C Volume I Part - 2

ALLAHABAD

The water supply to the city of Allahabad is from both surface and ground water sources - river Yamuna and 232 tube wells. The tube wells are provided with chlorine doser using bleaching powder solution and are connected to the water distribution network either directly or through reservoirs and overhead tanks. Bleaching powder solution is also added manually in OHTs and in service reservoirs. In addition to this, 2448 India Mark-II handpumps with drawal of approximately 10 MLD of water are deployed.

In case of surface water, the raw water turbidity was 16 - 20 NTU in the winter and summer seasons and the filtered water turbidity ranged from 1.5 to 2.0 NTU. The turbidity of raw water during monsoon varied from 175 to 200 NTU at river intake point and was 1.0 - 4.0 NTU after filtration. The physico-chemical parameters and heavy metal concentrations did not vary at the river intake point, sedimentation tank and CWR at the treatment plant. The filtered water from surface water source is disinfected with gaseous chlorine in the inlet channel and stored in the CWRs. Residual chlorine concentration above 1.0 mg/L was maintained at CWR and the water was found free from bacterial counts in all the seasons.

All the samples during winter survey showed the residual chlorine levels in range of 0.8 to 1.0, 0.8 to 1.1 and ND to 0.5 in CWRs, SRs and OHTs respectively and no bacterial counts were found. The consumer end samples at Transport Nagar, Sulem Sarai, Govindpur, Phaphamau, Kydganj, Karelibagh, Mutthiganj and Beniganj were found contaminated with TC and FC and residual chlorine was not found. The presence of FC in the samples indicated that the piped water was getting contaminated due to the leakages.

In summer survey residual chlorine was found in the range of 0.1 to 0.5 mg/L in 13 OHTs. TC counts were found only one day during sampling in OHT at Baika Bagh, Preetam Nagar and Kareli No. 1. Out of the samples for the water quality at consumer ends, the samples collected at Sulem Sarai, Civil lines, Rasulabad, Kydganj, Govindpur, Baika Bagh, Tagore Town, Bairhana, Atala, Akbarpur, Naini Rajruppur and Chaklal Mohammad were found to be contaminated with TC and FC.

In monsoon studies residual chlorine was found in all the OHTs samples between 0.1 to 0.5 mg/L and TC and FC counts were not found in any of the samples. The residual chlorine at CWR and SR was found in the range of 1.2 to 2.0 mg/L and 0.7 to 1.5 mg/L respectively and bacterial contamination was not observed. The residual chlorine at consumer end was in the range of 0.1 to 0.8 mg/L. Samples collected at Sulem Sarai, Civil lines, Katra 17, Phaphamau, Kydganj, Baika Bagh, George Town, Tagore Town, Swaraj Nagar, Bairhana, Atala, Gaughat, Akbarpur, Hanuman Nagar and Maheba were found to be contaminated with TC and FC.

In the winter survey the turbidity of bore well water was within the acceptable limit in all the samples except in Karbala where the value (17.5 NTU) exceeded the limit for rejection. The alkalinity exceeded the acceptable limit of 200 mg/L in all the samples except at Church lane; however, the samples were found within rejectable limit of 600 mg/L. The total hardness in all the water samples exceeded the acceptable limit but was within the rejectable limit of 600 mg/L. The chloride and sulphate concentrations were found well within the acceptable limit in all the samples. The calcium concentrations were found within the acceptable limit except in Naini where its value was 95 mg/L. The concentration of Magnesium exceeded the acceptable limit in all the samples except at Mutthiganj.

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Among the heavy metals, arsenic was not detected in any of the samples. The concentration of Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Cd, Cr and Pb were found within the acceptable limit in all the samples except at Daraganj, Kydganj, Choukhandi and Kareli where Fe concentration was found as 0.24, 0.51 and 0.16 mg/L respectively and Mutthiganj where Cd and Zn concentrations exceeded the limit. The Pb content in Civil Lines, Hasimpur, Mutthiganj and Beniganj were found above the acceptable limit. The Fe levels exceeded the acceptable limit in all the samples except at Hasimpur. The Mn concentration exceeded the acceptable limit in Hasimpur, Mutthiganj and Beniganj. The bacteriological analysis of samples for TC and FC indicated their absence in all the samples. The water at most of the pumping stations and storage tanks was properly disinfected and showed absence of bacterial counts.

