the field and several have becomefishermen, irrespective of caste and community. All these fishermendeserve all facilities from the Government to upgrade their skills andrise up in their profession.. The suggestions are listed out to omprovethe socio economic status of fishermen..

QUESTIONS

1. Explain the role of fisheries sector in Indias EconomicalDevelopment.

2. Give an account on socioeconomic status of fishermen?3. Write short notes on

(a). Social Interaction of the fishermen (b). Problems facing by the fishermen (c). Role of Government to uplift the fishermen community.4. Describe the role of co-operatives in fisheries sector?5. Discuss the principles of co-operatives in fishing sector?6. Give the list of activities of the co-operative societies?



14. GOVERNMENT POLICIES ANDPROGRAMMES-EMPLOYMENT GENERATION

IN FISHERY SECTOR

During sixth five year plan (1980-85) a large number of fisheriesinstitutions and centres were recognised by the Ministry of Agricultureand Commerce. For fresh water aquaculture, Central Inland FisheriesResearch Institute (CIFRI) was established, which was further bifurcatedinto two different institutes in 1985, namely Central Inland CaptureFisheries Research Institute (CICFRI) for capture fisheries and CentralInstitute of Fresh water Aquaculture (CIFA) for culture fisheries. Manyother institutes have also been came up such as NCFRI, CIBA andCMFRI.

The fisheries Research and Extension programme are carriedout byfive groups of organisations. ICAR, the Ministry of Agriculture, TheMinistry of Commerce, the Ministry of Food processing In dustries,CSIR and also the State Agricultural and traditional Universities.

Several policies and programmes were implemented by thegovernment to safeguard the rights of fishermen, socio-economic statusof fishermen, women and promoting better facilities to enhance fisheryproducts. Some of them are:

14.1. The Indian fisheries act, 1897

Where as it is expedient to provide for certain matters relating tofisheries.

It is hereby enacted as follows:

1. Title and extent(1) This act may be called the Indian Fisheries Act, 1897.(2) It extends to the whole of India, except (the territories which

immediately before the 1st November, 1956 were comprisedin Part B States).

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2. Act to be read as supplemental to other fisheries laws:Subject to the provisions of sections 8 and 10 of the General

Clauses Act, 1887, this Act shall be read as supplemental to anyother enactment for the time being in force relating to fisheries in(the territories to which this Act extends).

3. Definitions:

In this Act, unless there is anything repungent in the subject orcontext,(1) “fish” includes shell-fish;(2) “fixed engine” means any net, cage, trap or other contrivance

for taking fish, fixed in the soil or made stationary in anyother way; and

(3) “private water” means water which is the exclusive propertyof any person on which any person has for the time being anexclusive right of fishery whether as owner, lessee or in anyother capacity.

Explanation:

Water shall not cease to be ‘private water’ within the meaningof this definition by reason only that other persons may have by customa right of fishery therein.

4. Destruction of fish by explosives in inland waters and on coasts1) If any persons uses dynamite or other explosive susbstance

in any water with intent thereby to catch or destroy any ofthe fish that may be therein, he shall be punishable withimprisonment for a term which may extend to two months orwith a fine which may extend to two hundred rupees.

2) In sub-section (1) the word water includes the sea within adistance of the marine leagues of the sea coast; and an offencecommitted under that subsection in such sea may be tried,punished and in all respects dealt with as if it had beencommitted on the land abutting on such coast.

GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES


5. Destruction of fish by poisoning of waters

1) If any person puts any poison, lime or noxious material intoany water with intent thereby to catch or destroy any fish, heshall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which mayextend to two months or with a fine which may extend to twohundred rupees.

2) The State Government may also, by a like notification applysuch rules or any of them to any private water with the consentin writing of the owner thereof and of all persons having forthe time being any exclusive right of fishery therein.

3) Such rules may prohibit or regulate all or any of the followingmatters, that is to say:

(a) the erection and use of fixed engines;(b) the construction of weirs; and(c) the dimension and kind of the nets to be used and the modes of using them.(4) Such rules may also prohibit all fishing I any specified water

for a period not exceeding two years.(5) In making any rule under this section the State Government

may:

(a) Direct that a breach of it shall be punishable with a fine whichmay extend to one hundred rupees and when the breach is acontinuing breach, with a further fine which may extend toten rupees for every day after the date of the first convictionduring which the breach is proved to have been persisted in;and

(b) Provided for:(i) the seizer, forfeitur, land removal of fixed engines erected,

or used, or nets used in contravention of the rules; and(ii) the forfeiture of any fish taken by means of any such fixed

engine or net.(6) The power to make rules under this section is subject to the

condition that they shall be made after previous publication.

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7. Arrest without warrant for offences under this Act.(i) Any police officer or other person specially empowered by

the State Government in this behalf either by name or asholding any office, for the time being may, without an orderfrom a Magistrate and without warrant arrest any personcommitting in his view an offence punishable under section4 or 5 or under any rule under section 6:

(a) if the name and address of the person is unknown to him;and

(b) if the person declines to give his name and address, or ifthere is reason to doubt the accuracy of the name and addressif given.

(ii) A person arrested under this section may by detained until hisname and address have been correctly ascertained.

Provided that no person so arrested shall be detained longer thanmay be necessary for bringing him before a Magistrate except under theorder of a Magistrate for his detention.

The department of Fisheries is implanting many developmentalactivities for upliftment of Socio-economic condition of fishermen aswell as to fish farmers.

14.2. National Fishery Policy of India (draft for approval)

The salient features may be enumerated as:· Curbing the erstwhile policy of joint ventures of the Indo-foreign

vessels for exploitation of the Indian EEZ.

· Empowering the tradational fishermen, who are till now capableof fishing in inshore waters only, with modern mechanized boatsto enable them to carry out fishing farther and deep into the EEZ.

· Targeting the goal of 100% exploitation of the marine resourcepotential of the EEZ beyond 50-metre depth which at present is at40% level of exploitation only.



· Targeting an increase in per capita consumption of fish to 11 kg/year from the present 8 kg/year, by the turn of the century.

· Increasing fish production through integrated approach to capturefishery and culture fishery.

· Promoting conservation of aquatic resources and genetic diversity.

· Promoting fishing industry with a view to generating more jobopportunities for the coastal and rural people and to improvingsocio-economic condition of traditional fishermen and farmers forimproving rural economy.

· Promoting export of fish/fish products.

· Promotion of fishery education.

· Rejuvenating/rehabilitating endangered species, particularly thoseaffected by river valley projects.

· Laying special emphasis on prawn farming in both brackishwaterand freshwater.

· Reducing pollution load in waters.

14.3. The Controversial Deep Sea Fishing Policy of India

To reap the resources beyond the 12 to 14 nautical miles from thecoast, which largely remained unexploited, the Govt, of India made aDeep sea Fishing Policy in 1991. Under this policy, deep sea fishingwas started through joint ventures with foreign countries. This broughtin use of big vessels and necessitated fresh lease arrangements. Theaim of the necessitated fresh lease arrangements. The aim of the policywas two-fold. One, to step up fish production by tapping the unexploiteedpotential of the EEZ to the extent of 1.7 million tonnes (from the deepsea alone). Two, to have technology transfer from foreign sea sector.

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The deep sea fishing policy soon ran into trouble as it did not findfavour with the traditional fishermen. The 80-lakh strong FishermenForum opposed it tooth and nail on the grounds that the big fishingvessels failed in their mission and instead poached in the inshore waters,depriving the traditional fishermen their due catch. They demandedoutright revocation of the policy. The Murari Committee was set up bythe Govt, of India in 1994 to go into the issue in depth. The MurariCommittee recommended in 1996 cancellation of licences issued to thebig vessels. However the Committee did point to the danger of losing toother countries if the resource of EEZ are not optimally exploited byIndian fishermen, under the United Nation’s Law of the Seas.

Finally, in Februay 1997 the Govt, of India decided to rescind the1991 Deep sea Fishing Policy in partial implementation of the MurariCommittee Report and to the satisfaction of the fish workers union. TheGovt, is seized of the whole issue and shall not process any new licencefor deep sea fishing until the whole matter is reviewed. The Govt, ofIndia has instituted another Committee, under the chairmanship ofP.Murari who headed the Murari Committee of 1994. This freshcommittee will renew the New Fisheries Policy and at the same timesafeguard the interest of the traditional fishermen.

14.4. Coastal Regulation zone Act.

Ministry of Environment and Forest declared coastal stretchesof seas bass, estuaries, creeks, rivers and backwaters which areinfluenced by the tidal action towards land up to 500 meters from theHigh Tide Line (HTL) and land between the Low Tide Line (LTL) andHTL as Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ).

For the regulating developmental activities, the coastal stretcheswithin 500 meters from HTL land wand side are classified into 4categories.

CATEGORY – 1 (CRZ – I) Ecologically sensitive areas)

Ecologically sensitive and important, such as national park/marine



parks sanctuaries reserve forests, wild life habitats, mangroves, coralreefs, areas close breeding and spawning grounds of fish and other marinelife, areas of outstanding natural beauty/historical/heritage areas rich ingenetics diversity, areas likely to be in undated due to rise in sea levelconsequent upon global warming and such other areas as may be declaredby the central Government of concerned authorities of the state/unionTerritory level from time to time are treated under special provisions inthe notification.

(i) Category where no activity is permitted(ii) Facilities for carrying treated effluents and waste water discharge

into sea, facilities for carrying seawater for cooling purpose, oil,gas and similar pipelines are permitted

CATEGORY – 2 (CRZ – II)

These are the areas that have already been developed up to a closeto the shoreline. Developed area in referred to as that area within themunicipal limits or in other legally designated urban areas which isalready substantially built up and which has been provided with drainageand approach roads and there infrastructure facilities, such as watersupply and sewage main and building are permitted in CRZ-II as theland wand side of the existing and proposed roads existing and proposedroads existing authorized structures subject to the existing local townand country planning regulation including the existing norms of FSI/FAR.

CATEGORY – 3 (CRZ – III)

Areas that are relatively undisturbed and those which do not belongto either category-I or II, come under this category. These includescoastal zone in the rural areas (developed and undeveloped) and alsoareas within municipal limits or in other legally designated urban areas,which are not substantially built up.

In areas up to 200 meter from HTL in CRZ-III, only repairs of

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existing authorized structures not exceeding existing FSI, existing plantarea and existing density are permitted. Agriculture, horticulture,gardens, pastures, parks, play fields, forestry and salt manufacture fromsea water and also permitted.

Development of vacant plots between 200 and 500 meters of HTLin CRZ-III areas permitted for construction of hotels/beach resortssubject to guidelines gives in the CRZ Notification. Construction/reconstruction of dwelling units between 200 and 500 meters of theHTL, permitted.

CATEGORY – 4 (CRZ – IV)

Coastal stretches in the Andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep andsmall Islands except those designated as CRZ-I, CRZ-II, and CRZ-IIIcome under this category. For Andaman Nicobar and LakshadweepIslands, building within stipulated distances from HTL shall not be morethan 50% of plot size and total height of construction shall not exceednine meters.

