Campbell's Paradigm

Campbell's ParadigmA teleological not a causal

(environmental) attitude-behavior link

Florian G. KaiserOtto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg

Presentation at the British Psychological Society Seminar "The Psychology of Sustainability" at the University of Surrey, January 27, 2011

Acknowledgment

Terry HartigWes SchultzMark WilsonGary EvansCees MiddenJaime BerenguerAnders BielHeinz Gutscher

Renate CervinkaFranz BognerGundula Hübner Carmen TannerUrs FuhrerEinar StrumseVictor Corral-Verdugo und einige mehr

Katarzyna ByrkaAntal HaansJacqueline FrickHannah ScheuthleNina RoczenAdrian BrüggerKarin SmoldersBritta Oerke

ColleaguesStudents

• Attitudes: Definition & Measurement– once: key concept to psychologically explain behavior– still: central in applied research - environmental psychology

• Misconceptions w/in the Behavior-Explanation Paradigm– #1: complex multifactorial behavior models

…within a heterogeneous set of behavioral classes– #2: limited behavior relevance – even a gap– #3: moderated attitude-behavior relationship– #4: "evaluative inconsistency"

• Campbell's Paradigm: Alternative Set of Axiomatic Beliefs– recollection of an atypical notion of what attitudes are– message: attitude & behavior - not two but one

• Specifically: Environmental Attitude & Behavior

Today's Presentation

This [the Campbell paradigm] does not work, however

If we treat attitudes as behaviors, we cannot address one of the central questions of attitude research, including environmental attitudes: What

is the nature of the relationship, if any, between attitudes and behavior? To equate the two, causes this central question to evaporate… and

repudiates decades of research tradition within the study of attitudes

A Typical Response to the Campbell Paradigm

Alice Eagly & Shelly Chaiken (1993)

Definition & Measurement of Attitudes

A PSYCHOLOGICAL TENDENCY that is expressed by evaluatinga particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor

Evaluative statements e.g.:

I would prefer, if no [...]came to live in my neighborhood. I felt somewhat anxious, if I danced with a [...] in public.

attitude

behavior

verbal behavior

verbal behavior

"actual" behavior

verbal behaviorobject/entity:

STRENGTH OF AN ASSOCIATIONbetween an evaluation and an object

Russell Fazio (2008)

(1)

(2)

THEORY OF TRYINGRichard P. Bagozzi &Paul R. Warshaw (1990)

PROTOTYPE/WILLINGNESS MODELFrederick X. Gibbons, Meg Gerard,Hart Blanton, & Daniel W. Russell (1998)

THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIORIcek Ajzen (1991)

attitude

behavior

attitude

behavior

attitudebehavior

HEALTH ACTION PROCESS APPROACHRalf Schwarzer (2008)

attitude2

behavior

attitude3

attitude1Behavior-ExplanationParadigm: Separation of…

Behavior-Explanation in Environmental Psychology

META-THEORETICAL SYNTHESISSebastian Bamberg & Guido Möser (2007)

THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIORIcek Ajzen (1991)

VALUE-BELIEF-NORM THEORIEPaul Stern (2000)

29%

22 Studien29 unabhängige Stichproben175 < N < 8516

attitude

behavior

attitude behavior

attitude

behavior

Multifactorial, more or less complex behavior models

…even distinct for various pro-environmental behaviors

…often with rather limited explanatory power

Icek Ajzen & Martin Fishbein (2005)

Kaiser & Gutscher (2003) Kaiser, Schultz, & Scheuthle (2007)

Explaining Pro-Environmental Behaviorwithin the Theory of Planned Behavior

CONSISTENCYON THE GENERAL LEVEL

CONSISTENCYON THE SPECIFIC LEVEL

WHAT CAN BE EXPECTED?LITERAL CONSISTENCY - NO GAP

η2 = 91%.60

.35

.94

- η2 = 88%

incompatible model

.08ns

N = 787; age: 46.2; 58.0% femalesN = 895; age: 46.4; 54.7% females

Psychology the Science of Behavior:All or Only Special Kinds of Behavior?

Gluttony (psychological factor) CANNOT accountfor wearing hats (observable behavior),

but for holding hams (intentional behavior)Mental concepts can only but be relevant for intentional behavior

Werner Greve (2001)

aggressive behaviorantisocial behavior

deviant behaviorhyperactive behavior

transportation behaviorconsumption behavior

"bike riding"

competitive behaviorhealth behavior

pro-environmental behavior

Overt Behavior & Intentional BehaviorObservable, Overt Behavior

Intention, personal Goalwining/participating in a competition

reinforcing one's healthprotecting the environmental

Intentional, Goal-Directed Behavior

The Technical Challenge:Axiomatic Link Between Intention and Behavior

Werner Greve (2001)

Ultimately, psychology cannot attain betterthan predicting intentions

Psychological models, thus, must stop with intention

?