The turbidity levels exceeded the acceptable limit of 5 NTU in Handpumps (India Mark-II) samples from Katra market, Mutthiganj, Beniganj and Naini handpump water samples; the levels exceeded the rejection limit of 25 NTU at Beniganj. The TDS concentration exceeded the limit at Katra market, Naini and Maheba. The total alkalinity was found in the range of 358 to 912 mg/L, thus exceeding the acceptable limit of 200 mg/L in all the handpump water samples. At Mutthiganj the value also exceeded the rejectable limit of 600 mg/L. The total hardness ranged from 348 to 1124 mg/L and exceeded the acceptable limit of 200 mg/L. Water sample from Mutthiganj handpump showed the highest concentrations of hardness (1124 mg/L) and chloride (250 mg/L). At Mutthiganj the calcium and magnesium concentration of 200 and 152 mg/L respectively were found to exceed the acceptable limit. Fluoride levels were found within the acceptable limit in all groundwater samples. The bacteriological characteristics of water sample from handpumps showed the absence of TC and FC counts. In summer and monsoon survey similar trend was observed with marginal difference in the estimated values.

BANGALORE

Arkavathi and Cauvery Rivers are raw water sources. TK Halli and TG Halli are the sites of Water Treatment Plants.

During winter the turbidity of raw water at TK Halli WTP was ranging from 3.5 to 3.8 NTU the turbidity of treated water was about 0.9 NTU. Counts for TC and FC were observed in filtered water. During summer, the turbidity of raw water ranged from 2.2 to 2.7 NTU and the treated water showed turbidity of 1.7 to 2.4 NTU. The treated water samples were found free from bacterial contamination after chlorination. During winter sampling at TG Halli WTP the turbidity of water after filtration was between 0.92 and 3.65 NTU. During summer season turbidity of raw water varied from 8.3 to 10.3 NTU and treated water showed turbidity of 3.1 to 6.5 NTU. The treated water samples were found to be free from bacterial contamination. During monsoon raw water turbidity ranged from 11.6 - 16 NTU, while after treatment it reduced to 6.2 NTU. Counts for TC and FC were observed in treated water. The physico-chemical characteristics of Treated Water were within the desirable limit as per CPHEEO Guidelines.

The conductivity of Cauvery water (TK Halli) increased from March in summer and was higher (465 s/cm) than in monsoon season (151 s/cm). Hardness, chloride, alkalinity and sulphate also increased in summer. However, the physico-chemical quality was conforming to CPHEEO Guidelines except turbidity exceeding on few occasions. Residual chlorine of 0.5 to 1.0 mg/L was observed and no bacterial contamination was seen.

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Residual chlorine was not found in water samples of Service Reservoirs during monsoon sampling from HRBR, MNK, JP Nagar I-Phase, Kumaraswamy layout, Hosahalli. Bacterial counts for TC and FC were observed in water samples of Jaya Mahal service station, HRBR and MNK. Water quality of other service station was as per CPHEEO guidelines. The residual chlorine range was

chemical quality of water. The physical parameter that was influenced by seasons was turbidity. All the water treatment plant were performing upto desired level with marginal inadequacies related to turbidity removal. The chlorine dose was 3 mg/L and adequate residual chlorine was observed in the sample collected from sump. No bacterial count was observed in any of the sump water. All the physico-chemical parameters except turbidity of finished water meet the CPHEEO guidelines. A remarkable reduction in iron levels as well as bacterial counts was observed from source to distribution.

In the samples from Elevated Service Reservoir during winter, summer and monsoon seasons, residual chlorine was observed in the range of 1-2 mg/L. No bacterial count was observed in the samples in all the seasons. In the samples collected at consumer ends, the residual chlorine was found in the range of 0.2 to 1 mg/L, 0.2 to 2 mg/L, and 0.2 to 1 mg/L in winter, summer and monsoon seasons respectively. No bacterial count was observed in all the seasons in the water samples from consumer ends.

