Phonetics

Phonetics is the branch of linguistics that deals with speech sounds. It is important both from a

theoretical and from a practical point of view. More exactly, it concentrates on the way sounds are

articulated, transmitted and finally received by the listener.

From a theoretical point of view, a complete understanding and description of a foreign language

is not possible without the description of its sound structure.

From a practical point of view, phonetics is firstly important for teachers and learners of foreign

languages but also for those not involved in linguistics such as doctors who deal with speech defects, IT

specialists that design electronic communication devices and so on.

Phonetics has several branches:

1. General Phonetics – studies the speech sound in general (in all languages).

2. Special Phonetics – studies the phonetic system of a particular language.

3. Synchronic/Descriptive Phonetics – studies the evolution of a language.

4. Diachronic (Historical) Phonetics – studies the development of a language’s sounds.

5. Comparative Phonetics – compares the sounds of two or more languages.

6. Experimental Phonetics–deals with achiness and instruments that produce artificial speech on

one hand and on the other hand, uses various technical devices to investigate the nature of

speech sounds.

7. Articulatory Phonetics – deals with the way in which sounds are articulated.

8. Acoustic Phonetics – deals with the way in which a sound is transmitted through air waves

before they get to their hearer.

9. Auditory phonetics – deals with the way in which sounds are heard (the perception of speech

sounds by the hearer).

Phonetics is connected with other branches of linguistics or with other sciences that are exterior

to linguistics. It is connected to:

1. Lexicology – stress distinguishes between different words of a language.

2. Grammar – stress may distinguish between different parts of speech.

On the other hand, in colloquial speech, a change of intonation may turn a declarative sentence

into and interrogative sentence.

Phonetics is connected with stylistics; Speech sounds are considered to be marked by shades and

degrees of expressiveness which are exploited by poets and prose writers in order to obtain stylistic

effects. It is also connected to physics because sounds are transmitted through airwaves but also to

anatomy (physiology).

R.P (or Received Pronunciation) is the type of English accepted as proper at the British Royal

Court and used by educated people in the South East of England and London.

The speech mechanism has three main parts according to the function they perform:

1. The thorax and the lungs

2. The larynx

3. The pharynx and the supraglottal cavities (mouth and nose)

The thorax and the lungs: The airstream originates in the lungs from which it is exhaled. Most

English sounds are pulmonic which means they cannot be produced without the stream of air coming

from the lungs. If the stream of air has a free exit from the lungs, no speech sounds are produced. In order

for speech sounds to be produced the air coming from the lungs has to encounter obstacles on its way out.

The larynx: The place where the vocal chords are housed: following possible situations:

a) Vocal cords are tightly brought together so that the glottis is blocked. The stream of air from the

lungs is held behind the glottis. On the southern opening the air bursts out with a coughing noise

which is called the glottal stop.

b) The vocal cords are gently brought together so that the stream of air passing through the glottis

makes the words vibrate. The sound is called voice. All English vowels and voiced consonant are

produced with voice.

c) The vocal cords are held wide apart so that the glottis is fully opened: this position is

characteristic of the English sound “h” and all the voiceless consonants.

The pharynx: There are two exits: mouth and nose. The organ that opens and closes the nasal passage

is called soft palate/velum.

a) If the soft palate is lowered and there is a free oral escape, the nasal passage is open and the air

escapes both through the nose and mouth as in normal breathing.

b) If the soft palate is lowered as much as to block the oral passage and the nasal passage remains

open, then air escapes through the nose only. This happens in the nasal consonants [m], [n], [ɳ]

c) When the soft palate is raised so that the nasal passage is closed and lets the air escape through

the mouth only. Oral sounds are produced in this way.

Organs and body parts used in speech: Alveolar Ridge

Lips

Hard Palate

Soft Palate

Uvula

Tongue

The primary cardinal vowels

The description of vowels: the description of any vowel must take into consideration the

following aspects:

1) The position of the soft palate: if it is raised we get oral vowels. However, in the

neighborhood (proximity) of nasal consonants, vowels become nasalized: singer-> [sɪŋə]

2) The position of the lips: rounded or spread

3) The movement of the tongue: which part of the tongue is involved in the articulation and

how high it is raised

4) The force of articulation:

a) Tense vowels: for tense vowels the tongue and walls of the mouth are tense;

b) Lax vowels: for lax vowels the tongue and the walls of the mouth are relaxed;

5) The duration of the vowels:

a) Long vowels

b) Short vowels

c) Reduced vowels

[uː] – Spelling: flu, blue, rheumatism, food, shoe, soup, fruit, glue.

Description: back, close, long (fully long/reduced); tense, rounded.

A part of the tongue somewhat advanced from the true back is raised to the nearly close position.

The lips are closely rounded, the articulation is tense (more muscular effort and breath energy needed) but

no firm contact is made between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars. Its quality is that of a

slightly lowered and centralized cardinal vowel 8

[u] – Spelling: look, book, good, should.

Description: back-advanced, half-close, short, lax, rounded.

A part of the tongue closer to the center than to the back is raised just above the half-close

position. The tongue is lax ad there is no contact between it and the upper molars. The lips are closely

rounded. Its quality is that of a centralized cardinal vowel 7.

[ɔː] – Spelling: saw, author, caught, torn, before, door, water, board.

Description: back, half-open, long (fully long/reduced), tense, rounded.