The following activities under CRZ notification are permitted withprior approval of Ministry of Environment and Forests.

(i) Construction activities related to defense.(ii) Operational constructions for parts and harbours.(iii) Thermal power plants (foreshore) facilities for in take of cooling

water and outfall for discharge of treated waste water/cooling water.(iv) All other activities with investment exceeding crores.

ACTIVITIES PROHIBITED WITH CRZ

(a) Setting up of new industries and expansion of the existingindustries, except those directly related to water front or directlyneeding foreshore facilities.

(b) Manufacture or handling or storage or disposal of hazardoussubstances.

(c) Setting up and expansion of fish processing units.



(d) Setting up and expansion of units/mechanism for disposal of wasteand effluents.

(e) Discharge of untreated wastes and effluents from industries, citiesor towns and other human settlements

(f) Dumping of ash or any waste from Thermal power stations.(g) Dumping of city or town waste for the purpose of land filling or

otherwise.(h) Construction activities in ecologically sensitive areas.(i) Any construction activity between LTDL and HTL, except those

requiring foreshore facilities.(j) Dressing or altering of sand dunes, hills natural features including

landscape, landscape champed as beautifications, recreational andother such purposes.

(k) No new constructions within 500 meters of HTL, as well as betweenLTL and HTL in CRZ-I.

(l) Construction of buildings neither on seaward side of the existingroad of existing authorized structure in CRZ-II.

(m) No construction permitted within 200 m. from HTL in CRZ-III.(n) Mining of coral and sand from the beaches and coastal water for

construction and other purposes.(o) Dredging and under water blasting in and around coral formations.(p) No new construction of building within 200 meters of the HTL

and in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.(q) No new construction of beach resort/hotel in ecologically sensitive

areas.

Under Marine Sector, the government is implanting the followingschemes:

14.5. Relief cum savings scheme:

Under this scheme if fishermen will save 45/- for every month for aperiod of eight months the Central Government will sanction another45/- and state Government for every month sanction 45/- as a matchingto the saving fund and the total amount will be paid during slack seasonsof fishing to Fishermen.

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14.6. Accident insurance scheme:

It any fishermen will be died during fishing time he will be paidRs.25,000/- and if the gets disability he will be paid Rs.10,000/- asassistance to survive to his family.

14.7. Group insurance scheme:

Under National security scheme the Department will also identifyactive fishermen to enroll under life insurance scheme and if theindividual dies the risk coverage will be borned by L.I.C. of India. Underthis scheme the identification fishermen have to pay RS.25/- per yearas premium and RS.25/- will be paid by central Government as matchingamount towards premium. A sum of Rs.1000/- will be paid to individualin case of accidental death and Rs.5000/- will be paid in case of naturaldeath.

14.8. Financial assistance to fishermen:

The department is extending financial assistance to fisherwomentowards to purchase of dry and fresh fish to do marketing to improvethe economic conditions. This scheme is being implemented to membersfisherwomen cooperative societies.

14.9. Supply of out board motors:

The department is sanctioning subsidy amount towards the purchaseof out board motors to identified active fishermen. By fitting the outboard motors to traditional crafts the fishermen can supplement theirincome and thereby to improve their livelihood.

14.10. Supply life saving appliances:

The department is also supplying the life Jockets on subsided craftto enable the fishermen to get reserve of their lives in sea during fishingoperation.



14.11. Supply of ice boxes:

As a fish is personable commodity and as a measure to ensure properfish preservative the department is supplying Ice boxes to selectedfishermen beneficiaries through DRDA, so that the fishermen can getgood remuneration to their catch.

14.12. Supply of fishing imputs:

The Department is supplying fishing nets, fishing crafts, teppes,Bench landing crafts on subsided cost to selected fishermen beneficiariesof afflicted coop. banks of AFCOF.

14.13. Enlistment of shore station:

The Department is also attempting to construct shore station toarrance walke-talke facilities so that the fishermen can communicatewith show out the weather of endangering situation in sea.

14.14. Establishment of ice plants and cold stores:

As a measure to improve the marketing of fish the department isestablishing ice plants and cold storage.

14.15. Construction of jetties and landing centres:

The Department is also taking efforts in construction of Jetties andlanding centers in some coastal fishermen villages so that the fishermencould protect them boats.

14.16. Construction of plant forms:

The Government is construct plant forms in selected fishing villagesto enable the fishermen to dry the fishes in a economic way.

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14.17. Construction of community halls and auction halls:

The Government is constructed community halls to enable thefishermen to get together for their meetings, functions and auction hallsfor marketing of fish.

14.18. Supply of insulated vehicles to fishermen cooperative societies:

Through the DRDA the Department is also supplying insulatedvans on subsided cost to the selected good functioning fishermencooperative societies as a measure to improve the marketing of fishproducts.

14.19. Establishment of training institutes:

The department has established training institutes at Kakinada,Machilipatnam, Badampudi, Warangal, Kurnool. The training Institutesat Kakinada, machilipatnam is imparting one year training course tofishermen boys in the subjects namely Navigation, Seamanship, craftsand engine and genr. The training centers at Kurnool, Badampudi,Warangal is imparting training to fishermen boys in fresh water fishculture.

14.20. Establishment of cooperative societies:

The Government is encouraging co-operative movements amongthe fisherman through establishing societies. The welfare activities aregenerally implemented though co-operative societies.

14.21.Fishing complex:

Complexes are established in selected fishermen villages dulyprovided with all civic eminities as a cluster.

Under literacy programme the government has committed inestablishing of CRUCHES through non-formal education.



14.22. Establishment of schools:

The Government has established Ashram school in some selectedFishing villages.

14.23. Under inland sector:

The Government is vigorously implementing its development ofinland fisheries activities though FFD as and DRDA and ITDA and Sc.Corporation etc.

The department of fisheries is activity participating in theimplementation of welfare activities.

The department has got a no fish seed farms and supplying goodquality of fish seed to fishermen co-operative societies to charge thewater bodies to fishermen co-operative aoxiwiriwa on nominal leaserentals.

A no, of fishermen co-operative societies was established to upliftsocio-economic condition of fishermen and to avoid them from culturesof middlemen.

The Government is extending support to fish farmers also throughT.F.D as by selecting the beneficiaries and imparting training to themand sanction of subsidy to construct the tards for culture of fish.

The Government is extending support to certain fishermen insanction of subsidy towards purchase of seed and craft and tackle andcycles for marketing through DRDA.

The Government not only extending its support to fishermen butalso to tribal people through ITDA sanctioning of subsidy towards theconstruction of tanks and importing training in culture of fisheries andthereby to supplement their income. In all ITDA. Fisheries personalare employees to supervise the implementation of programme theGovernment is extending support through S.C. corporation to the selected

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scheduled caste beneficiaries for construction of new tnads for cultureof fishes and craft and tackle, cycle to supplement their income andthereby to improve their levelly good under special component plan.The Govt. is extending financial assistance to good funneling societiesthough NCDC is covered to inland fisheries also.

Housing colonies are constructed to the poor selected fishermenbeneficiaries.

Approach roads and the Government is providing civic amenities.Lab to land programme is a actively under implementation though theextension word. So many extension personnel are appointed bygovernment to implement the extension work. Research station as areestablished by Govt. to analyse the problems of farmers putting thebiothermeal factors.

Under Inland fisheries development the Govt. Has established thereinland fisheries traing centers at Warangal, Badampudi, and Kurnool toimpar the practical training in inland fish culture. The govt. has state toimprove to reservont potentialities under World Bank project.

14.24. Employment Generation In Fisheries sector

Fish industry provides ample employment opportunities of whichsome of them are:

1. Field Assistant/Field Technician in Fish Farms2. Assistant in Laboratories dealing with Aquaculture3. Seed Production Assistant in Fish Seed Farms4. Hatchery Operators5. Marketing Assistants6. Marketing Units of Aquarium, Ornamental Fishes & Accessories7. Ornamental Fish Breeding & Supply of Seed, Aquatic Weeds8. Aquarium Maintenance in Institutions on Contract Basis9. Net Making10. Weed Control Contracts11. Fish Seed Transport



12. Fish Transport/Container Services/Dry Fish Marketing/Fresh FishMarketing

13. Ice Production Units14. Cold Storage Units15. Ice Box Production Units16. Pituitary Gland Banks17. Dealership of Nets/Fishing Equipment18. Fisheries Extension Assistant19. Preservation of Biological Specimens & Supply20. Dealership of Fish Feed/Prawn Feed/Anti-biotics/Pumps/Aerators21. Dealers of Models of Fish Farms/Hatcheries/Boats/Nets and Audio-

visual for Fisheries Education22. Assistant to conduct Socio-economic/technical surveys by Govt./

NGOs/Banks23. Harbour Maintenance Assistant24. FRP Boat Repairs25. Seed Collection trade for F.W. Prawns26. Maintaining Permanent civil structure for storage of fish at landing

centers27. Fabrication & Supply of Bambo/Auminium Cages for seed rearing/

fish culture28. Assistant for erection of Pens in Reservoirs and perennial tanks29. Secretaries for Management of Fishermen Coop Societies30. Fish marketing information services31. Starting Fish seed farm/seed rearing32. Starting farms for rearing fish/prawn33. Starting cage culture in reservoirs34. Mechanised fishing vessels for exploration of marine fishery35. Laboratory Attender in 10+2 Vocational Jr. Colleges.

Even employment opportunities are also be generated by variousorganizations involved in fishing activities, such as CIFE (CentralInstitute of Fishery Education), CIBA (Central Institute of BrackishWater Aquaculture), CIFA (Central Institute of Fisheries andAquaculture), CIFRI (Central Institute of Fisheries Research Institute),CICFRI (Central Institute of Coastal Fisheries Research Institute),CMFRI (Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute), CIFT (Central

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Institute of Fisheries Technology), FSI (Fisheries Survey of India),CIFNET, (Central Institute of Fisheries Nautical Engineering andTraining), NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture and RuralDevelopment) and MPEDA (Marine Products Export DevelopmentAuthority).

SUMMARY

Several policies and programs were implemented by the governmentto safeguard the rights of fishermen, socio-economic status of fishermen,women and promoting better facilities to enhance fishery products.

Indian Fisheries Act, deep-sea Fishing policy of India, CoastalRegulatory Zone Act and Various Governmental policies are describedin detail.

QUESTIONS

1. Describe the various governmental policies to improve the fishing activities?2. Give an account on Indian Fisheries Act?3. Discuss deep-sea fishing policy of India ?4. Describe coastal regulatory zone Act ?