CHANDIGARH

The city water supply is from main Bhakra Canal and ground water sources. There are 155 tube wells and the ground water is mixed and supplied alongwith the treated surface water.

Residual chlorine was found in the range of 0.6 - 0.8 mg/L in the finished water. The raw water turbidity was observed in the range of 0.7 - 1.0 NTU while in treated water it was between 0.10 and 0.15 NTU. The bacterial contamination was not observed in sump water during all the three sampling schedules in three seasons. The finished water quality conforms to CPHEEO Guidelines for drinking water and there was no significant variation in the raw water quality on day-to-day and seasonal basis and in distribution system and consumer ends. The UGRs were also found to be free from bacteriological contamination, and may be attributed to proper chlorination. Samples from consumer ends i.e. from houses, public stand posts contained sufficient amount of residual chlorine even at the farthest point of water supply. The existing set up of water treatment and distribution is satisfactory and bacterial contamination was not seen in the distribution system and consumer ends.

COIMBATORE

Pillur dam on river Bhavani and Siruvani dam on river Siruvani are two major water sources for Coimbatore city.

The raw water from Siruvani & Pillur dams is very soft with total hardness less than 100 mg/L. The turbidity of Pillur dam water was in the range of 31 - 40 NTU during winter. During summer and monsoon, the turbidity of Pillur dam water ranged form 14 to 19 NTU and 10 to 18 NTU respectively. The tubidity of Siruvani dam water was less than 20 NTU during all the three seasons except during heavy inflow of southwest monsoon. Residual chlorine was found in the range of 1.5 - 2.0 mg/L in the finished water at both the plants. The treated water met CPHEEO guidelines and no significant variations in the raw water quality on day-to-day and seasonal basis was observed, except the rare cases of bacterial contamination.

During winter, 54 samples were collected from consumer ends and only 9 contained sufficient residual chlorine. During summer and monsoon seasons respectively 208 and 108 number of water samples from consumer ends were collected and the residual chlorine was nil in

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more than 50% of the samples and most of the samples with nil residual chlorine were positive for TC & FC. During monsoon season, though sufficient residual chlorine was observed in most of samples, some of the samples were positive for TC & FC. This may be attributed to insufficient contact time after application of chlorine dose.

DEHRADUN

The Bindal River is a major raw water source and Mausi fall is yet another source. There is no significant day-to-day variation in raw water to Dilaram Bazaar Filter House as

well as Shahanshahi Ashram Filter House. Disinfection of filtered water is achieved using bleaching powder solution. Residual chlorine was found in the range of 0.6 to 0.8 mg/L in the finished water. The raw water turbidity in all the seasons was in the range of 0.35 to 0.70 NTU while in sump water it ranged from 0.1 to 0.5 NTU. The total and faecal coliforms were absent in treated water in all the seasons. The finished water quality conformed to the CPHEEO guidelines.

Nitrate was found in the tube wells in the range of 50 - 57 mg/L during all the seasons. During winter season, the bacteriological contamination due to presence of total and faecal coliforms was observed in Khurbuda during first two days of sampling. Slight contamination was observed due to presence of total coliforms. Presence of coliforms in few samples even after the presence of residual chlorine may be attributed to insufficient contact time in the system.

DURGAPUR

The city draws raw water from the intake canal of the river Damodar by gravity main. The turbidity in settled water during winter, summer and monsoon was in the range of 4.7 - 5.1 NTU, 0.8 - 2 NTU and 4.2 - 4.9 NTU respectively. In filtered water, the turbidity for winter, summer and monsoon seasons was in the range of 0.9 - 1.4 NTU, 0.1 - 0.8 NTU and 0.8 - 1.2 NTU respectively. Adequate residual chlorine was observed in the sample collected from the sump. No bacterial count was observed in sump water samples. The residual chlorine at MBR was upto 0.5 mg/L in all the seasons. Bacterial count was not observed at reservoir. At consumer ends residual chlorine was upto 0.5 mg/L and no bacterial count was observed in all the seasons.

