Calligraphy - Wikipedia

8/10/2019 Calligraphy - Wikipedia

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A calligraphic pen head, with partsnames.

2.3.4 Tibet

2.4 Islamic world

2.5 Persia

2.5.1 Contemporary scripts

2.6 Mayan civilization

3 Modern calligraphy

3.1 Revival3.2 Subsequent developments

4 Gallery

5 See also

6 Notes

7 References

8 External links

Tools

The principal tools for a calligrapher are the pen, which may be flat-

balled or round-nibbed, and the brush.[8][9][10] For some decorativepurposes, multi-nibbed penssteel brushescan be used. However,

works have also been created with felt-tip and ballpoint pens,although these works do not employ angled lines.

Writing ink is usually water-based and is much less viscous than theoil-based inks used in printing. High quality paper, which has goodconsistency of porosity, enables cleaner lines, although parchmentor vellum is often used, as a knife can be used to erase imperfectionsand a light-box is not needed to allow lines to pass through it.

Normally, light boxes and templates are used to achieve straightlines without pencil markings detracting from the work. Ruled

paper, either for a light box or direct use, is most often ruled everyquarter or half inch, although inch spaces are occasionally used.This is the case with litterea unciales (hence the name), and college-

ruled paper often acts as a guideline well. [11]

World traditions

Europe

History
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Folio 27r from the LindisfarneGospels (c.700) contains the incipitfrom the Gospel of Matthew.

Calligraphy in a Latin Bible of 1407on display in Malmesbury Abbey,Wiltshire, England. This bible washand written in Belgium, by GerardBrils, for reading aloud in amonastery.

Western calligraphy is recognizable by the use of the Latin script. The Latin alphabet appeared about 600BC, in Rome, and by the first century developed into Romanimperial capitals carved on stones, Rustic capitals painted on walls,and Roman cursive for daily use. In the second and third centuriesthe uncial lettering style developed. As writing withdrew tomonasteries, uncial script was found more suitable for copying theBible and other religious texts. It was the monasteries which

preserved calligraphic traditions during the fourth and fifthcenturies, when the Roman Empire fell and Europe entered the DarkAges.[12]

At the height of the Roman Empire, its power reached as far asGreat Britain when the empire fell, its literary influence remained.The Semi-uncial generated the Irish Semi-uncial, the small Anglo-Saxon. Each region developed its own standards following the mainmonastery of the region (i.e. Merovingian script, Laon script,Luxeuil script, Visigothic script, Beneventan script), which aremostly cursive and hardly readable.

Christian churches promotedthe development of writingthrough the prolific copyingof the Bible, particularly the

New Testament and other sacred texts.[13] Two distinct styles of writing known as uncial and half-uncial (from the Latin "uncia," or

"inch") developed from a variety of Roman bookhands. [14] The 7th9th centuries in northern Europe were the heyday of Celtic

illuminated manuscripts, such as the Book of Durrow, LindisfarneGospels and the Book of Kells. [15]

Charlemagne's devotion to improved scholarship resulted in therecruiting of "a crowd of scribes", according to Alcuin, the Abbot o

York.[16] Alcuin developed the style known as the Caroline orCarolingian minuscule. The first manuscript in this hand was theGodescalc Evangelistary (finished 783) a Gospel book written b

the scribe Godescalc.[17] Carolingian remains the one progenitor hand from which modern booktype

descends.[18]

In the eleventh century, the Caroline evolved into the Gothic script, which was more compact and made it

possible to fit more text on a page.[19]:72 The Gothic calligraphy styles became dominant throughoutEurope and in 1454, when Johannes Gutenberg developed the first printing press in Mainz, Germany, he

adopted the Gothic style, making it the first typeface. [19]:141

In the 15th century, the rediscovery of old Carolingian texts encouraged the creation of the humanistminuscule or littera antiqua. The 17th century saw the Batarde script from France, and the 18th century sathe English script spread across Europe and world through their books.
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The Georgian calligraphy iscenturies-old tradition of an artisticwriting of the Georgian languagewith its three scripts.