15. EXPORT AND QUALITY CONTROL

15.1. Export

India’s exports of marine products had their beginning as early as1938-39. May be a startling revelation but nevertheless true. This historicyear was recorded in gold in the Annual Statement of the Sea-bornetrade of British India with British Empire and foreign countries. Theexports included dried, salted or smoked fish, aquatic animal oils, fishmeal and fertilizers and miscellaneous aquatic animals and plantproducts. Most of the dried fish to be exported to east Asian countriessuch as Hong Kong, Singapore, Myanmar (Burma) and Sri lanka as aresult of these steps. In this year, 21,874 t valued at Rs. 73,16 lakhswere exported. By 1945-46, the exports of the same complexion reacheda level of 32,283 t valued at Rs. 269 lakhs. By 1959, Sri Lanka (ThenCeylon) remained to be the only country for the export of Indian driedfish. During that year the exports were 25,932 t valued at Rs. 4.43 crores,but declined later to 4703 t valued at Rs. 67 lakhs. Trading pattern ofthis kind, however, dwindled down over years.

So far as dried prawns (shrimps in present day parlance) areconcerned, India exported to 22 countries 3067 t of them valued at Rs.89.43 lakhs in 1962 and 2808 t valued at Rs. 93.24 lakhs in 1963. Overhalf of these exports went to (Burma) present Myanmar. By 1967, theseexports, came down to 1540 t valued at Rs. 89.61 lakhs. Later, in 1968,the exports plummeted further to 1410 t valued at Rs. 72.58 lakhs. Theexport of this commodity came down to 139 t by 1972 from 684 t in1971. After 1972 exports of dried fish and prawn products from Indiadwindled.

With an annual production of over one million tons of fish, India isone among the eight major fish-producing countries of the world. TheNational income from fisheries is estimated at about Rs. 600 crores perannum.

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The Sea Fisheries resources consists of a large variety of fishessuch as. Sardiences, Mackerel and Prawns. Several other favoritevarieties like Pomfrets, Seer fish, Indian salmon, etc., are also availablein large quantities. Fishing is generally confined to the narrow coastalbelt of about 6 to 10 miles from the coast and the production is in thehands of nearly a million fishermen.

The Coastal fisheries are largely seasonal Surplus productions areobtained in some months and scarcity in other months. Large-scaleexpansion of the fishing industry depends up on increased off-shorefishing activity which is being fostered by mechanizing the indigenouscrafts, by introducing small-powered crafts and by employing largemodern vessels. The west coast of India at present accounts for overthree-fourths of our total sea fish production. With the gradualdevelopment of the marine fishing industry, the export industry wasmaking a turning point on modern scientific lines. To ensure a highquality of marine products exports, the Government of India has boughtin quality control and preshipment inspection for marine products on avolunturing basis. A marine product Inspection council was set up in1964 to advise the Government on the measures to be taken forimplementing compulsory quality control of various marine products.

15.1.1. Export promotion measures

15.1.1.1. Supply of Tin Plate Against Export of Tinned Fish:

The Ministry of Commerce and Industry in the Government of Indiahave introduced a scheme for supply of tin plate against export of tinnedfish. According to the scheme, the Deputy Chief Controller of Importsand Exports, Ernakulam (Cochin), will register persons who are engagedin canning fish and wish to take advantage of the scheme, providedthey have been dealing in the export of fish or sale of fish in theinternational market for at least on year. Those who do not fulfil theabove condition will have to be recommended for registration by theFisheries Development Adviser, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, NewDelhi.

EXPORT AND QUALITY CONTROL


15.1.1.2. Supply of other requisites for canning fish:

There are some items in which the internal relationship betweenimports and exports is direct and intimate. The ability to export some ofthese manufactured goods depends largely on the facility with whichthe exporter or the manufacturer can procure the basic raw materialsrequired in the manufacture. With a view to promoting the export ofsuch goods, a scheme has been devised for the grant of special importlicences to replace imported raw material content of the exported product,or to provide an inducement for larger exports.

The foundation for the exports of frozen marine products, which isa revolutionary milestone in the history of marine products exports ofIndia. the present status of the marine products exports of India is atribute to his vision and the pioneering start he gave to the marineproducts export sector. On this foundation he laid, an infrastructure.

Records show that exports of marine products of all categoriesincluding canned product of all categories including canned productsfrom India were 19,700 t valued at Rs. 2.46 crores in 1950-51. In 1953frozen shrimp entered the export basket. There was a drop in the quantityexported by 1960-61 to 15,700 t but with a higher value (Rs. 3.92 crores).The drop was for the reason that caned shrimp exports came down owingto prohibitive cost of cans. From then onwards there was a steady growth,with exports reaching 97,200 t with a value of Rs. 531 crores by 1987-88. By 1990-91, exports touched a level of 139,419 t valued at Rs. 893crores.

15.1.2.Export Trends:

The export trends were presented in table (15.1 and 15.2) Therehad been a major spurt in the exports in terms of quantity by 1994-95(Qty 307, 337 t; Value Rs. 3575.62 crores) which moved up by 1999-2000 to 340,003 t valued at Rs. 5095.73 t, registering an increase of10.13% in terms of value and 12.24% in terms of volume over theprevious year. For the first time, seafood exports crossed Rs. 5000 crores.The total volume exported increased from 302,934 t in 1998-99 to340,003 t on 1999-2000. The share of marine products in the total export

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earnings of the country was 3.16% during the year. In terms of US$export earnings of the marine products was US$ 1184.23 million. Thegrowth in dollar terms was 6.96%. the unit value has, however, shown adeclining trend from Rs. 152.73 (US$ 3.65) to Rs. 149.87 per kg. (US$3.49). In 2000-2001 by December 2000 the exports reached a level316,320 t valued at Rs. 5016 crores. This shows an increase in exportsby 32.75% (from 238,276 t in 1999-2000) in terms of quantity and34.26% in terms of value (from 3,736 crores in 1999-2000 to Rs. 5,016crores so far in 2000-2001 by Dec 2000). It is expected that Indianexports may cross the level of Rs. 6000 crores or US$ 1.3 billion byMarch 2001.

15.1.3. Features of Exports

a) Exports of frozen shrimp increased by 7.2% in terms of volumeand 8.7% in terms of rupee realization and 5.6% in terms of US$;

b) Export of frozen fish increased by 19.5% in terms of volume and7.6% in terms of volume and 7.6% in terms of rupee realizationand 4.5% in terms of US$;

c) Export of frozen squid increased by 7.4% in terms of volume and9.1% in terms of rupee realization and 5.9% in terms of US$;

d) Export of chilled items showed an increase of 17.79% in terms ofvolume and 54.14% in tersm of rupee realization and 49.7% interms of US$;

e) Export of cuttle fish declined in terms of volume by 6% butincreased by 4% in terms of rupee realization and 1% in terms ofUS$;

f) Export of dried items declined by 2% in volume and increased by5.8% in terms of rupee realization and 2.8% in terms of US$;

g) Export of Live items declined drastically, 21.8% in volume, 19.3%in rupee realization and 21.6% in terms of US$.

15.1.3.1. Frozen shrimp:

Frozen shrimp, considered to be one of the major item in our exportwhich, contribute 71% of total marine products exports in 1999-2000by value. The share of frozen shrimp in the total exports, however,



declined from 33.83% to 33.31% in terms of volume compared to lastyear. At the same time, the export of frozen shrimp as such increased by7.21% in terms of volume and 8.67% in terms of value. The unit valuerealization of shrimp has increased by 7.21%in terms of volume and8.67% in terms of value. The unit value realization of shrimp hasincreased marginally from Rs. 326.38 (US$ 7.82) to Rs. 330.85 (US$7.69). Though India could retain her position as the major supplier ofshrimp to Japanese market during the year, the shrimp exports of Indiato Japan declined by 1.37% by volume and 2.39% by value. Shrimpexports to the member countries of European union, the second largestmarket, increased considerably during the year. The increaseconsiderably during the year. The increase in volume was 3807 mt witha value of Rs. 155.66 crores, showing an increase of 21.29% in volumeand 42.20% in value. Exports to the USA, the third largest market forIndian Shrimp, has shown an increase both in terms of quantity andvalue unlike the previous year. The total quantity of shrimp exported toUSA was 21.391 mt fetching a value of Rs. 633.73 crores which wasrespectively 18.54% and 35.68% more in volume and value than theprevious year. The export of shrimp to South East Asian market andother markets also increased both in volume and value during the yearwhen compared to the previous year. The unit value realization of shrimpincreased form Rs. 326.38 to Rs. 330.85 in rupee terms during 1999-2000. However, in US $ 7.81 to US$ 7.70. This was mainly because ofthe weakening of Indian Rupee against US dollar. The average unit valueIndian shrimp fetched in Japanese market had declined from US$ 9.67to US$ 9.30 during the year. The fall in prices was due to Japanesecurrency fluctuations and the sale of smaller sized shrimp at lower rateson account of distress harvest to prevent disease.

15.1.3.2. Frozen fish:

Frozen fish continued to be the largest item in our exportcontributing a share of 38% in terms of volume while in value terms itis the second largest item contributing 10.45% of Indian marine productsexport earnings. As in the previous years, Ribbon fish contributed themajor share (30%) among fin-fish varieties, followed by Promfret(24.53%) Croaker (8.55%), Mackerel (7.75%), Seer fish (5.73%) and

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the rest of other fishes. The value-added products made out of finfishvarieties were fish fillets, fish loins/steaks and shark meat whichcontributed 3.80% of the total finfish export, the share of which hasshown an increasing trend over the previous year. The value of thisitem grew from Rs. 8.85 crores to Rs. 20.22 crores during the year.China is the largest importer of frozen fish which accounted for about46% in terms of value and 57.69% in terms of quantity in the overallexport of frozen fish.

15.1.3.3. Cephalopods:

European Union was the major importer of the cephalopods,accounting for about 53% of the total export from India in terms ofvalue. Spain alone contributed to 2.5% (value wise) of the total exportof frozen cephalopods. The landings of squid and cuttle-fish in majormaritime states were not however promising. Overall export ofCephalopods (Squid, Cuttlefish and Octopus) increased by 2921 mtvalued Rs. 49.36 crores, registering a growth of 4.22% by volume and8.90% by value. Export of Cuttlefish declined by 6% while export Squidincreased by 7.4% in terms of volume. Export of frozen Octopusincreased both in terms of quantity and value considerably during theyear registering a growth of 105.81% by volume and 116.58% by value.

15.1.3.4. Other Items:

Export of frozen Lobsters also increased by 26.76% in volumeand 63.86% in value. Export of Chilled items also registered an increaseof 17.68% by volume and 54.11% by value while dried and live seafooditems have declined over the last year. Among live items, export of livecrab and lobster declined considerably while live finfish, live shrimpand ornamental fish have shown a positive trend of increase. Other items,which have shown a considerable growth, are Surimi (86%) and Crab(64%). Products like AFD Shrimp powder, Cuttlefish ink, Frozen wholecrab, Soft shell crab and Pasteurized crab meat have found a place inthe export basket, while items like Yellofin tuna, Live snail, Beche-de-mer of size 6” up and 4-6”, dried Cuttlefish, Fish meal, etc. were notexported during the year.