FARIDABAD

The only source of water supply to the city is ground water extracted through deep tube wells and handpumps. There was no significant seasonal variation in groundwater quality. The pH did not show much variation and ranged from 7.9 to 8.2. Turbidity was found in the range of 0.1 to 0.6 NTU. TDS was found in the range of 615 to 2180 mg/L exceeded the maximum acceptable limit of 1500 mg/L in two samples collected near Chauhan Nursing Home (2180 mg/L) and in front of Qtr. No. 63 Green Belt, Sector 7 (1806 mg/L). Total hardness values exceeded the acceptable value of 200 mg/L and were found to range between 251 to 600 mg/L. Calcium was found within the acceptable limit in all the samples, whereas, magnesium concentrations exceeded the limit of >30 mg/L in all the samples. Fluoride concentrations ranged from 0.81 to 1.40 mg/L and exceeded the acceptable limit in six bore wells. Iron and manganese were found to be well within the acceptable limits in all the samples. Bacterial contamination was not observed in any of the sample during the studies conducted in the year 2002 but out of a total of 75 samples collected in October 2004, TC and FC were noticed in 44 and 29 samples respectively.

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GUWAHATI

The major source of surface water is the Brahmaputra river. The ground water is extracted through deep tube wells.

There were no significant changes in raw water of Panbazar Water Treatment Plant on day-to-day basis. During winter season raw and settled water turbidity ranged from 2.4 to 5.6 NTU and 0.3 - 1.5 NTU respectively. During summer turbidity in raw, settled and filtered water ranged from 1.6 to 2.0 NTU, 0.41 to 0.52 NTU and 0.31 to 0.36 NTU respectively. Finished water showed the removal of iron and manganese to some extent. During monsoon season turbidity in raw, settled and filtered water ranged from 1.0 to 2.4 NTU, 0.2 to 1.2 NTU and 0.1 and 1.1 NTU respectively. The raw water of Satpukhuri Water Treatment Plant had turbidity during winter and summer ranging between 0.16 and 0.2 NTU and filtered water turbidity was observed in the range of 0.4 to 0.62 NTU and 0.29 to 0.37 NTU respectively. During monsoon season turbidity of raw, settled and filtered water ranged from 2.6 to 3.4 NTU, 0.3 to 0.7 NTU and 0.4 to 1.4 NTU respectively. The total and faecal coliforms counts were found in filtered water in all seasons.

In Kamakhya Water Treatment Plant during winter, the raw water turbidity ranged from 43 to 46 NTU and the settled and filtered water turbidity was found in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 NTU and 0.3 to 0.5 NTU respectively. During summer season the raw water turbidity was recorded in the range of 1.1 to 1.6 NTU and the settled and filtered water turbidity ranged from 0.42 to 0.52 NTU and 0.27 to 0.32 NTU respectively. During monsoon season turbidity of raw, settled and filtered water ranged from 2.8 to 3.2 NTU, 0.1 to 1.3 NTU and 0.8 to 1.6 NTU respectively. The total and faecal coliforms counts were found in filtered water in all seasons. The residual chlorine estimated during winter was 0.2 mg/L. In summer residual chlorine was not detected in the samples. During monsoon season residual chlorine ranged between 0.5 to 1.5 mg/L.

In Zoo Road Water Supply Scheme during summer season turbidity of raw water ranged between 1.6 and 1.8 NTU and the settled and filtered water turbidity was 0.46 to 0.59 NTU and 0.36 to 0.41 NTU respectively. During monsoon season turbidity of raw, settled and filtered water ranged from 1.1 to 1.8 NTU, 0.3 to 0.7 NTU and 0.4 to 0.6 NTU respectively. The residual chlorine was 0.2 mg/L and 0.5 to 1.0 mg/L during winter and summer respectively while during monsoon season it ranged between 0.5 and 2.0 mg/L.

The raw water of PHED Treatment Plant had turbidity during winter season in the range between 0.16 and 0.25 NTU and the settled and filtered water turbidity was 0.12 to 0.18 NTU and 0.08 to 0.09 NTU respectively. During monsoon the raw, settled and filtered water turbidity was in the range of 2.7 to 3.2 NTU, 2.1 to 1.3 NTU and 0.8 to 1.6 NTU respectively. The total coliforms and faecal coliforms counts were found in filtered water in all the seasons.