Modern Western calligraphy

In the mid-1600s French officials, flooded with documents written in various hands and varied levels of skill, complained that many such documents were beyond their ability to decipher. The Office of theFinancier thereupon restricted all legal documents to three hands, namely the Coulee, the Rhonde, (knownas Round hand in English) and a Speed Hand sometimes simply

called the Bastarda.[20]

While there were many great French masters at the time, the mostinfluential in proposing these hands was Louis Barbedor, who

publishedLes Ecritures Financire Et Italienne Bastarde Dans Leur

Naturel circa 1650.[20]

With the destruction of the Camera Apostolica during the sack of Rome (1527), the capitol for writing masters moved to SouthernFrance. By 1600, the Italic Cursiva began to be replaced by atechnological refinement, the Italic Chancery Circumflessa, which

in turn fathered the Rhonde and later English Roundhand.[20]

In England, Ayres and Banson popularized the Round Hand whileSnell is noted for his reaction to them, and warnings of restraint and

proportionality. Still Edward Crocker began publishing his copybooks 40 years before the

aforementioned.[20]

Style

Sacred Western calligraphy has some special features, such as theillumination of the first letter of each book or chapter in medievaltimes. A decorative "carpet page" may precede the literature, filled

with ornate, geometrical depictions of bold-hued animals. TheLindisfarne Gospels (715720 AD) are an early example.[21]

As with Chinese or Arabic calligraphy, Western calligraphic scriptemployed the use of strict rules and shapes. Quality writing had arhythm and regularity to the letters, with a "geometrical" order of the lines on the page. Each character hadand often still has, a precise stroke order.

Unlike a typeface, irregularity in the characters' size, style, and colors increases aesthetic value, though thecontent may be illegible. Many of the themes and variations of today's contemporary Western calligraphy

are found in the pages of The Saint John's Bible. A particularly modern example is Timothy Botts'illustrated edition of the Bible, with 360 calligraphic images as well as a calligraphy typeface. [22]

Influences

Several other Western styles use the same tools and practices, but differ by character set and stylisticpreferences. For Slavonic lettering, the history of the Slavonic and consequently Russian writing systems

differs fundamentally from the one of the Latin language. It evolved from the 10th century to today.

East Asia
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A Vietnamese calligrapher writing in

Hn-Nm in preparation for Tt, atthe Temple of Literature, Hanoi(2011)

The Chinese name for calligraphy isshf ( in Traditional Chinese, literally "the method or law of

writing")[23] the Japanese nameshod (, literally "the way or principle of writing") the Korean iseoye (Korean:/, literally "the art of writing") and the Vietnamese is Th php (, literally

"the way of letters or words"). The calligraphy of East Asian characters is an important and appreciatedaspect of East Asian culture.

History

In ancient China, the oldest Chinese characters existing areJigwn characters carved on ox scapulae and tortoise plastrons,

because the dominators in Shang Dynasty carved pits on suchanimals' bones and then baked them to gain auspice of militaryaffairs, agricultural harvest, or even procreating and weather. Duringthe divination ceremony, after the cracks were made, the characterswere written with a brush on the shell or bone to be later carved.(Keightley, 1978). With the development ofJnwn (Bronzewarescript) andDzhun (Large Seal Script) "cursive" signs continued.

Moreover, each archaic kingdom of current China had its own set of characters.

In Imperial China, the graphs on old stelessome dating from 200BC, and in Xiaozhuan styleare still accessible.

About 220 BC, the emperor Qin Shi Huang, the first to conquer theentire Chinese basin, imposed several reforms, among them Li Si'scharacter unification, which created a set of 3300 standardized

iozhun characters.[24] Despite the fact that the main writing

implement of the time was already the brush, few papers survivefrom this period, and the main examples of this style are on steles.

The Lsh style (clerical script) which is more regularized, and insome ways similar to modern text, have been also authorised under

Qin Shi Huangdi.[25]

Kish style (traditional regular script)still in use todayand attributed to Wang Xizhi (, 303

361) and his followers, is even more regularized. [25] Its spread was encouraged by Emperor Mingzong ofLater Tang (926933), who ordered the printing of the classics using new wooden blocks in Kaishu.