15.1.4. Major Markets:

The main markets for our seafood products are Japan, membercountries of European Union, USA, South East Asia and MiddleEast countries. Among the markets, Japan continued to be numberone market sharing 19.6% in terms of volume and 44% in terms ofvalue (Rs. 2263.6 crores, US$ 526.10 million).

15.1.4.1. Market Shares

The share of the different markets in India’s total exports areas follows:

Japan accounted for 44% in terms of value, USA accounted for15% in terms of value, European Union accounted for 18% in termsof value, South East Asia accounted for 18% in terms of value,Middle East accounted for 2% in terms of value, and othersaccounted for3% in terms of value.

Exports to:

i) E U registered a growth of 20.37% in terms of volume and32.15% in rupee realization and 28.37% in terms of US $,

ii) USA showed a positive growth by 6.18% in volume and25.54% in rupee realization and 21.95% in US $

iii) To S E Asian countries increased by 25.82% in volume and18.14% by rupee realization and 14.76% in US $, to Exportto Middle East countries declined drastically by 25.82% involume and 22.45% in rupee realization and 24.67% in US$, and

iv) Japan declined marginally by 1.1% in terms of volume and1.39 in terms of rupee realization and 4.21% in terms of US$.

15.1.4.2. Other Countries:

There has been considerable growth in exports to several

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countries. Among these are Canada (18%), Chine (20%), Belgium(73%), the Netherlands (10.2%), the U.K. (32%) and Spain (29%).Decline in exports too has been noticed in respect of UAE (25%),Greece (41%), Turkey (10%) and Japan (10%). During the year, newmarkets such as Canary Islands, West Indies, Argentina. DemocraticRepublic of Korea and Brunei have emerged for Indian seafoods,while no exports are made to the countries like Kenya, Brazil, Peru,Uruguay, Hungary, Bulgaria, Syria, Malta and Finland. To thesecountries exports were made during 1998-99.

During the past fifty years, there has been considerablediversification of exports and there has been a major increase incountries to which exports have been made.

Table 15.1Export Growth of Marine Products

A: Quantity in mt; V: Value Rs. Crores; $: US dollar million

Year Export Growth (%) Unit Value (per kg)

1995-96 Q 2962.77 -11000 -03.60V 3501.11 -74.16 -02.07 118.17$ 1111.46 -27.16 -2.39 3.75

1996-97 Q 378199 +81922 +27.65V 4121.36 +629.35 +17.72 108.97$ 1152.00 +41.37 +00.72 3.05

1997-98 Q 383818 +7619 +02.01V 4697.48 +576.12 +13.98 121.75$ 1295.86 +143.03 +12.41 3.36

1998-99 Q 302934 -82884 -21.48V 4626.87 -70.61 -01.50 152.73$ 1106.91 -188.95 -14.58 3.65

1999-00 Q 340003 +37069 +12.24V 5095.73 +468.87 +10.13 149.87

$ 1184.23 +77.32 +06.99 3.49



Table 15.2

Item-wise Export of Marine ProductsQ: Quantity in M.tons; V: Value in Rs. Crores; $: US Dollar Million

Items Apr-Mar Apr-Mar Variation (%)1999-2000 1998-1999

Fr. Shrimp Q 109868 102484 7384 7.21V 3635.01 3344.91 290.1 8.67$ 844.76 800.22 44.54 5.57

Fr. Fin Fish Q 129679 108556 21123 19.40V 532.72 495.03 37.69 7.61$ 123.8 118.43 5.37 4.53

Fr. Cuttle fish Q 32528 34589 -2061 -5.96V 284.13 273.31 10.82 3.90$ 66.03 65.39 0.64 0.98

Fr. Squid Q 34648 32254 2394 7.42V 293.27 268.93 24.34 9.05$ 68.16 64.34 3.82 5.94

Dried Items Q 6136 6273 -137 -2.18V 42.65 40.3 2.35 5.83$ 9.91 9.64 0.27 2.80

Live Items Q 1679 2148 -469 -21.83V 38 47.08 -9.08 -19.29$ 8.83 11.26 -2.43 -21.58

Chilled Items Q 3088 2624 484 17.68V 44.97 29.18 15.79 54.11$ 10.45 6.98 3.47 49.71

Others Q 22377 14006 8371 59.77V 224.98 128.13 96.85 75.59$ 52.29 30.65 21.64 70.60

Total Q 340003 302934 37069 12.24 V 5095.73 4626.87 488.86 10.13

$ 1184.23 1106.91 77.32 6.90

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Table 15.3

Country-wise Export of Marine ProductsQ: Quantity in mt, V: Value Rs. Crore, $: US Dollar million

Country April-Mar April-Mar Variation (%)1999-2000 1998-1999

Japan Q 66540 67277 -737 -1.10V 2264 2295 -32 -1.39$ 526.10 549.20 -23.10 -4.21

EU Q 65313 54261 11052 20.37V 905 685 220 32.15$ 210.20 163.80 46.50 28.37

USA Q 36603 34472 2131 6.81V 775 617 158 25.54$ 180.10 147.70 32.40 21.95

S E A Q 145811 116610 29201 25.04 (Including V 905 766 139 18.14China) $ 210.30 183.30 27.10 14.76

Middle Q 12814 17274 -4460 -25.82East V 115 148 -33 -22.82

$ 26.70 35.40 -8.70 -24.67

Others Q 12922 13039 -117 -0.89V 133 115 17 14.98$ 30.80 27.60 3.20 11.70

Total Q 340003 302934 37070 12.24V 5096 4627 469 10.13$ 1184 1107 77 6.99



The diversified range of exports now cover canned shrimp/fish,several items in frozen form such as headless and head on shrimp, PUDand PD, and several value-added products such as peeled tail-on shrimp,peeled tail on stretched, butterfly tail-on shrimp, blanched/boiled peeledshrimp, breaded round shrimp, squid rings, squid tubes, stuffed tubes,peeled squids, cuttle fish fillets, dried squid, head-on squid whole fish,fish fillets surimi, shark fins, shark meat, live crabs, crab meat, fishmaws, Becha-demer, dried fishes, particularly Bombay Duck, ribbonfish, masmeen, and quite a few other products. IQF and Accelerated/Freeze Dried products have also become an important part of exports.

Year Quantity Value

1978-79 51,162 194.791979-80 51,068 211.251980-81 51,358 201.781981-82 52,180 247.951982-83 55,002 316.151983-84 54,444 314.811984-85 55,398 329.691985-86 50,349 329.821986-87 49,203 377.931987-88 55,736 425.781988-89 56,835 470.331989-90 57,819 463.311990-91 62,395 663.321991-92 76,107 976.161992-93 74,393 1180.261993-94 86,541 1770.731994-95 101,751 2510.271995-96 90,000 2429.001996-97 105,429 2701.79

1997-98 100,977 3121.35

TABLE 15.4Pattern of shrimp exports (Qty. in tones; Value in Rs crores)

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Regarding progressive additions to exported products, it may bementioned that frozen fish exports picked up fast from a level of 66tvalued at Rs. 7.70 lakhs to 38,787t valued at 197.39 crores. Exports offrozen cuttle fish/fillets and squids which were at 141t in 1974 valuedat Rs. 12.0 lakhs rose to 66,843t by 1998-99 with a value of 542 crores.

Exports of fish maws clubbed under other miscellaneous itemscommenced in 1980. Export of frog legs was banned by the governmentin 1987.

15.1.5. Marine product export during 2000 – 2001

Marine product exports from the country increased by 23.3 per centand touched Rs. 6,300 crore during 2000-01, according to provisionalfigures released by the Marine Products Exports Development Authority(MPEDA), Marine products export during the 1999-2000 fiscal was Rs.5,117 crore.

“Marine exports scaled” new heights in quantity terms also duringthe year. During 2000-01 quantity of marine exports rose to 4,21,000tonnes (3,43,031 tonnes), showing an increase of 22.8 per cent.

The previous best figures were in 1997-98 when 3,85,818 tonnes ofmarine products valued at Rs. 4,697 crore were exported.

Chennai Port stood first in terms of value of exports followed byKochi and Visakhapatnam. All the major ports except Kochi showed anincrease in value of exports.

The exports through Kochi Port dropped from Rs. 1,137 crore in1999-00 to Rs. 1,031 crore in 2000-01. The share of Kochi also droppedfrom 37.9 per cent of total value of exports 10 years ago to 16.3 per centin 2000-01.

A detailed market-wise item-wise analysis would be available onlyafter the final figures are received. However, an analysis of the figuresfor te first 11 months shows that the main increase has come from exportsto the US.



The increase in exports to the US over the previous year is nearly55 per cent. In terms of percentage share, the US has now overtaken theEuropean Union to attain second place.

Japan, with 41 per cent of the market share continues to be numberone, followed by the US with 18.6 per cent and the EU with 15.3 percent. There was also substantial increase in exports to China, whichalong with Hong Kong, now has 12 per cent market share.

Shrimp continues to be the number one commodity exported,accounting for 71 per cent of the value of exports, although in quantityterms the share of shrimp is only 26.8 per cent. An interesting feature isthe increase in quantity of shrimp exported, in spite of stagnation incatches from the sea and the disease and other problems in aquaculturefarms.

The share of fin fish in the export basket is now 12.6 per cent, mainlybecause of the increase in export of low value Frozen Ribbon Fish toChina which has gone up by over 100 per cent when compared to lastyear, Cuttle fish and Squid account for 5 per cent each of the value ofexports.

Another interesting feature of the exports this year has been theincrease in value added items, which is a welcome sign. Export of Surimi,a product manufactured from trash fish as Croaker and used in thepreparation of imitation fish abroad, has gone up by over 110 per cent,making India a major player in the Surimi market.

15.3. Quality control

The development of the export trade of India, certain proposals forsubjecting Fresh, Frozen and Processed Fish and Fishery Products toquality control and inspection prior to export, were published as requiredby sub-rule (2) of rule 11 of the Export (Quality Control and Inspection)Rules, 1964 in the Gazette of India, Part-II, Section 3, Sub-section (ii)dated 1st November, 1994 under the Order of the Government of Indiain the Ministry of Commerce No. S.O. 785 (E) dated the 1st November1994;

213

1. Fish and fishery products freshly caught are in principle freeof contamination with micro-organisms;

2. However, contamination and subsequent decomposition mayoccur when handled and treated unhygienically;

3. Therefore, the essential requirements should be laid downfor correct hygienic handing of Fresh, Frozen and ProcessedFish and Fishery Products at all stages of production andduring storage and transport;

4. It is expedient that these control measures should beintroduced to guarantee the uniform application and to ensuresmooth operation of the provisions of this notification andthat the measures apply in an identical manner;

5. Provisions should, therefore, be made for procedure formonitoring to ensure the above conditions of equivalence withreference to the requirements of importing countries;

6. The Government of India nominated competent authorityshould ensure the effective compliance of the qualitystandards in the country;

7. In this Order, Fresh, Frozen and Processed Fish and FisheryProducts mean:-

All sea water and fresh water animals or part thereof, includingtheir roes, in fresh and chilled frozen or processed form, but excludingFrogs.