The presence of chlorine in the ESR and simultaneously presence of bacteria indicated insufficient contact time after chlorination of the water. The samples collected at consumer ends served from the same ESR were found bacteriologically negative. This may indicate that the contact time after chlorination was adequate as there was a time lag for water from ESR to reach consumer end.

INDORE

Narmada river and Yashwant Sagar Dam on the Gambhir river are the two major raw water sources for Indore city. The sources are well protected as there is neither industrial

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pollution nor human and animal accessibility in the vicinity of the pumping stations. There are 1450 tube wells, 446 handpumps and 167 dug wells in the city and supplement the organised water supply.

Turbidity was acceptable during winter and summer. During monsoon, the river was flooding and the turbidity of raw water was in the range of 690 to 1530 NTU. Finished water turbidity was in the range of 0.3 to 3.7 NTU. TC and FC were not detected in filtered water in all seasons. The treated water quality of Narmada Water Treatment Plant during all seasons was found within the desirable limit as per CPHEEO guidelines. Treated water quality of the Devdharan WTP was as per CPHEEO guidelines during winter and the plant was closed due to non-availability of raw water in Yashwant Sagar Dam during summer and monsoon.

The chlorine solution was added in all the ESR before distribution and the residual chlorine was found in the range of 0.1 - 0.6 mg/L, in all the seasons. During winter, in all the water samples of ESR and samples collected from consumer ends, faecal coliform was not detected. TC at consumer ends was in the range of 7 - 607 CFU/100 ml. During summer on one occasion TC and FC counts were found occasionally in ESR. At the consumer ends, out of 21 samples, most of the samples were positive both for TC and FC. The same ESR and 21 locations of distribution system indicated occasional enroute contamination in the ESR and distribution system. In summer season water is inadequate and hence supply is on alternate day.

KOCHI

The raw water source is the perennial river Periyar, and was free from noticeable contamination/pollution. No remarkable changes in the daily water quality were observed but seasonal changes were noted. Salinity intrusion in the river even beyond the raw water intake point was a severe problem during summer. The concentrations of all the physico-chemical parameters except salinity were within the CPHEEO guidelines during all the seasons. During summer the salinity exceeded CPHEEO guidelines. Out of 30 samples, presence of total coliforms, faecal coliforms and E-coli were observed in the samples collected from Mattanchery for all the days and for all the seasons and for all the days, during summer, at Vaduthala West, Palarivattom, Kadavanthra and Thrikkanarvattom. These are the thickly populated and water logged areas of the city. The area is also identified as the most cholera and typhoid prone areas of the State. During winter season, samples from 14 zones showed bacterial contamination for 2 days, but was not persistant and for rest of the days the bacterial count was nil. Delay or shortage of booster chlorination from main service reservoirs may be the reason for contamination.

PATIALA

The city of Patiala receives water supply exclusively from ground water sources. There are 52 tube wells all over the city. Bleaching powder solution is used to carry out disinfection at the tube wells. Chlorinators are installed at each tube well with arrangements for regulation of flow. Operation and maintenance of chlorinators is on contract basis. There is no significant change in the raw water quality on day-to-day basis as seen in all seasons. During winter and summer 10-15 tube well samples were found to contain nitrate exceeding the desirable limit and 3 samples showed nitrate beyond the permissible limits. All the other physico-chemical parameters and heavy metals were found to be within the desirable limit of CPHEEO. Water samples from 12 tube wells were found to contain higher range of total dissolved solids during monsoon season. All the other water quality parameters conform to the CPHEEO guidelines.

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During winter 74 samples were collected daily from consumer ends for a period of 7 days and only three samples were found to be contaminated with total and faecal coliforms. Out of the 82 water samples collected for bacteriological quality in summer, five samples were found contaminated with total and faecal coliforms. Residual chlorine was found to be absent in these samples. During monsoon studies bacteriological contamination was not observed in any of the 59 water samples collected from various consumer ends.