Printing technologies here allowed a shape stabilization. The Kaishu shape of characters 1000 years agowas mostly similar to that at the end of Imperial China. [25] But small changes have be made, for example ithe shape of which is not absolutely the same in the Kangxi Dictionary of 1716 as in modern books. ThKangxi and current shapes have tiny differences, while stroke order is still the same, according to old

style.[26]

Styles which did not survive include Bfnsh, a mix made of Xiaozhuan style at 80%, and Lishu at

20%.[25] Some variant Chinese characters were unorthodox or locally used for centuries. They weregenerally understood but always rejected in official texts. Some of these unorthodox variants, in addition tosome newly created characters, compose the Simplified Chinese character set.
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On Calligraphy by Mi Fu, SongDynasty

Japanese calligraphy, the word"peace" and the signature of the Meij

period calligrapher ura Kanetake,1910

Technique

Traditional East Asian writing uses the Four Treasures of the Study(/): the ink brushes known as mob () towrite Chinese characters, Chinese ink, paper, and inkstone, knownas theFour Friends of the Study (Korean:) in Korea. Inaddition to these four tools, desk pads and paperweights are alsoused.

The shape, size, stretch, and hair type of the ink brush, the color,color density and water density of the ink, as well as the paper'swater absorption speed and surface texture are the main physical

parameters influencing the final result. The calligrapher's techniquealso influences the result. The calligrapher's work is influenced bythe quantity of ink and water he lets the brush take, then by the pressure, inclination, and direction he givesto the brush, producing thinner or bolder strokes, and smooth or toothed borders. Eventually, the speed,accelerations, decelerations of the writer's moves, turns, and crochets, and the stroke order give the "spirit"to the characters, by greatly influencing their final shapes.

Styles

Cursive styles such asxngsh (semi-cursive or running script) andcosh (cursive or grass script) are lesconstrained and faster, where more movements made by the writing implement are visible. These styles'stroke orders vary more, sometimes creating radically different forms. They are descended from Clericalscript, in the same time as Regular script (Han Dynasty), butxngsh andcosh were used for personalnotes only, and never used as a standard. The cosh style was highly appreciated in Emperor Wu of Han

reign (140187 AD).[25]

Examples of modern printed styles are Song from the Song Dynasty's printing press, and sans-serif. Theseare not considered traditional styles, and are normally not written.

Influences

Japanese and Korean people developed specific sensibilities andstyles of calligraphy. For example, Japanese calligraphy go out of the set of CJK strokes to also include local alphabets such ashiragana and katakana, with specific problematics such as new

curves and moves, and specific materials (Japanese paper, washi, and Japanese ink). [27] In the case of Korean calligraphy, theHangeul and the existence of the circle required the creation of anew technique which usually confuses Chinese calligraphers.

Temporary calligraphy is a practice of water-only calligraphy on thefloor, which dries out within minutes. This practice is especiallyappreciated by the new generation of retired Chinese in public parks
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A Calligraphic design in Oriya script

of China. These will often open studio-shops in tourist towns offering traditional Chinese calligraphy totourists. Other than writing the clients name, they also sell fine brushes as souvenirs and lime stone carvedstamps.

Since late 1980s, a few Chinese artists have branched out traditional Chinese calligraphy to a new territoryby mingling Chinese characters with English letters notable new forms of calligraphy are Xu Bing's squar

calligraphy and DanNie's coolligraphy or cooligraphy.

Mongolian calligraphy is also influenced by Chinese calligraphy, from tools to style.

Calligraphy has influenced ink and wash painting, which is accomplished using similar tools andtechniques. Calligraphy has influenced most major art styles in East Asia, including ink and wash paintinga style of Chinese, Korean, Taiwanese, Japanese painting, and Vietnamese painting based entirely oncalligraphy.