15.3.1. Specifications

15.3.1.1. Specifications for shrimps/prawns

15.1. General: Appearance and colour shall be characteristic to theparticular type/form of fresh/freshly cooked shrimps/prawns as the



case may be. The material shall be reasonably free fromdehydration, discoloration and black spots. The material shall notshow any sign of deterioration and shall be free from off odourand foreign odour. The texture of meat shall be soft and consistentand shall have characteristic flavour of Fresh/Cooked Shrimps/Prawns. The products shall be free from extraneous matter.

(b) Bacteriological:Fresh/Chilled/ Cooked/

Frozen Boiled

(1) Total plate count at 370C per gm. Maximum 5,00,000 1,00,000(2) E. coli count per gm. max. 20 Nil(3) Coagulase positive Staphylococcus per gm. max 100 100(4) Salmonella and S. arizona per 25 gms. Nil Nil

15.3.1.2. Specifications for lobsters in any form

(a) General: Appearance and colour shall be characteristic to the particulartype/form of fresh/freshly cooked lobsters as the case may be. The materialshall be reasonably free from dehydation, discolouration and extraneousmatter. the product shall not show any sign of deterioration. The productshall be free from off odour and any foreign odour. The material shall befreefrom extraneous matter like sand, dirt, etc. The material shall be freefrom eggs unless permitted by the buyer. Lobsters of uniform size shall bepacked together. Texture of the meat shall be soft and consistent.

(b) Bacteriological:Fresh/Chilled/ Cooked/

Frozen Boiled


15.3.1.3. Specifications for cephalopods (cuttlefish, squid, octopus, etc.)and their body parts including roes

(a) General: Cephalopods of different varieties shall not be packedtogether. Material of uniform colour and size shall be packed together. Theproduct shall be clean and shall be characteristic to the particular type/form

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appearance, colour and odour of fresh/freshly cooked cephalopods. The prod-uct shall be reasonably free from dehydration, discolouration and extrane-ous matter. The product shall not show any sign of deterioration and shall befree from off odour and any foreign odour. The texture of meat shall be softand consistent.

(b) Bacteriological: Fresh/Chilled/ Cooked/Frozen Boiled

(1) Total plate count at 5,00,000 1,00,000370C per gm. Maximum 2,00,000 for

products meant forraw consumption

(2) E. coli count per gm. max. 20 Nil(3) Coagulase positive Staphylococcus per gm. max 100 100(4) Salmonella and S. arizona per 25 gms.Nil Nil

9.3.1.4. Specifications for fishes - whole, dressed, fillets or any other type(pomfrets, seer, pearl spot, sardine, mackerel, hilsa, etc.)

(a) General: Fishes/Fillets of uniform size and colour shall be packed together.Fishes/Fillets of different species shall not be packed together. The productsshall be clean and shall have appearance, colour and odour charactaristic tothe particular type/form of fresh/freshly cooked fishes. The products shallbe free from dehydration and discolouration. The product shall not showany sign of deterioration and shall be free from odour and any foreign odour.The products shall be free from softening of texture and any objectionableextraneous matter.



15.3.1.5. Specifications for crab and crab meat(a) General: Crab/Crab Meat of uniform colour shall be packed together. Body

meat and claw meat shall be packed separately or as sandwich pack or anyother manner as required by the buyer. The material shall be clean havingcharacteristic of the particular type/form appearance, colour and odour of



fresh/freshly cooked crabs as the case may be and shall not have deteriora-tion, off odour or any foreign odour. The products shall be reasonably freefrom dehydration, discolouration and objectionable extraneous matter andshall be soft and consistent.


(1) Total plate count at 370C per gm. maximum 10,00,000 1,00,000(2) E. coli count per gm. max. 20 Nil(3) Coagulase positive Staphylococcus per gm. max 100 100(4) Salmonella and S. arizona per 25 gms. Nil Nil

(1) Crab dipped in boiled water for the purpose of extracting meat shall notbe treated as cooked variety.

(2) Cooked crab meat shall be prepared by boiling the eviscerated and cleanedcrab for sufficient length of time to make it fit for direct consumption.

15.3.1.6. Specifications for whelk

(a) General: Appearance, colour and odour shall be characteristic to the par-ticular type/form of fresh/cooked whelk as the case may be. The productsshall reasonably be free from dehydration and discolouration and shall nothave sign of deterioration, off odour or any foreign odour. The productsshall be free from extraneous matter and sand and shall not show grittiness.Texture shall be soft and consistent. Whelk meat shall be reasonably freefrom shell or shell pieces.



15.3.1.7. Specifications for clam/mussel meat

(a) General: Appearance and colour of the product shall be characteristic tothe particular type/form of fresh/cooked cham/mussel as the case may be.

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The product shall reasonably be free from dehydration and discolouration.The product shall have characteristic odour of fresh/cooked clam/mussel.The Product shall not show any sign of deterioration. The product shall befree off odour, foreign odour/sand (grittiness detected by chewing) and ob-jectionable foreign matter. The texture of meat shall be soft and consistent.



Crab/mussel treated with hot water for opening the shell and the meat thenpacked, shall not be treated as cooked/boiled variety.

1. Raw material:

1.1 The raw material used for preparation of Prawns (Shrimps) canned in brineshall be fresh, sound, wholesome, properly cleaned and free from entrails.

1.2 Only refined salt conforming to IS:594-1962 shall be used.

2 Cans:

2.1 The material shall be packed in suitable internally and uniformly lacqueredcans. The cans may also be lacquered externally. The lacquer used shall besuch that it does not impart any foreign unpleasant taste and smell to thecontents of the can does not peel off during processing and storage. Thelacquer shall not be soluble in brine to any extent. The can exterior shall befree from major dents, rust, perforations and seam distortions.

2.2 The cans after sealing hermetically shall not show leaking, panelling or swell.The interior of the can on opening shall not show any visible blackdiscolouration, rust or pitting and the inside lacquer shall be in good condi-tion.

3. Brine:

3.1 The brine, if used, shall be clear and shall not be discoloured.



4. Packing and Labelling:

4.1 Only material of the same species shall be packed in a can.

4.2 The lables, if used, shall be in accordance with rules and regulations of thecountry to which the material is to be exported.

5. Drained Weight and Size Grade:

5.1 The net drained weight of contents shall not be less then the declared weight.

5.2 The size count (number of pieces per unit weight) shall conform to the sizegrade declared on the can.

6. Organoleptic Quality:

6.1 The contents of the can on opening shall present a good appearance andshall not display any appreciable disintegration. Pieces from which portionshave separated out would be treated as disintegrated shrimps.

6.2 The surface of the prawns shall not be slimy to the touch. The meat shall besoft but firm and shall not crumble to granular forms when pressed betweenfingers.

6.3 The prawn pieces shall not appear to be pressed together and it should bepossible to separate the pieces easily. The pieces shall be of uniform sizeand shall be clean and free from loose hanging pieces of meat.

6.4 The material shall have the odour and flavour of fresh and cooked prawnmeat and shall be free fro scorched, bitter or any other objectionate flavour.

6.5 The material shall be free from pale bleached colour with a greenish yellowtint indicative of pre-processed spoilage. The material shall also be freefrom any black discolouration.

6.6 The material shall be free from sand, dirt, insect, hair or any other extraneousmatter. It shall be reasonably free bits of veins,shall particles and pieces ofappendages.

6.7 The material shall be free from any poisonous and deleterious substances.

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6.8 The cans on opening shall not give any odour, indicative of bacterial spoil-age, shall not show liquilation of contents and shall not show blackening.

6.9 The product shall also conform to the following requirements:

TABLE 15.6

Sl. Characteristics Requirements Method of Test Ref: ToNo. Appendix Appendix

in IS: 2236- in IS: 21681968* * 1971*

1 2 3 4 5

I) Vaccum of the can in mm Hg. min 100 AII) Drained weight of the contents of the

can, as percentage by weight of thewater capacity of the can, min 64 B

III) Sodium chloride in brineper cent (W/V) max. 3.5 C

IV) Acidity of brine as 0.06 tocitric acid (anhydrous per cent (W/V) 0.20 D

V) Arsenic, parts per million, max: 1 - BVI) Lead, parts per million, max: 5 - CVII) Copper, parts per million, max: 10 - DVIII) Zinc. parts per million, max: 50 - EIX) Tin, parts per million, max: 250 - F

* Specification for Pomfret canned in oil.** Specification for Prawns/Shrimps canned in brine (First Revision)

7. Bacteriological Requirments:

7.1 The initial incubation of the sampled cans shall be done at 37 10C for sevendays or 35 1 0C for ten days. After this incubation, necessary quantity of theliquid protion is asceptically pipetted out and inoculated into thioglycollatecystine broth and incubated at 37 10C for 48 hours. The incubated brothshall not show bacterial growth.



8. Coding:

8.1 The can shall be embossed with the marking of grade, size, drained weight,name of the manufacturer, or his factory code, year, month and batch ofmanufacture. An illustration for embossing the code in the abbreviated formis given below:

T5 X4 B 05

‘15’ stands for ‘Tiny’ packed with 5 oz. drained weight, ‘X’ stands for the name ofthe manufacturer in the abbreviated form or the factory code, ‘4’ stands for the year ofmanufacture and in this illustration it signifies year 1994 ‘B’ stands for the month ofmanufacture (here it signifies the month of February) and ‘05’ stands for the date of manu-facture during the month. In case PUD material is used for canning, the letter ‘U’ shall beembossed prior to the marking for size grade. For the purpose of denoting the size gradeand the drained weight, the following nomenclature shall be followed:

TABLE 15.7.Size-Grade*:________________________________________________________________

Nomenclature Count/100gms Abbreviation________________________________________________________________Colossal/Supreme Jumbo Below 8 C/SJJumbo 9 to 13 JLarge 14 to 22 LMedium 23 to 36 MSmall 37 to 63 STiny 64 to 102 TCocktail/Mini/Sealed 103 to above CT/MI/SDBroken/Whole & Broken No limit B/WB________________________________________________________________

*Pack having more than 10% broken pieces by weight irrespective of the totalnumber of pieces in the can shall be treated as ‘Broken’ grade. Any individualShrimp piece showing less than 4 segments shall be treated as a broken piece.

(B) Drained Weight:Except in the case of 4.5 oz. pack, which being the standard pack, the actual

drained weight shall be embossed in oz. on the cans.