PATNA

Patna, situated on banks of river Ganga has high surface water potential, but its water is not utilized for water supply to the town. Nature has provided high potential of ground water resource with good aquifer of adequate depth of 80 m and beyond. Tube wells are used as source of water supply to Patna city. Patna water supply is mainly through 112 tube wells located in different parts of the city, supplying to whole city through a distribution network of 400 km. The water is supplied directly without chlorination.

It was observed in winter and summer survey that total alkalinity varied between 290 and 350 mg/L in tube well water and exceeded the standard of 200 mg/L. The total dissolved solids (TDS) values varied between 286 and 449 mg/L and were within the acceptable limit of 500 mg/L in winter and only one sample had marginally higher TDS of 597 mg/L. The total hardness values exceeded the acceptable limit of 300 mg/L in some of the samples, but were within the rejection limit of 600 mg/L. The concentration of the Fluoride did not exceed the limit of 1.0 mg/L, while the concentration of calcium and magnesium exceeded their limits of 75 and 30 mg/L, respectively in more than 50% of the samples. No phenolic compound was detected in any of the water samples.

Analytical results of heavy metals in winter and summer showed that concentration of arsenic, cadmium, copper and chromium were not detected in the samples. Lead and zinc concentrations were found within acceptable limits. Iron and manganese levels in the samples exceeded the acceptable levels in more than 50% of samples, however, their contents were found within the rejection limit of 1 and 0.5 mg/L respectively; except in one sample at Sri Krishna Nagar tube well the concentration of iron 1.3 mg/L was found marginally higher.

The results of physico-chemical characteristics of water samples collected from 35 tube wells in monsoon revealed that the values of total alkalinity were less in comparison to summer survey and it varied from 60 to 210 mg/L. The alkalinity was significantly reduced in water samples collected from Kamasiko tube well, Khwajekalan, Rajendra Nagar tube well and Kadam Kuan. TDS in water samples varied between 303 and 850 mg/L and was within the acceptable limit of 500 mg/L except in water samples collected from Mangal Talab, Katra, Nawab Bahadur Road, Kamasiko, Khwajekalan and Patna City hospital where the TDS values exceeded the acceptable limits. In general the TDS concentration in water samples increased in comparison to their concentrations as observed during summer survey. The TDS values in water samples collected from tube wells at Kumhrar, Katra, Didarganj and Kamasiko were found double of the concentration of TDS in water samples collected and analysed at these points during summer survey.

The values of calcium and magnesium were found within limits of 75 and 30 mg/L respectively. The concentration of both calcium and magnesium, in water samples were found to be reduced in comparison to the corresponding values as obtained during summer survey.

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Water samples collected from tube wells at Ashok Nagar, Rajendra Nagar, Jakkanpur and Lalit Bhawan were found heavily contaminated with TC and FC. It was observed in summer that tube well water samples were free from coliform contamination except that the contamination was observed in nine water samples during one day of bacteriological analysis. The results showed that coliforms contamination was found in water samples collected from 14 tube wells, while water samples from 21 tube wells were free from coliform contamination in monsoon. A comparison of results obtained during summer survey and monsoon survey showed that the coliform contamination in water samples collected from tube wells was increased.

The results of studies on Handpumps in winter and summer showed that the value of TDS varied between 280 and 677 mg/L and was found to be within the acceptable limit except two sampling points at Mahendru, Gardanibag and Hartali More. Total hardness varied between 240 and 388 mg/L and was below the rejectable limit. The chloride and fluoride were within the acceptable limit. The concentrations of calcium and magnesium were found within the limits, except that the value of calcium exceeded the acceptable limit in two of the water samples at Mahendru and Gardanibag handpump in winter. Magnesium concentration was found higher in summer than the limit of 30 mg/L at four sampling locations and also these values were found higher than the concentration as obtained in winter survey. Cadmium, chromium and copper were not detected except in two samples. Arsenic concentrations were not detected in any sample. Lead was within the limits in all the samples. Iron exceeded the acceptable limit in all the samples, except in Gardanibag. However, the iron values were found within the rejection limit in all the samples except one sample. Manganese concentration exceeded the acceptable limits in two samples. The values of TDS in hand pump water samples varied between 270 and 750 mg/L in monsoon and were found to be within the acceptable limit of 500 mg/L except the TDS in two water samples collected from Beli Road and Gardanibag handpumps exceeded the acceptable limit. The total hardness in water samples varied between 52 and 132 mg/L and was within the acceptable limit of 200 mg/L. The values of chloride and fluoride were within the acceptable limits. The values of calcium varied between 16 and 40 mg/L, and magnesium concentration varied between 1 and 9 mg/L.