South Asia

India

On the subject of Indian calligraphy, writes: [28]

Aoka's edicts (c. 265238 BC) were committed to stone.These inscriptions are stiff and angular in form. Following theAoka style of Indic writing, two new calligraphic typesappear: Kharo and Brhm. Kharo was used in thenorthwestern regions of India from the 3rd century BC to the4th century of the Christian Era, and it was used in Central

Asia until the 8th century.

In many parts of ancient India, the inscriptions were carriedout in smoke-treated palm leaves. This tradition dates back to

over two thousand years.[29] Even after the Indian languageswere put on paper in the 13th century, palm leaves whereconsidered a preferred medium of writing owing to itslongevity (nearly 400 years) compared to paper. Both sides of

the leaves were used for writing. Long rectangular strips weregathered on top of one another, holes were drilled through allthe leaves, and the book was held together by string. Books of this manufacture were common to Southeast Asia. The palmleaf was an excellent surface for penwriting, making possiblethe delicate lettering used in many of the scripts of southernAsia.
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A Bn text

Burnt clay and copper were a favoured material for Indic inscriptions. In the north of India,birch bark was used as a writing surface as early as the 2nd century AD.

Nepal

Ranjana script is the primary form of Nepalese calligraphy. The script itself, along with its derivatives (lik

Lantsa, Phagpa, Kutila) are used in Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Leh, Mongolia, coastal China, Japan, and Koreato write "Om mani padme hum" and other sacred Buddhist texts, mainly those derived from Sanskrit andPali.

Thailand

Sanskrit is the primary form of Thai calligraphy. Historically Thai calligraphy has been limited to sacredtexts of the Pali Canon with few wider artistic applications where graphic calligraphy representing figuresand objects is produced. Calligraphy appears on the personal flag of each member of the Thai royal family

bearing its owner's initials in calligraphy. The most obvious place in the country where calligraphy ispresent is in graffiti. A few books have been published with calligraphic compositions.

Tibet

Calligraphy is central in Tibetan culture. The script is derived fromIndic scripts. The nobles of Tibet, such as the High Lamas andinhabitants of the Potala Palace, were usually capable calligraphers.Tibet has been a center of Buddhism for several centuries, and thatreligion places a great deal of significance on written word. This

does not provide for a large body of secular pieces, although they doexist (but are usually related in some way to Tibetan Buddhism).Almost all high religious writing involved calligraphy, including letters sent by the Dalai Lama and otherreligious and secular authority. Calligraphy is particularly evident on their prayer wheels, although thiscalligraphy was forged rather than scribed, much like Arab and Roman calligraphy is often found on

buildings. Although originally done with a reed, Tibetan calligraphers now use chisel tipped pens andmarkers as well.

Islamic world

Islamic calligraphy (calligraphy in Arabic iskhatt ul-yad

) has evolved alongside Islam and theArabic language. As it is based on Arabic letters, some call it "Arabic calligraphy". However the term"Islamic calligraphy" is a more appropriate term as it comprises all works of calligraphy by the Muslimcalligraphers from Andalusia in modern Spain to China.

Islamic calligraphy is associated with geometric Islamic art (arabesque) on the walls and ceilings of mosques as well as on the page. Contemporary artists in the Islamic world draw on the heritage of calligraphy to use calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions.
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The phrase Basmala in an 18th-

century Islamic calligraphy from theOttoman region.

Bowl with Kufic Calligraphy, 10thcentury. Brooklyn Museum.

Instead of recalling something related to the spoken word, calligraphy for Muslims is a visible expression othe highest art of all, the art of the spiritual world. Calligraphy has arguably become the most veneratedform of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of the Muslims with the religion of Islam. The Qur'an has played an important role in the development and evolution of the Arabic language,and by extension, calligraphy in the Arabic alphabet. Proverbs and passages from the Qur'an are stillsources for Islamic calligraphy.

It is generally accepted that Islamic calligraphy excelled during the Ottoman era. Turkish calligraphers stil

present the most refined and creative works. Istanbul is an open exhibition hall for all kinds and varieties ocalligraphy, from inscriptions in mosques to fountains, schools, houses, etc.

Persia

The history of calligraphy in Persia dates back to the pre-Islam era.In Zoroastrianism beautiful and clear writings were always praised.