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(C) The month of manufacture shall be designated as:

TABLE 15.8.______________________________________________________________________

Month Abbreviation Month Abbreviation______________________________________________________________________

January A July GFebruary B August HMarch C September JApril D Octomber KMay E November LJune F December M______________________________________________________________________

15.3.2. Specifications for crab meat canned in brine or any other internation-ally approved medium

1. Raw material:

1.1 The meat used for canning shall be obtained from healthy, freshlycaught, crabs of the species Scylla Serrata, Portunus Pelagicus,Neptunus Pelagicus and Neptunus Sanquinolentus.

2. Cans:

2.1 The material shall be packed in suitable internally and uniformly lac-quered cans. The cans may also be lacquered externally. The lacquerused shall be such that it does not impart any foreign unpleasent tasteto the contents of the can and does not peel off during processing andstorage. The lacquer shall not be soluble in brine to any extant. Thecan interior shall be free from major dents, rust, perforations and seamdistortions.

2.2 The cans after sealing hermetically shall not show leaking, panellingor swell. The interior of the can on opening shall not show any visibleblack/bluish discolouration, rusting or pitting. The inside lacquer shallbe in good condition.



3. Brine:

3.1 Vaccum dried salt or common salt conforming to IS: 594 - 1962 shallbe used be used for preparing brine. The sodium chloride content ofthe brine, if used shall not exceed 2% W/V, maximum.

3.2 Acidity of brine as Citric acid (Anhydrous) shall be .20% W/V, maxi-mum.

4. Packing and Labelling:

4.1 Crab meat shall be packed using parchment paper lining.

4.2 The body meat and claw meat of the crab shall be packed accordingto the terms of contract agreed upon between the buyer and seller.

In the absence of contractual specification, the claw meat shall bepacke on the top and at the bottom in distinctly separate layers.

4.3 Only the meat of one species of crab shall be packed in a particularcan. The meat obtained from crabs caught from back waters and seashall not be mixed or packed in a particular can.

5. Drained Weight:

5.1 The net water capacity of the can shall be as per the requirements ofthe importing country.

5.2 The drained weight of the meat shall not be less than the declaredweight.

6. Requirements for Finished Products:

6.1 The content of the can on opening shall present the characteristiccolour and odour of crab meat and shall not give any foreign odour.

223

6.2 The material shall be free from scorched, bitter or any objectionableflavour.

6.3 The material shall be free from stain, dirt, insect, hair or any otherextraneous matter. It shall be free from veins, membrane, shell par-ticles and pieces of appendages.

6.4 The material shall be free bluish/black colour.

6.5 The material shall be free from any poisonous and deleterious sub-stance.

6.6 Crab meat canned in brine should conform to the following require-ments also:

TABLE 15.9. REQUIREMENTS FOR CRAB MEAT CANNED IN BRINE______________________________________________________________________

Sl.No.Characteristic Limits Method of testRef: to Appendix ofIS: 7143 - IS: 2236 -1973* 1968**

______________________________________________________________________

(1) Vaccum in can in mm. Hg. Min: 150 - A

(2) Sodium Chloride in brineper cent by weight, max: 2% - C

(3) Acidity of brine as citricacid (anhydrous) per cent(W/V), max: 0.2% - D

(4) Acid insoluble ash, per centby weight max: 2% A -

_____________________________________________________________________

* Specifications for Crab Meat canned in brine.

** Specifications for Prawns/ Shrimps canned inbrine (First revision).



TABLE 15.10. LIMITS OF METALLIC IMPURITIES IN CRAB MEAT CANNEDIN BRINE______________________________________________________________________

Sl.No. Characteristic Limits Method of testRef: to Appendix in

IS: 2168-1971*______________________________________________________________________

(1) Arsenic, ppm. max: 1 B(2) Lead, ppm. max: 5 C(3) Copper, ppm. max: 10 D(4) Zinc, ppm. max: 50 E(5) Tin, ppm. max: 250 F______________________________________________________________________

*Specifications for Pomfret canned in oil (First revision)

7. Bacteriological requirements:

The initial incubation of the sampled cans shall be done at 37 10 forseven days or at 35 10c for then days. After this initial incubation, thebrine of the cans, on inoculation in to thioglycollate cystine broth andincubation at 37 0 10c for 40 hours, shall not show any sign of bacte-rial growth.

8. Coding

8.1 The cans shall be embossed with the markings of the drained weight,name of the manufacturer or his factory code and year, month and dateof manufacture. An illustation for embossing the code in the abbrevi-ated form is given below:

C B 5 X4 B05

In the above illustration, ‘CB’ stands for Crab Meat canned in brine,“5” stands for drained weight and in this illustration, it signifiles 5 oz. drainedweight, “X” stands for the name of the manufacture and in this illustration,it signifies the year 1994, “B” stands for the month of manufacture and, in

225

this illustration, it signifiles month of February and “05” stands for the dateof manufacture during the month.

TABLE 15.11. The month of manufacture shall be designated as:______________________________________________________________________

Month Abbreviation Month Abbreviation______________________________________________________________________

January A July GFebruary B August HMarch C September JApril D October KMay E November LJune F December M________________________________________________________________

8.2 Drained Weight:

Except in the case of 4.5 oz. pack, which being the standard pack, theactual drained weight shall be embossed in oz. on the cans.

15.3.4. General conditions of hygiene

1. General conditions of hygiene applicable to premises and equipment:

1.1 Floors, walls and partitions, ceilings or roof linings, equipment andinstruments used for working on fishery products must be kept in asatisfactory state of cleanliness and repair, so that they do not consti-tute a source of contamination for the products.

1.2 Rodents, insects and any other vermin must be systematically exter-minated in the premises of in the equipments. Rodenticides, insecti-cides, disinfectents and any other potentially toxic substances mustbe stored in premises or cupboards which can be locked; their usemust not presentany risk of contamination of the product.

1.3 Working areas, instruments and working equipment must be used onyfor work on fishey products. However, on authorization by the com-



petent authority authority they, may be used for work on other food-stuffs also.

1.4 Potable water or clean seawater must be used for all purposes. How-ever, by way of an exception, non potable water may be used forsteam production, fire-lighting and the cooling of refrigeration equip-ment, provided that the pipes installed for the purpose preclude theuse of such water for other purposes and present no risk of contami-nation of the products.

1.5 Detergents, disinfectants and similar substances must be approved bythe competent authority and used in such a way that they do not haveadverse effects on the machinery, equipment and products.

15.3.5. General conditions of hygiene applicable to staff:

2. The highest possible standard of cleanliness is required of staff. More specifically

2.1. Staff must wear suitable clean working clothes and headgear which completelyencloses the hair. This applies particularly to persons handling exposed fisheryproducts.

2.2. Staff assigned to the handling and preparation of fishery products must be requiredto wash their hand atleast each time work is resumed. Wounds on the hands must becovered by a water proof dressing.

2.3. Smoking, spitting, eating and drinking in work and storage premises of fisheryproducts must be prohibited.

The employer shall take the requisite measures to prevent persons liable to con-taminate fishery products from working on and handing them, until there is evi-dence that such persons can do so without risk.

When recruited, any person working on and handing fishery products shall be re-quired to prove, by a medical certificate, that there is no impediment to such em-ployment. The medical supervision of such a person shall be governed by the na-tional legislation in force.

15.3.6. Special conditions for handling fishery products on shore

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15.3.6.1. Conditions for fresh products.

1. Where chilled, unpackaged products are not dispatched, prepared orprocessed immediately after reaching the establishment, they mustbe stored under ice in the establishment cold room, re-icing must becarried out as often as is necessary; the ice used, with or without saltmust be made from potable water or clean seawater and be storedunder hygienic conditions in receptacles provided for the purpose;such receptacles must be kept clean and in good state of repair.Prepacked fresh products must be chilled with ice or mechanical re-frigeration plant creating similar temperature conditions.

2. If they are not carried out on board, operations such as heading andgutting must be carried out hygienically. The products must be washedthoroughly with potable water or clean seawater immediately aftersuch operations.

3. Operations such as filleting and slicing must be carried out in such away as to avoid the contamination or spoilage of fillets and in a placeother than that used for heading and gutting operations. Fillets andslices must not remain on work tables any longer than is necessaryfor their preparation. Fillets and slices to be sold fresh must be chilledas quickly as possible after preparation.

4. Guts and parts that may constitute a danger to public health must beseparated from and removed from the vicinity of products intendedfor human consumption.

5. Containers used for the despatch or storage of fresh products must bedesigned in such a way as to ensure both their protection from con-tamination and their preservation under hygienic conditions and moreparticularly they must provide adequate drainage of melt water.

6. Unless special facilities are provided for the continuous disposal ofwaste, the latter must be placed in leakproof, covered containers whichare easy to clean and disinfect.



Waste must not be allowed, to accumulate in working areas. It mustbe removed either continuosly or as soon as the containers are full. Atthe end of each working day the waste containers shall be shitted topremises intended for storage of such containers. The containers, re-ceptacles and/or premises set aside for waste must always be thor-oughly cleaned and, if appropriate, disinfected after use. Waste storedthere must not constitute a source of contamination for the establish-ment or of pollution of its surroundings.

15.3.6.2 Conditions for frozen products.

1. Plants must have;

1.1 freezing equipment sufficiently powerful to achieve a rapid reductionin the temperature so that the temperatures laid down in this notifica-tion can be obtained in the product.

1.2 freezing equipment sufficiently powerful to keep products in storagerooms at a temperature not exceeding those laid down in this notifi-cation, whatever the ambient temperature may be.

However, for technical reasons related to the method of freezing andto the handling of such products, for whole fish frozen in brine andintended for canning, higher temperatures than those laid down inthis notification are acceptable although they may not exceed -90C.

2. Fresh products to be frozen or quick frozen must comply with therequirement of Section-I of this Annexure.

3. Storage rooms must have a temperature recording device in a placewhere it can easily be read. The temperature sensor of the recordermust be located in the area farthest away from the cold source, i.e.where the temperature in the storage room is the highest. Tempera-ture charts must be available for inspection by the supervisory au-thorities atleast during the period in which the products are stored.

15.3.6.3. Conditions for thawing products.Establishment that carry out thawing operations must comply withthe following requirement:

229

1. Fishery products must be thawed under hygienic conditions; their con-tamination must be avoided and there must be adequate drainage forany melt water produced;

During thawing, the temperature of the products must not increaseexcessively.

2. After thawing, fishery products must be handled in accordance withthe requirements of this notification. when they are prepared or pro-cessed, these operations must be carried out without delay.

15.3.6.4. Conditions for processed products.

1. Fresh, frozen and thawed products used for processing must complywith the requirements of Sections I or II of this Annexure.

2. Where the processing treatment is carried out to inhibit the develop-ment of pathogenic micro-organisms, or if it is a significant factor inthe preservation of the product, the treatment must be scientificallyrecognised by the lawin force and/or approved by the competent au-thority.

The person responsible for an establishment must keep a register ofthe processing carried out. Depending on the type of process em-ployed, heating time and temperature, salt content, pH, water contentetc. must be monitored and controlled. Records must be kept atleastfor the expected storage life of the products and be available to thecompetent authority.