Bacteriological analysis of hand pump water samples in winter showed that TC and FC counts were not detected in the samples except at Mahendru, Gardanibag and Rajvanshi Nagar. In summer the coliform contamination was observed in water sample collected from Gardanibag, Rajvanshi Nagar, Didarganj and Mahendru, whereas other water samples were not contaminated. The water sample collected from Mahendru, Gardanibag and Rajvanshi Nagar showed FC contamination. Bacteriological analysis of the water samples collected in monsoon from handpumps showed the TC contamination in water samples collected from Didarganj. The trend of the bacteriological contamination remained the same as observed during summer survey. Water samples collected from Didarganj, Mahendru, Gardanibag and Rajvanshi Nagar showed TC contamination and were not fit for drinking purposes. The water samples were free from TC and FC contamination during the monsoon survey.

The water samples collected from three OHTs operated by Patna Medical College and Hospital and PHED did not show any bacterial contamination.

The water samples collected from tube wells at Katra, Guljar bagh, Bankipur, Chajjobagh, Shri Krishnanagar and Samanpura were found free from bacterial contamination. However, water samples collected from Bankipur and Shri Krishnanagar consumer ends indicated the presence of bacterial contamination. Results were indicative of contamination of drinking water

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with sewerage systems. Out of 35 Consumer End sample analysed in summer, 25 water samples were contaminated with TC and FC. The TC and FC counts were found in the range of 2-52 CFU/100 ml and 1-128 CFU/100 ml respectively. The water samples collected from Chandmani Road, Chajjobagh, New Jakkanpur and Chandpur Bela were found heavily contaminated. A comparison of bacteriological characteristics of water samples collected from Chandmani Road and New Jakkanpur, during winter season, with summer season data of bacteriological analysis of the water samples collected from these locations showed that the points were heavily contaminated during winter survey than what they were found during summer survey. Such results indicated the contamination of water with sewerage systems during its transportation from source to distribution points. TC and FC contamination was observed in all the water samples collected from consumer ends in monsoon except in seven samples collected from Katra, Kumhrar, Mahendru, Mithapur, Chaudhary Tola and Saristabad. It was observed that the water quality undergoes change from source to the distribution points.

PURI

The city receives water from ground water sources only. Since the city is situated near Bay of Bengal, the ground water near to sea beach is saline. There are two low TDS zones, namely Baliapanda and Chakratirtha, 2-3 km away from the seashore and these are used to meet the requirement of potable water. Production wells are constructed for drawal of water from these two low salinity water zones. The system has the adequacy to meet future demand. Though these zones are well protected, some detrimental human activities are observed at Baliapanda.

From the data of raw water (source) and finished water samples it was revealed that physico-chemical characteristics of ground water are acceptable as per CPHEEO guidelines. Chloride values were low though the zone is very near to seashore. The turbidity values of ground water samples changed from source to distribution. There was no variation in the water quality of bore wells. Bleaching powder is added with ground water for disinfection at Ghodabazar and Markendeshwar distribution reservoirs and chlorine gas is used at Totagopinath distribution reservoir. The chlorine dose of 3 mg/L is applied at the distribution reservoir.

At MBR, the turbidity values were found in the range of 0.3 to 1.8, 0.5 to 1.6 and 0.8 to 2.8 NTU during winter, summer and monsoon seasons respectively. At MBR, the residual chlorine was observed as 2 mg/L during winter. The respective values during summer and monsoon were 2 to >2 mg/L and 1 to 2 mg/L. No bacterial count was detected at MBR in all the three seasons. Residual chlorine values at consumer ends in winter, summer and monsoon were found in the range of 1 mg/L respectively. No bacterial count at consumer end was observed in all the seasons.