It is believed that ancient Persian script was invented by about 600

500 BC to provide monument inscriptions for the Achaemenidkings. These scripts consisted of horizontal, vertical, and diagonalnail-shape letters, which is why it is called "script of nails/cuneiformscript" (khat-e-mikhi) in Persian. Centuries later, other scripts suchas "Pahlavi" and "Avestan" scripts were used in ancient Persia.

Contemporary scripts
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Example showing Nastaliq'sproportional rules

Edward Johnston, founder of moderncalligraphy, at work in 1902.

Nasta'liq is the most popular contemporary style among classicalPersian calligraphy scripts Persian calligraphers call it the "bride of calligraphy scripts". This calligraphy style has been based on such astrong structure that it has changed very little since. Mir Ali Tabrizihad found the optimum composition of the letters and graphicalrules so it has just been fine-tuned during the past seven centuries. Ithas very strict rules for graphical shape of the letters and forcombination of the letters, words, and composition of the wholecalligraphy piece.

Mayan civilization

Mayan calligraphy was expressed via Mayan hieroglyphs modernMayan calligraphy is mainly used on seals and monuments in theYucatn Peninsula in Mexico. Mayan hieroglyphs are rarely used ingovernment offices however in Campeche, Yucatn and QuintanaRoo, Mayan calligraphy is written in Latin letters. Some commercialcompanies in southern Mexico use Mayan hieroglyphs as symbols of their business. Some communityassociations and modern Mayan brotherhoods use Mayan hieroglyphs as symbols of their groups.

Most of the archaeological sites in Mexico such as Chichen Itza, Labna, Uxmal, Edzna, Calakmul, etc. havglyphs in their structures. Stone carved monuments also known as stele are a common sources of ancientMayan calligraphy.

Modern calligraphy

Revival

After printing became ubiquitous from the 15th century, the

production of illuminated manuscripts began to decline.[30]

However, the rise of printing did not mean the end of

calligraphy. [31]

The modern revival of calligraphy began at the end of the 19thcentury, influenced by the aesthetics and philosophy of WilliamMorris and the Arts and Crafts movement. Edward Johnston is

regarded as being the father of modern calligraphy. [32][33][34] Afterstudying published copies of manuscripts by architect WilliamHarrison Cowlishaw, he was introduced to William Lethaby in1898, principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts,who

advised him to study manuscripts at the British Museum. [35]

This triggered Johnston's interest in the art of calligraphy with theuse of a broad edged pen. He began a teaching course in calligraphyat the Central School in Southampton Row, London from September
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campechehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seal_(emblem)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_Ali_Tabrizihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_School_of_Art_and_Designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southampton_Rowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintana_Roohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calakmulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayan_hieroglyphshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichen_Itzahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Lethabyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Johnstonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Morrishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edward_Johnston.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stelehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Harrison_Cowlishawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nastaliq-proportions.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edznahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Johnstonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uxmal


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An example of Graily Hewitt'scalligraphy.

1899, where he influenced the typeface designer and sculptor Eric Gill. He was commissioned by Frank

Pick to design a new typeface for London Underground, still used today (with minor modifications). [36]

He has been credited for reviving the art of modern penmanship and lettering single-handedly through hisbooks and teachings - his handbook on the subject, Writing & Illuminating, & Lettering (1906) wasparticularly influential on a generation of British typographers and calligraphers, including Graily Hewitt,

Stanley Morison, Eric Gill and Anna Simons. Johnston also devised the simply crafted round calligraphichandwriting style, written with a broad pen, known today as the Foundational hand, although Johnstonnever used the terms "Foundational" or "Foundational Hand". Johnston initially taught his students anuncial hand using a flat pen angle, but later taught his hand using a slanted pen angle.[37] He first referred this hand as "Foundational Hand" in his 1909 publication,Manuscript & Inscription Letters for Schools an

Classes and for the Use of Craftsmen .[38]

Subsequent developments

Graily Hewitt taught at the Central School of Arts and Crafts and published together with Johnstonthroughout the early part of the century. Hewitt was central to the revival of gilding in calligraphy, and his

prolific output on type design also appeared between 1915 and 1943. He is attributed with the revival ofgilding with gesso and gold leaf on vellum. Hewitt helped to found the Society of Scribes & Illuminators(SSI) in 1921, probably the world's foremost calligraphy society.