3. For products which are preserved for a limited period by a treatmentsuch as salting, smoking, drying or marinating, the appropriate con-ditions for storage must be clearly marked on the packaging.

4. CanningIn the case of fishery products which have been subjected to steriliza-tion in hermetically sealed containers.



4.1 The waste used for the preparations of cans must be potable water;

4.2 The process used for the heat treatment must be appropriate havingregard to such major criteria as the heating time, temperature, filling,size of containers, etc., a record of which must be kept; the heattreatment must becapable of destroying or inactivating pathogenicorganisms and the spores of pathogenic micro-organisms. The heat-ing equipment must be fitted with devices for verifying whether thecontainers have in fact undergone appropriate heat treatment. Potablewater must be used to cool containers after heat treatment, withoutprejudice to the presence of any chemical additives used in accor-dance with good technological practice to prevent corrosion of theequipment and containers;

4.3 Further checks must be carried out at random by the manufaturer toensure that the processed products have undergone appropriate heattreatment, viz;

Incubation Test; incubation must be carried out at 37 10C for sevendays or at 35 10C for ten days;

Microbiological examination of contents and containers in theestablishment’s laboratory or in another approved laboratory;

4.4 Samples must be taken of production each day at predetermined in-tervals, to ensure the efficiency of sealing. For that purpose appropri-ate equipment must be available for the examination of cross sectionsof the can-seams;

4.5 Checks are carried out in order to ensure that containers are not dam-aged;

4.6 All containers which have undergone heat treatment under practi-cally identical conditions must be given a batch identification mark.

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5. Smoking

Smoking must be carried out in separate premises or a special placeequipped, if necessary, with a ventilation system to prevent the smokeand heat from the combusion from affecting other premises or placeswhere fishery producs are prepared, processed or stored.

5.1 Materials used to produce smoke for the smoking of fish must bestored away from the place of smoking an\d must be used in such away that they do not contaminate the products.

5.2 Materials used to produce smoke by burning wood that has beenpainted, varnished, glued or has undergone any chemical preserva-tion treatment must be prohibited.

5.3 After smoking, products must be cooled rapidly to the temperaturerequired for their preservation before being packaged.

6. Salting:

6.1 Salting operations must take place in different premises and suffi-ciently removed from the premises where the other operations arecarried out.

6.2 Salt used in the treatment of fishery products must be clean and storedin such a way as to preclude contamination. It must not be re-used.

6.3 Any container used for salting or brining must be constructed in sucha way as to preclude contamination during the salting or brining pro-cess.

6.4 Containers or areas used for salting or brining must be cleaned beforeuse.

7. Cooked crustaceans and molluscan shellfish products.

Crustaceaus and molluscan shellfish must be cooked as follows:



7.1 Any cooking must be followed by rapid cooling; water used for thispurpose must be potable water or clean sea water. If no other methodof preservation is used, cooling must continue untill the temperatureapproaching that of melting ice is reached.

7.2 Shelling or shucking must be carried out under hygienic conditionsavoiding the contamination of the product. Where such operationsare done by hand, workers mut pay particular attention to the wash-ing of their hands and all working surfaces must be cleaned thor-oughly. If machines are used, they must be cleaned at frequent inter-vals and disinfected after each working day. After shelling or shuck-ing, cooked products must immediately be frozen or kept chilled at atemperature which will preclude the growth of pathogens and be storedin appropriate premises.

7.3 Every manufacturer must carry out micro-biological checks on hisproduction at regular intervals, complying with the standards.

8. Mechanically recovered fish flesh.

8.1 Mechanical recovery of gutted fish must take place without unduedelay after filleting, using raw materials free of guts. Where wholefish are used, they must be gutted and washed before hand;

8.2 The machinery must be cleaed at frequent intervals and atleast everytwo hours;

8.3 After recovery, mechanically recovered flesh must be frozen as quicklyas possible or incorporated in a product intended for freezing or es-tablishing treatment.

15.3.6.5. Conditions concerning parasites.1. During production and before they are released for human consump-

tion, fish and fishery products must be subject to a visual inpectionfor the purpose of detecting and removing any parasites that are vis-ible. Fish or parts of fish which are obviously infested with parasites,and which are removed, must not be packed for human consumption.

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2. The fish and fishery products referred to in point 3 which are to beconsumed as they are, must, in addition, be subjected to freezing at atemperature of not more than -200C in all parts of the product for notless than 24 hours. Products subjected to this freezing process mustbe either raw or finished.

3. Fish and fishery products subject to the conditions in point 2;

3.1 Fish to be consumed raw or almost raw, e.g. raw herring ‘Maatje’.

3.2 The following species, if they are to undergo a cold smoking processat which the internal temperature of the fish is less than 600C

- mackerel- sprat

3.3 Marinated and/or salted herring where this process is insufficient todestroy the larvae of nematodes.

Criteria shall be laid down which must enable the process which aredeemed sufficient or insufficient to destroy nematodes to be defined.

4. Manufacturers must ensure that fish and fishery products listed inpoint 3 or the raw materials for use in their manufacture are subjectedto the treatment described in point 2, prior to their release for con-sumption.

15.3.7. Health control and monitoring of production conditions

15.3.7.1. General Monitoring:

The competent authority shall make adequate arrangements for check-ing and monitoring in order to establish that the requirement laid downin these rules are complied with.

Such arrangements shall include in particular:-



1. a suitable check on the fishing vessels, on the understanding that suchchecks may be carried out during the stay of the vessel in port;

2. a suitable check on the conditions of landing and fish sale;

3. suitable checks on harvesting, transport, relaying and purification ar-eas of bivalve molluses of pre processing and processing centres.

4. an inspection, at regular intervals, of establishment to check in par-ticular;

(a) whether pre processed material has been procured from pre process-ing premises having adequate hygienic conditions; and valid regis-tration with MPEDA

(b) whether the conditions for approval are still fulfilled;

(c) whether the fresh, frozen and processed fish and fishery products arehandled correctly;

(d) whether the cleanliness of the premises facilities and instruments andstaff hygiene are maintained;

(e) whether identification marks are put on correctly.

5. A check on storage and transport conditions.

15.3.7.2. Special checks:

1. Organoleptic checks

The competent authority shall carry out inspection at the time of land-ing or before first sale and also during subsequent stages of process-ing, storage and transport to check whether the products are fit forhuman consumption. The inspection shall comprise of organolepticchecks carried out by sampling.

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1.1 If the Organoleptic examination reveals that the fishery products arenot fit for human consumption, measures shall be taken to withdrawthem from sale and to dispose them off in such a way that the rejectedmaterial is not used for export.

1.2 If the organoleptic examination reveals any doubt as to the freshnessof the fishery products, use may be made of chemical checks or mi-crobiological analysis.

2. Parasite checks

Before they are released for human consumption, fish and fisheryproducts must be subjected to a visual inspection by way of sample,for the purpose of detecting any parasites that are visible. Fish orparts of fish which are obviously infested with parasites and whichare removed shall be disposed of in such a way that such material isnot used for export.

3. Histamine check

Wherever necessary samples shall be drawn and tested for Histaminecontent.Nine samples must be taken from each batch. This must fulfil thefollowing requirements:

- The mean value must not exceed 100 ppm;

- Two samples may have a value of more than 100 ppm, but less than200 ppm;

- No sample may have a value exceeding 200 ppm.These limits apply only to fish species of the follwoing families;Scombridae and Clupeidae. However, fish belonging to these fami-lies which have undergone enzyme ripening treatment in brine mayhave higher histamine levels but not more that twice the above value.Examinations must be carried out in accordance with reliable, scien-tifically recognised metheods such as high-performance liquid chro-matography (HPLC).



4. Contaminants present in the aquatic environment

Without prejudice to the rules concerning water protection and man-agement and in particular those concerning pollution of the aquaticenvironment, the fishery products must not contain in their edibleparts contaminants present in the aquatic environment such as heavymetals and organochlorinated substances at such a level that the cal-culated dietary intake exceeds the acceptable daily or weekly intakefor humans.

A monitoring system must be established by the competent authorityto check the level of contamination of fishery products.

5. Microbiological analysis

Wherever necessary samples shall be drawn and tested for microbio-logical factors.

Sampling plans, methods of analysis and acceptance criterias for thispurpose shall be.

(a) As per the requirements of importing countriesor

(b) As per the Manual of Analytical Methods for Fish and FisheryProducts issued by the Quality Development centre, Madras.

15.3.8. Packaging

1. Packaging must be carried out under satisfactory conditions of hy-giene to preclude contamination of the fishery products.

2. Packaging materials and products liable to enter into contact withfishery products must comply with all the rules of hygiene and inparticular.

- They must not be such to impair the orgenoleptic charactaristic of thefishery products.

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- They must not be capable of transmitting to the fishery product sub-stances harmful to human health;

- They must be strong enough to protect the fishery products adequately.

3. Boxes/Containers used for carring of raw materials to the processingplant shall not be used to store the accepted raw materials and also insubsequent processing, such Boxes/sontainers shall be identifiableby suitable colour or marks.

4. With the exception of certain boxes/containers made of impervious,smooth and corrosion resistant material which are easy to clean anddisinfect, which may be re-used after claening and disinfecting, pack-aging materials may not be re-used. Packaging materials used for freshproducts held under ice must provide adequate drainage for melt wa-ter.

5. Unused packaging materials must be stored in premises away fromthe production area and be protected from dust and contamination.

15.3.9. Storage and transport

1. Fresh, Frozen and Processed Fish and Fishery Products must, duringstorage and transport, be kept at the temperature laid down in thisnotification and in particular:-

- Fresh or thawed fishery products and cooked and chilled crustaceanand molluscan shellfish products must be kept at the temperature ofmelting ice;

- Frozen Fisheries Products with the exceptionof frozen fish in brineintended for the manufacture of canned foods, must be kept at aneven temperature of -180C or less in all parts of the product, allowingfor the possibility of brief upward fluctuations of not more than 30C,during transport;



- Processed products must be kept at the temperature speciied by themanufacturer, when the circumstances so require.

2. Where frozen fishery products are transported from a cold storage/plant to an approved establishement to be thawed on arrival for thepurposes of preparation and/or processing and where the distance tobe covered is short, not exceeding 50 km., or 1 hour journey the com-petent authority may grant a derogation from the conditions laid downin point 1 second para.

3. Products may not be stored or transported with other products whichmay contaminate them or affect their hygiene, unless they are pack-aged in such a way as to provide satisfactory protection.

4. Vehicles used for the transport of fishery products must be constructedand equipped in such a way that the temperature laid down in thisnotification can be maintained through out the period of transport. Itice is used to chill the products, adequate drainage must be providedin order to ensure that water from melted ice does not stay in contactwith the products. The inside surfaces of the means of transport mustbe finished in such a way that they do not adversely affect the fresh,frozen and processed fish and fishery products. They must be smoothand easy to clean and disinfect.