…because we, in psychology, cannot measure intentional behaviorw/o inquiring intentions

The Technical Challenge:Axiomatic Link Between Intention and Behavior

Werner Greve (2001)

Ultimately, psychology cannot attain betterthan predicting intentions

Psychological models, thus, must stop with intention

Measuring Intentional Behaviorw/o Inquiring Intentions

• Assumption: Pro-Environmental Intentions …show directly in people's pro-environmental actions …necessarily in multiple such behaviors

commuting by bike

owning solar panels

taking showers not bathsno convenience food

refraining from car use

recycling glass

active environmentalism


• The more Determined, the… …more and the more difficult…

B

easy

difficult

Acommuting by bike

owning solar panels



recycling glass



commuting by bike

owning solar panels

recycling glass

difficult

easy



• Engagement in a Difficult Act,… demands easier activities as well

X

√




• Engagement in a Difficult Act,… demands easier activities as well

• "Intentional Behavior"– a class of behaviors

(not single acts)– transitively ordered class

(if A>B and B>C then A>C)low high

Intention

difficult

easy

AB

C


Predicting Intentional Pro-Environmental Behaviorw/in the Theory of Planned Behavior

.60

.35

.94η2 =88%

.08ns

η2 =91%

-

• Good News for the Measure − intentions show in our behavior

measure (GEB) …nearly perfectly− possible to measure "intentional

behavior" w/o inquiring intentions

• "General Ecological Behavior"…homogenous, ordered class

− multiple successful model testsEJPA, PAID, JEP, JASP

Predicting Intentional Pro-Environmental Behaviorw/in the Theory of Planned Behavior

.60

.35

.94η2 =88%

.08ns

η2 =91%

-

• Good News for the Measure − intentions show in our behavior

measure (GEB) …nearly perfectly− possible to measure "intentional

behavior" w/o inquiring intentions

• "General Ecological Behavior"…homogenous, ordered class

− multiple successful model testsEJPA, PAID, JEP, JASP

• Bad News for Explanation− a trivial (i.e., a tautological)

behavior explanation− intention = intentional behavior

A ≈ Abehavioralintention

intentional behavior≈

Melvin L. DeFleur & Frank R. Westie (1963)

An INFERRED PROPERTY… [that] is equated with theprobability of recurrence of behavior forms of a given type or direction

Recollection of an Atypical Attitude Definition…and of Some Old but Fundamental Ideas

Attitude

Behavioral D

ifficulty

Donald T. Campbell (1963) high low

difficult

easy

Behavioral Class

TRANSITIVE ORDER OF BEHAVIORS DEFINITION OF INCONSISTENCY

…attitudes need challenge to show

inni

ni

pp

δθ -=1ln -pni: probability of person n to engage

in behavior iθn: Person n's general attitude levelδi: costs of behavior i (its difficulty)

The Campbell ParadigmExample: Environmental Attitude

• Environmental Attitude is Equated w/ the Probabilities……of the behaviors directed at environmental protection

• Likelihood of Engaging in Pro-Environmental Behavior……is an unmoderated function of one's environmental attitude…and of the specific behavioral difficulty (i.e., compound of all costs)

• Behavioral Means to Realize a Personal Protection Goal• Relation Mathematically Captured w/ Rasch Model

inni

ni

pp

δθ -=1ln -


pni: probability of person n to engage in behavior i

θn: Person n's general attitude levelδi: costs of behavior i (its difficulty)




pni: probability of person n to engage in behavior i

θn: Person n's general attitude levelδi: costs of behavior i (its difficulty)

inni

ni

pp

δθ -=1ln -





Implication: Unmoderated Efficacy of Attitudes

p (behavior)

attitudeextremely positivepositivenegativeextremely negative

low behavioral difficulty high

behavior = (attitude + behavioral difficulty)

attit

ude-

beha

vior

rela

tions

hip

0405060708090100

Unmoderated Efficacy of AttitudesDepicted Differently…

r (attitude-behavior) = const.independent of the behavioral difficulty

102030 0


0405060708090100

low-cost hypothesis

Status-Quo Environmental Attitude Research:Moderated Efficacy of Attitudes

r (attitude-behavior | behavioral difficulty)

challenge hypothesis

optimal conditions hypothesis

102030 0


attit

ude-

beha

vior

rela

tions

hip

0405060708090100

Diekmann & Preisendörfer (1998)

Schultz & Oskamp (1996)

Stern et al. (1995)

102030 0


attit

ude-

beha

vior

rela

tions

hip

Status-Quo Environmental Attitude Research:Moderated Efficacy of Attitudes

r (attitude-behavior | behavioral difficulty)

0

.2

.4

.6

.8

102030405060708090100 0

The Empirical Test:41 Attitude-Behavior Pairs

Kaiser & Schultz (2007)

5 studiesN = 3338; age: 46.5; 54.2% females

behavioral difficulty

attit

ude-

beha

vior

rela

tions

hip

p = .95 p = .05

0

.2

.4

.6

.8

102030405060708090100 0

0.54

behavioral difficulty

attit

ude-

beha

vior

rela

tions

hip

The Empirical Test:41 Attitude-Behavior Pairs

attitude behavior

Environmental Attitudes…Universally Effective Irrespective of the Behavior

Conclusions about the Attitude-Behavior Relationship?