Hewitt is not without both critics[39] and supporters[40] i n h i s

rendering of Cennino Cennini's medieval gesso recipes. [41] DonaldJackson, a British calligrapher, has sourced his gesso recipes fromearlier centuries a number of which are not presently in English

translation.[42] Graily Hewitt created the patent announcing theaward to Prince Philip of the title of Duke of Edinburgh on

November 19, 1947, the day before his marriage to QueenElizabeth.[43]

Johnstons pupil, Anna Simons, was instrumental in sparking off interest in calligraphy in Germany with her German translation of

Writing and Illuminating, and Lettering in 1910.[32] Austrian RudoLarisch, a teacher of lettering at the Vienna School of Art, publishesix lettering books that greatly influenced German-speakingcalligraphers. Because German-speaking countries had not

abandoned the Gothic hand in printing, Gothic also had a powerfuleffect on their styles.

Rudolf Koch was a friend and younger contemporary of Larisch. Koch's books, type designs, and teachingmade him one of the most influential calligraphers of the 20th century in northern Europe and later in theU.S. Larisch and Koch taught and inspired many European calligraphers, notably Karlgeorg Hoefer, and

Hermann Zapf.[44]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Scribes_%26_Illuminatorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graily_Hewitthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Zapfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Gillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Kochhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_School_of_Arts_and_Craftshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Philip,_Duke_of_Edinburghhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Jackson_(calligrapher)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cennino_Cenninihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Graily_Hewitt.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Undergroundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnston_(typeface)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Morisonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Pickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gessohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlgeorg_Hoeferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Gillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graily_Hewitthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graily_Hewitthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penmanshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilding


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Contemporary typefaces used by computers, from word processors like Microsoft Word or Apple Pages toprofessional designers' software like Adobe InDesign, owe a considerable debt to the past and to a small

number of professional typeface designers today. [1][4][45]

Gallery

A n O t t o m a n i j a z a hwritten in Arabic

c e r t i f y i n g c o m p e t e n c ei n c a l l i g r a p h y , 1 2 0 6A H / 1 7 9 1 A D

Q u r ' a n v e r s e s o nPictorial carpet

Shikasta Nastalq

Asemic writing anda b s t r a c t c a l l i g r a p h y

A leaflet of theD r e s d e n C o d e x w r i t t e ni n t h e Ma y a n s c r i p t o na t y p e o f p a p e r c a l l e damatl.

See also

Brhm script

Sofer

Concrete poetry

Cursive

Micrography

Penmanship
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ijazah3.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C4%81hm%C4%AB_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_calendarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dresden_codex.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Asemic_graffiti.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijazahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dresden_Codexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amatlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asemic_writinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pictorial_carpethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penmanshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Van_yakad.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_InDesignhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shikasta_Nasta%CA%BFl%C4%ABqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chayyam_guyand_kasan_behescht_ba_hur_chosch_ast_small.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Wordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Pageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur%27an


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Notes

1 . ^ abcd Mediaville, Claude (1996).Calligraphy: From Calligraphy to Abstract Painting. Belgium: Scirpus-

Publications. ISBN 9080332518.

2. ^ Pott, G. (2006).Kalligrafie: Intensiv Training [Calligraphy: Intensive Training] (in German). Verlag Herman

Schmidt. ISBN 9783874397001.

3. ^ Pott, G. (2005).Kalligrafie: Erste Hilfe und Schrift-Training mit Muster-Alphabeten (in German). VerlagHermann Schmidt. ISBN 9783874396752.

4 . ^ ab Zapf, H. (2007).Alphabet Stories: A Chronicle of technical developments. Rochester, New York: Cary

Graphic Arts Press. ISBN 9781933360225.