5. Means of transport used for fresh, frozen and processed fish and fish-ery products may not be used for transporting other products likely toimpair or contaminate fishery products, except when fishery prod-ucts can be guaranteed uncontaminated as a result of such transportbeing thoroughly cleaned and disinfected.

6. Fresh, frozen and processed fish and fishery products may not betransported in a vehicle or container which is not clean or which shouldhave been disinfected.

7. The transport conditions of Fresh, Frozen and Processed Fish andFishery Products to be exported shall be such that they do not ad-versely affect the products.

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15.3.10. General principles

It is recommended that a model of a logical approach be followed, ofwhich the following principles form the essential components:

- Identification of hazards, analysis of risks and determination of mea-sures necessary to control them;

- Identification of critical points;- Establishment of critical limits for each critical point;- Establishment of corrective action to be taken when necessary;- Establishment of monitoring and checking procedures;- Establishment of verification and review procedures;- Establishment of documentation concerning all procedures and

records;

Such a model, or the principles on which it is based, should be usedwith the flexibility appropriate to each situation.

SUMMARY

The diversified range of exports now cover canned shrimp/fish, sev-eral items in frozen form such as headless and head on shrimp, PUD andPD, and several value-added products such as peeled tail-on shrimp, peeledtail on stretched, butterfly tail-on shrimp, blanched/boiled peeled shrimp,breaded round shrimp, squid rings, squid tubes, stuffed tubes, peeled squids,cuttle fish fillets, dried squid, head-on squid whole fish, fish fillets surimi,shark fins, shark meat, live crabs, crab meat, fish maws, Becha-demer, driedfishes, particularly Bombay Duck, ribbon fish, masmeen, and quite a fewother products. IQF and Accelerated/Freeze Dried products have alsobecome an important part of exports. India got more than 600 crores byexporting 4,21,000 tonns of aquaproducts during 2000-01.

QUESTIONS

1. Give an account on export of aqua - products?2. Describe the characteristics of fish trade?3. Describe the quality control measures during the export?4. List out the employment opportunities in fisheries sector?



GLOSSARY

By Product A substance obtained during the manufacture of a mainproduct.

Canned Fish Fish packed in containers which have been hermeticallysealed and sufficiently heated to destroy or inactive all micro-organismsthat will grow at any temperature at which the product is likely to beheld and that will cause spoilage or that might be harmful.

Chill Storage Storage at temperature of melting ice (00C).

Chilled Fish Fish kept at or close to the temperature of melting ice (00

C/320 F) but not frozen. Also called wet fish.

Cod Liver Meal Made on a very small scale in some areas by dryingthe residues from cod liver oil manufacuture. Used as animal feedingstuff, in Japan also made from other species than cold.

Cod Liver Oil Oil extracted from livers of cod and sometimes othersuitable gadoids such as heddock.

Cod Liver Paste Edible paste made from cod livers with spices andother flavouring ingredients.

Dressed Crab White and brown meat extracted from the cooked wholecrab, seasoned and laid out attractively in the cleaned carapace shell,marketed fresh or frozen, also canned (in Norway for canned dressedcrab minimum crab contect is 90% of weight).

Dressed Fish Fish ready prepared for cooking or special preparationfor good presentation, also called pan-ready, kitchen ready fish.

Dried salted Fish Fish preserved by the combination of salting anddrying, applies, mostly to non fatty fish particularly cod, ling coal fish,haddock, hake and tusk.

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Fermented Fish Sauce Liquid made through fermenting of whole fishby their own enzymes (e.g. the gastric juices) and by certain micro-organisms in presence of salt.

Fish Flakes Product prepared by headed and gutted white fish such ascod and haddock washed, brined and steamed, the bones removed andthe cooked flesh broken up into flakes and canned.

Fish glue Fish glue is prepared from different wastes, e.g. bones, scalesand fin etc. discarded during processing. These are washed, ground andcooked with acetic acid in stream, liquid is separated and condensed toform the fish glue, which is used as an adhesive for several purposes.

Fish Kill The sudden mortality in a fish stock; usually caused by lackof oxygen or poisoning never by disease.

Fish Meal Fish & Fish processing offal dried often after cooking andpressing (for fatty fish) and ground to give a dry, easily stored productthat is a valuable ingredient of animal feeding stuffs.

Fish Oils Oils of the drying and semidrying types extracted from all ofthe body of fish (Fish liver oils from liver only); They are extractedmainly from fatty fish e.g. Herring, the oil content is mainly in the bodyand not in the liver, may also be extracted from fish waste. Fish oils areused in the manufacture of edible fats, soaps, and paints for leather,dressing and Inoleum manufacture.

Fish Paste/Fish Spread Fish mixed with or without spices or otherflavouring ingredients, ground to the fine consistency of loweredmoisture content often with added fat used as sandwich spread.

Fish Pickles It is prepared by cutting the edible portion of the fish intosmall pieces, followed by deep frying in vegetable oil and aresubsequently mixed with vinegar and salt for preservation, along withfried condiments and species for flavour development. The material isthen generally kept for a minimum of 24 hrs for maturing before packing.This is a traditional product of the country and is now gaining popularity

GLOSSARY


in middle east countries.

Fish Pie Fish often minced and sometimes mixed with vegetablesparticularly potato and baked may have pastry casing.

Fish Portion A piece of fish cut to reasonable size for the individualfor retail sale, may be all or part of a Fillet, Steak, may be fresh, fried orfrozen.

Fish Protein Concentrate (FPC) Any stable fish preparation intentedfor human consumption in which the protein is more concentrated thanin the original fish, marketed in granular, powdered or solvent extraction.Two type exist i.e. A and B of which type A is odouless and colourlesswhile type B not principally due to different fat content (less than 1% intyhpe A, less than 10% in type B).

Fish Salad Cooked salted or marinated fish diced with spices, dicedonions, cucumbers, and vegetables mentioned for the type of salad mixedwith vinegar and edible oil or mayonnaise, minimum fish contents arefixed for various special types.

Fish Sausage Fish flesh ground with a small amount of fat seasoningand sometimes a cereal filler, packed into sausage casing. Sometimescooked, the contents may be smoked before filling the case, or the wholesausage smoked afterwards, may be sold skinless or with skin on. Tunameat is much used for sausage manufacture.

Fish Silage Liquefied fish or fish waste produced as a result of selfdigestion after the addition of acid or as a result of fermentation of thewaste mixed with molasses and yeast. The liquid silage can beconcentrated to bring the water content down from about 80% to 50%used for animal feeding usually in areas close to the point of manufacture.

Fish Soup Soup made from fish or other marine seasoning added andeventually served with flavouring vegetables, sometimes containingpieces of fish.

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Fish Stearin A solid produced by separating chilled fish oils, usedmainly for manufacture of lubricants and low grade soaps.

Fish Waste All parts of the fish discarded during processing for humanconsumption also called fish scrap, Fish offal. It is used for manufactureof fish meal and oil for the feeding to pets, fur-bearing animals andhatchery fish and for the manufacture of a variety of by productsincluding, pearl essence, isinglass, gluee proteins, vitamins.

Flake A soft form of ice used in processing delicate crustacean flesh.

Isinglass Isinglass is obtained from the inner silvery layer of the airbladder of certain fishes. This layer is separated from the outer thickand fibrous layer of the bladder and treated to produce the isinglass. Itis very similar to gelatin because it swells but does not dissolve in water.It is used in confectionary as a substitute of gelatin, in the preparationof adhsives and plasters and as an agent in beer and vinegar industries.

Ivory Marine sources of ivory are the toothed whales and the walrus.

Liquid Manure Animal waste from intensive animal husbandry units,where no bedding material is used. It is usually collected as a slurry.

Salted Cured Fish Fish preserved or brine may or may not be driedafterwards.

Sharp Frozen Fish Fish that has been frozen usually be laying it out ina low temperature cold store or on refrigerated shelves, has no precisedefinition and its use should be discouraged.

Shell Fish Term embracing both aquatic molluscs and curstaceans.

Shell On Processing term meaning with the outer skin (exoskeleton)left in place.

Shell valve One of the parts of the myxosporean spore wall.

GLOSSARY


Shidal Butki Sundried fish immersed in water drained and packed withfish oil in containers which are buried in the ground for several months.

Shiokara Fermented fish product made from squid or guts of skipjack,also other species brown salty viscous paste made by fermenting theraw material with salt in containers for upto a month, product packed inglass or plastic containers. (Japan).

Surimi Mechanically de-boned washed and stabilized white fish fleshwhich is flavoured and extruded to form analogue products such as‘shrimp tails’ and ‘crab sticks.’

Value Added Processing or presenting crustacean, fish flesh in a moreattractive way to increase its market value.

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BIBLOGRAPHY

1. Fisheries and AquacultureRavi Shankar PiskaLahari Publications, Hyderabad.

2. Concepts of AquacultureRavi Shankar PiskaLahari Publications, Hyderabad.

3. The Wealth of India, Raw MaterialsVol.IVFish and FisheriesCSIR, New Delhi.

4. Aquaculture development, progress and prospectsPillay, T.V.R.Fishing news books.

5. Fish Processing and PreservationCharls L. CuttingAgro Botanical Publishers (India)

6. Fish Processing in IndiaM.N. MoorjaniICAR, New Delhi,

7. Fish and Fish ProductsWinton and WintonAllied Scientific Publisher

8. Postharvest Technology of Fish and Fish ProductsK.K. BalachandranDaya Publishing House

9. Fish and FisheriesV.G. JhingranHindustan Publishing Company

CONTENTS

Page1 Introduction for Capture

fisheries and Post harvest technology 1-62. Classification of Fisheries 7-83. Capture fishery resources in

India and A.P 9-114. Riverine fisheries 12-195. Cold water and sport fisheries 20-276. Reservoir Fisheries,

Management of Reservoir Fisheries 28-407. Over fishing and effect of dams

and barrages on fisheries and fish migration. 41-458. Fishing craft and gear, gear material,

fabrication of gear and gear preservation. 46-799. Fishing methods 80-10010. Fish processing and preservation 101-11711. By products and value addition

for fishery products 118-14512. Marketing and Marketing intermediaries 146-16513. Fishery Economics - Socio-Economic

status of the fisher folk and co-operatives 166-18314. Government policies and

programmes, employment generation 184-19915. Export and Quality Control 200-23916. Glossary

CAPTURE FISHERIESAND POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY

(Fisheries)

AUTHOR

Dr. S. Jithender Kumar NaikAssociate professor of ZoologyUniversity College for Women

Osmania University, KotiHyderabad – 500 195

Dr. Ravi Shankar PiskaAssociate professor of ZoologyUniversity College of Science

Osmania UniversityHyderabad – 500 007

EDITOR

Dr. Ravi Shankar PiskaAssociate professor of ZoologyUniversity College of Science

Osmania UniversityHyderabad – 500 007

Capture Fisheries and Post Harvest Technology

Documents

Transcript of Capture Fisheries and Post Harvest Technology