Environmental Attitudes are Unconditionally(i.e., Universally) Behavior-Relevant…Irrespective of how Demanding a Behavior (Difficult)…as Implied by the Rasch Model

inni

ni

pp

δθ -=1ln -

…Which Leads to the Following Definition of Attitudes(within the Campbell Paradigm)…

commuting by bike

owning solar panels



recycling glass


the higher…, the more probable...

.23

.12

.94

.86

.67

.99

.59

environmental attitude

B

high

A

low

Redefinition of Environmental Attitude

.16

.05

.87

.75

.47

.93

.39

…recurrence probabilities of behaviors of a given class

inni

ni

pp

δθ += 1ln -

a specific difficulty-based transitive order of behaviors of a given class

(1)

(2)

• Axiomatic Attitude-Behavior Relationship equating attitudes with behaviors (engagement probabilities) mathematical formalization: Rasch model

• Individual Attitude Simultaneously……mental, latent, psychological entity (i.e., trait, propensity) and…material, objective reality as transitively ordered behavioral class one not two categories (Gilbert Ryle, "Concept of Mind" 1949)

…category mistake: mind does NOT inhabit and govern body

• Understandable as Teleological Not Causal Relationship as behavioral means to realize a personal protection goal

…irrespective of whether one is aware of the goal or not

• Non-trivial Consequence: "Evaluative Consistency" general attitude's relevance for specific behavior specific behavior's relevance for general attitude

Implications of Campbell's Paradigm


Russia-devotee

RUS decoration

EVALUATIVE INCONSISTENCY

Johnny Weir... The 21 year-old American figure skater [is] a great admirer of ... Russia ...; Weir is a Russia-devotee.At home in Newark, New Jersey, he owns a DVD about Russian culture and history. He learns Russian and during practice in Turin, Italy, he wears a sweater with the CCCP logo imprinted. His training's bag is tagged with a RUS sticker.

(Gijs van Oosten (Eindhovens Dagblad, Feb. 17, 2006, p. 18); translation and emphases fgk)

Evaluative Consistency - A Challengefor Behavior-Explanation Paradigm

Daryl J. Bem (1967)


Russia-devotee

RUS decoration

EVALUATIVE INCONSISTENCY

Johnny Weir... The 21 year-old American figure skater [is] a great admirer of ... Russia ...; Weir is a Russia-devotee.At home in Newark, New Jersey, he owns a DVD about Russian culture and history. He learns Russian and during practice in Turin, Italy, he wears a sweater with the CCCP logo imprinted. His training's bag is tagged with a RUS sticker.

(Gijs van Oosten (Eindhovens Dagblad, Feb. 17, 2006, p. 18); translation and emphases fgk)

Causal Direction - Another Challengefor Behavior-Explanation Paradigm

Self-Perception Theory

Kaiser, Byrka, & Hartig (2010)

General Attitude's Relevancefor Specific Behavior

generalenvironmental attitude

low

high

n = 38 n = 29 n = 36 n = 28

type of resource (points/energy)

low high

n = 131 / n = 502 / N = 1746;age: 54.9; 39.7% females

line of social justice



low

high

n = 38 n = 29 n = 36 n = 28




low

high

n = 38 n = 29 n = 36 n = 28


line of social justice

Specific Behavior's Relevancefor General Attitude

general environmental attitudemeasured within

Campbell's Paradigm (i.e., GEB)

general environmental attitude measured traditionally

w/ evaluative statements (NEP)

gene

ral

envi

ronm

enta

l atti

tude

vegetariansnon-vegetarians

n = 45 n = 50 n = 60 n = 67

N = 222; age: 39.3; 89.3% females

Kaiser, Byrka, & Hartig (2010)

BASE RATE VEGETARIANS 4-7%

• The Campbell Paradigm: Equating Attitude w/ Behavior attitudes transitively ordered classes of behavior

…real as recurrence probabilities of behavior of a given class attitudes as behavioral means to realize a personal goal

…latent as a teleological not a causal attitude-behavior link

• Campbell's in Place of Behavior-Explanation Paradigm …at least within environmental-attitude research possible

challenge to how many see the attitude-behavior relationship

• Some Advantages of Paradigm Change unconditional behavior relevance of attitudes evaluative consistency (explicit link between general & specific) simple, two-factorial behavioral models: B = f (Attitude, Situation)

…practical use of models depends on their simplicity

Reviving Campbell's Paradigmfor Attitude Research

Questions?Florian G. KaiserOtto-von-Guericke UniversityInstitute of PsychologyP.O. Box 4120D-39016 Magdeburg - Germany

fon: +49 391 671 8470 email: [email protected]: www.ipsy.ovgu.de/en/fgk.html

Paper is available upon request

It's not because things are difficult that we dare not venture.It's because we dare not venture that they are difficult.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca

Campbell's Paradigm

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