5. ^ Zapf, H. (2006).The world of Alphabets: A kaleidoscope of drawings and letterforms . CD-ROM

6. ^ Propfe, J. (2005).SchreibKunstRaume: Kalligraphie im Raum Verlag (in German). Munich: George D.W.

Callwey GmbH & Co.K.G. ISBN 9783766716309.

7. ^ Geddes, A. Dion, C. (2004).Miracle: a celebration of new life. Auckland: Photogenique Publishers.

ISBN 9780740746963.

8. ^ Reaves, M. Schulte, E. (2006).Brush Lettering: An instructional manual in Western brush calligraphy(Revised ed.). New York: Design Books.

9. ^ Child, H., ed. (1985).The Calligrapher's Handbook. Taplinger Publishing Co.

10. ^ Lamb, C.M., ed. (1976) [1956].Calligrapher's Handbook. Pentalic.

11. ^ "Calligraphy Islamic website" (http://calligraphyislamic.com). Calligraphyislamic.com. Retrieved 2012-06-18

12. ^ Sabard, V. Geneslay, V. Rbna, L. (2004). Calligraphie latine: Initiation [Latin calligraphy: Introduction]

(in French) (7th ed.). Fleurus, Paris. pp. 811. ISBN 978-2215021308.

13. ^ de Hamel 2001a

14. ^ Knight 1998: 10

15. ^ Trinity College Library Dublin 2006 Walther & Wolf 2005 Brown & Lovett 1999: 40 Backhouse 1981

16. ^ Jackson 1981: 64

17. ^ Walther & Wolf 2005 de Hamel 1994: 46-48

18. ^ de Hamel 1994: 46

19. ^ ab Lovett, Patricia (2000). Calligraphy and Illumination: A History and Practical Guide. Harry N. Abrams.

ISBN 978-0810941199.

20. ^ abcd Joyce Irene Whalley (c. 1980).The Art of Calligraphy, Western Europe & America.

21. ^ Brown, M.P. (2004).Painted Labyrinth: The World of the Lindisfarne Gospel (Revised ed.). British Library

22. ^The Bible: New Living Translation. Tyndale House Publishers. 2000.23. ^ (Taiwanese) being here used as in (Cantonese) or (Taiwanese), meaning "writing style".

24. ^ Fazzioli, Edoardo (1987).Chinese Calligraphy: From Pictograph to Ideogram: The History Of 214 Essential

Chinese/Japanese Characters. Calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko. New York: Abbeville Press. p. 13.

ISBN 0896597741. "And so the first Chinese dictionary was born, the Sn Chng, containing 3,300 characters"

25. ^ abcde R. B. Blakney (2007).A Course in the Analysis of Chinese Characters

(http://books.google.com/books?id=7-ZYX4xCXygC&lpg=PA3&ots=YxoWBtBfN-

&dq=%22Li%20Ssu%22%20reform%20small%20seal&lr=&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q=Li%20Ssu&f=false).

Lulu.com. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-897367-11-7.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781933360225http://books.google.com/books?id=7-ZYX4xCXygC&lpg=PA3&ots=YxoWBtBfN-&dq=%22Li%20Ssu%22%20reform%20small%20seal&lr=&pg=PA6#v=onepage&q=Li%20Ssu&f=falsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783766716309http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0896597741http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-897367-11-7http://calligraphyislamic.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810941199http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783874396752http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780740746963http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9080332518http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783874397001http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2215021308http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbeville_Publishing_Group_(Abbeville_Press,_Inc.)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number


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References

Diringer, D. (1968). The Alphabet: A Key to the History of Mankind1 (3rd ed.). London: Hutchinso

& Co. p. 441.

Fraser, M. Kwiatowski, W. (2006).Ink and Gold: Islamic Calligraphy. London: Sam Fogg Ltd.

Johnston, E. (1909). "Plate 6".Manuscript & Inscription Letters: For schools and classes and for th

use of craftsmen. San Vito Press & Double Elephant Press. 10th Impression

Marns, F.A (2002) Various, copperplate and form, London

Mediavilla, Claude (2006).Histoire de la calligraphie franaise (in French). Paris: Michel.