The back of the tongue is raised between the half open and half-closed positions. There is

medium lip rounding, the muscles or the tongue are tense and much breath energy is needed for the

production of this sound. There is no contact between the rims of the longue and the molars. The quality

of this vowel lies between cardinal vowel 6 and cardinal vowel 7.

[ɔ] – Spelling: odd, want, knowledge, yacht, what.

Description: back, open, short, lax, rounded.

The back of the tongue is raised just above the fully open position. There is slight open lip

rounding and no contact between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars because there is

considerable separation between the jaws. The muscles of the tongue are relaxed and not much breath

energy is needed for the production of this sound. Its quality is that of an open lip-rounded cardinal vowel

5.

[ə] – Spelling: any letter that represents a vowel besides [i]: an, but, to, the.

Description: center, half-open, short, lax, spread lips.

The central part of the tongue is raised to a medium height position; the sound is short, the

pronunciation does not require much muscular tension and breath energy, the lips are spread and the rims

of the tongue make a slight contact with the upper molars.

[ɑː] – Spelling: part, half, heart, clerk, derby.

Description: back, open, long (fully long/reduced), tense, spread lips.

The part of the tongue between the center and the back is in the fully open position. The lips are

neutrally open, there is no contact between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars, the vowel is

articulated with considerable separation of the jaws and considerable muscular effort and breath energy

involved in the uttering of this vowel.

[ʌ] – Spelling: sum, son, country blood, does.

Description: central, open, short, lax, spread lips.

The center of the tongue is raised just above the fully open position, the sound is short and there

is little breath energy and muscular effort in the articulation of the sound. There is considerable separation

of the jaws and no contact between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars.

Diphthongs

A sequence of two vocalic elements occurring in the same syllable. In the articulation of

diphthongs there is always a significant change from one vowel quality to another. The initial stage of the

articulation finds the organs of speech in the position required for the articulation of a certain vowel and

then they move in the direction of another vocalic sound without completely reaching it.

A diphthong is made up of two elements: the nucleus and the glide.

Description of diphthongs:

1) If the nucleus is the first element then the diphthong is called falling: [N1G2->falling]

2) If the glide is the first element then the diphthong is called rising: [G1N2->rising]

The direction in which the diphthong moves:

3-> [I] - [ei]; [ai]; [ɔi]

3-> [ə] - [iə]; [ɛə]; [uə]

2-> [u] – [ɑu]; [əu]

The movement the diphthongs imply: narrow, wide.

The characteristic of the nucleus as compared to those of the glide: Closing, opening, centering (in the

direction of ə)

Length: fully long/reduced.

For a narrow diphthong the movement that the organs of speech perform from the position in

which they are for uttering the nucleus to the position in which they are when they utter the glide

is small

For a wide diphthong the movement that the organs of speech perform from the position in which

they are for uttering the nucleus to the position in which they are when they utter the glide is

considerable

For a closing diphthong he organs of speech move from a more open to a closer sound

For an opening diphthong the organs of speech move from a closer to a more open sound.

[ei] – Spelling: make, aim, bay, weigh, grey, break.

Description: falling, moves in the direction of [i], narrow, closing diphthong.

For the articulation of the diphthong [ei] the front of the tongue is raised to a medium position

between the half open and half close position and then moves in the direction of [i] without fully reaching

it. The lips are not rounded and the jaws are slightly apart.

[ai] – Spelling: might, shy, die, height, aisle, buy, eye.

Description: falling, wide, closing, fully long/reduced.

For the articulation of the diphthong the front of the tongue starts from the neighborhood if

cardinal vowel 6 and moves towards [i] without fully reaching it. The jaws are kept widely apart for the

nucleus and they get closer for the glide. The lips are rounded for the nucleus and spread for the glide.

[əu] – Spelling: hotel, toe, cold, coal, flow, shoulder, bureau.

Description: falling, narrow, closing, fully long/reduced.

The organs of speech start from the neighborhood of [ə] and move in the direction of [u] without

reaching it. The lower jaw closes slightly. Lips are spread for the nucleus and become rounded for the

glide.

[au] – Spelling: shout, crown;

Description: falling, wide, closing, fully long/reduced.

The organs of speech start somewhere between [a:] and cardinal vowel 5 [ɑ] and move in the

direction of [u] without fully articulating it. The jaws are wide apart for the nucleus and they get closer for

the glide.

[iə] – Spelling: career, clear, weird, here, idea, hero, theory, media, museum.

Description: falling, narrow, opening (centering), fully long/reduced.

For the articulation of [iə] the organs of speech start from the neighborhood of [i] and move in the

direction of [ə] which is fully articulated.

[ɛə] – Spelling: dare, wear, share, where.

Description: falling,narrow,opening (centering) fully long/reduced.

The organs of speech start from the neighborhood of cardinal vowel 3 [e] and move in the

direction of a half-open variety of [ə] fully articulating it. The glide is only slightly more open than the

nucleus and the lips are neutrally spread both for the nucleus and for the glide.

[uə] – Spelling: during, cruel, usual, continuum, cure, poor, brewery.

Description: falling, wide, opening (centering), fully long/reduced.

The organs of speech involved start from the vowel [u] and move in the direction of [ə] fully

articulating it. The lips are rounded for the nucleus and spread for the glide. The opening between the jaw

slightly widens.