ISBN 978-2226172839.

26. ^ [Kangxi Zidian] (http://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&res=77358) (in Chinese). 1716. p. 41.. See, for

example, the radicals,, o r. The 2007 common shape for those characters does not clearly show the

stroke order, but old versions, visible on p. 41, clearly allow the stroke order to be determined.

27. ^ Suzuki, Yuuko (2005).An introduction to Japanese calligraphy. Tunbridge Wells: Search. ISBN 978-

1844480579.

28. ^ Anderson, D. M. (2008). "Indic calligraphy". Encyclopdia Britannica 2008..

29. ^ "Memory of the World | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization"(http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=10660&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html).

UNESCO. Retrieved 2012-06-18.

30. ^ de Hamel 2001a de Hamel 1986

31. ^ Zapf 2007 de Hamel 2001a Gilderdale 1999 Gray 1971

32. ^ ab "The Legacy of Edward Johnston" (http://www.ejf.org.uk/). The Edward Johnston Foundation.

33. ^ Cockerell 1945 Morris 1882

34. ^ "Font Designer Edward Johnston" (http://www.linotype.com/733/edwardjohnston.html). Linotype GmbH.

Retrieved 5 November 2007.

35. ^ such as the Ramsey Psalter, BL, Harley MS 290436. ^ The Eric Gill Society: Associates of the Guild: Edward Johnston (http://www.ericgill.org.uk/associates/edwar

johnston-1872-1944)

37. ^ Gilderdale 1999

38. ^ Baines & Dixon 2003: 81

39. ^ Tresser 2006

40. ^ Whitley 2000: 90

41. ^ Herringham 1899

42. ^ Jackson 1981: 81

43. ^ Hewitt 1944-1953

44. ^ Cinamon 2001 Kapr 1991

45. ^ Henning, W.E. (2002). Melzer, P., ed.An Elegant Hand: The Golden Age of American Penmanship and

Calligraphy. New Castle, Delaware: Oak Knoll Press. ISBN 978-1584560678.
http://www.ejf.org.uk/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannicahttp://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&res=77358http://www.ericgill.org.uk/associates/edward-johnston-1872-1944http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=10660&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2226172839http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diringer,_D.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1584560678http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.linotype.com/733/edwardjohnston.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1844480579http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number


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Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related toCalligraphy.

Look up calligraphy inWiktionary, the freedictionary.

Shepherd, Margaret (2013).Learn World Calligraphy: Discover African, Arabic, Chinese, Ethiopic,

Greek, Hebrew, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, Russian, Thai, Tibetan Calligraphy, and

Beyond. Crown Publishing Group. p. 192. ISBN 978-082308230-8.

Schimmel, Annemarie (1984). Calligraphy and Islamic Culture. New York University Press.

ISBN 9780814778302.

Wolfgang Kosack:Islamische Schriftkunst des Kufischen Geometrisches Kufi in 593

Schriftbeispielen. Deutsch - Kufi - Arabisch. 380 Seiten. Verlag Christoph Brunner, Basel 2014,

ISBN 978-3-906206-10-3.

External links

Calligraphy

(https://www.dmoz.org/Arts/Visual_Arts/Calligraphy/) at

DMOZ

Calligraphy museums

Contemporary museum of calligraphy (Russia)

(http://calligraphy-museum.com/eng/default.aspx)

Ditchling Museum (http://www.ditchling-museum.com/index.html)

Schrift-und Heimatmuseum, Pettenbach (Austria) (http://www.schriftmuseum.at/)

Hill Museum & Manuscript Library (http://www.hmml.org/)

Klingspor Museum (http://www.klingspor-museum.de/UeberdasMuseum.html)Manuscript Museum of the Library of Alexandria (http://www.manuscriptcenter.org/museum/)

The Karpeles Manuscript Library Museums (http://www.rain.org/~karpeles/)

The Modern Calligraphy Collection of the National Art Library at the Victoria and Albert Museum

(http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/n/nal-modern-calligraphy/)

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