RAIPUR

The water supply to Raipur city is from both surface and ground water sources. The raw water source for treatment plant is Kharoon River. There is no intense human activity and industrial setup in close proximity of intake point on the river and the river is well protected from pollution. The Kharoon is a non-perennial river and gets dry during February to June. In dry period the raw water is brought through a canal from the Ravishankar Dam situated on river Mahanadi. There is one treatment plant in Raipur located near Ravanbhata at the south of the city. This plant serves the population of about 8 lakhs. The design capacity of the treatment plant is 47.67 MLD. The water quality after treatment was observed within permissible limit as

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per CPHEEO guidelines. There was no significant variation in water quality during the study. The residual chlorine in sump water and reservoirs was 0.5 - 1.5 mg/L.

Twenty percent of the city population is served by 40 bore wells. Bore well water is used partly for mixing with surface water in service reservoirs and partly distributed directly through stand posts directly connected to pumping sets. When the bore well water is supplied through stand posts directly connected to the pumping set, the water is supplied without any treatment. Such bore well water is not disinfected or chlorinated. The water quality of bore wells for physico-chemical parameters during summer, winter and monsoon was found within the permissible limit as per CPHEEO Guidelines.

Out of 51 samples collected during summer for the evaluation of bacteriological quality at consumer ends, 10 samples were found contaminated with the total and faecal coliform. The analysis of bore well water sample for bacteriological quality showed that most of the bore wells in Raipur are contaminated. In summer 26 bore wells samples were collected of which 13 samples were analysed for physico-chemical and bacteriological parameters and thirteen were analysed only for bacteriological quality. It was seen that out of 26 bore wells 3 bore wells were found contaminated with total and faecal coliform. In monsoon 25 bore well water samples were analysed and all were found contaminated with total and faecal coliform. In winter water samples from 20 bore wells were analysed, of which 11 bore wells were contaminated with total and faecal coliforms.

RANCHI

The source of water for Ranchi is Swarnarekha River. There is no significant variation in physico-chemical characteristics. The water quality was classified under category C of CPCB Specification.

Physico-chemical and bacteriological quality of finished water meets the CPHEEO guidelines. Residual chlorine 0.5 - 2 mg/L was maintained in finished water. Field studies and water quality evaluation has not shown any adverse situation at the treatment plant. Chlorination was found to be satisfactory. The performance of the water supply system from the treatment plant to distribution system to consumers end is satisfactory. No chemical or organic contamination was observed during the study period. No bacterial count was observed in consumer point samples.

SHILLONG

The water supply in Shillong is from ground water (spring) and surface water (stream) sources. There are seven natural springs, viz. Wah Risa, Umjasai, Wah Jalynoh, Crinoline, Madan Laban, Patta Khana and Wah Dienglieng supplying water to the part of Shillong city. There are additional three surface water sources, namely Umsohlang stream, Umiew river and Umkhen river providing water to Mawlai (Umsohlang), Mawphlang (GSWS) and Umkhen water treatment plants respectively.

No significant change was observed in raw water quality on day-to-day basis at Water Treatment Plants. Field studies and water quality evaluation has not shown any adverse situation in the treatment plants. No chemical or organic contamination was observed during the study period. Residual chlorine was found in the range of 0.2 to 2.0 mg/L in the finished water.

78

The finished water quality meets CPHEEO guidelines except for bacteriological contamination in distribution system. Residual chlorine was found only during monsoon in the service reservoir samples. Bacteriological contamination in the distribution system and at consumers end was noticed. Residual chlorine was not observed in the service reservoir samples during study period. The presence of coliforms in these samples may be attributed to inadequate chlorination, insufficient contact time and poor maintenance of service reservoirs.

SHIMLA

There are seven surface water sources and four water treatment plants. Cherot nallah, Kufri nallah and springs are the raw water sources for Dhalli WTP. Ashwani Khad is the source of raw water for Ashwani WTP. Chairh nallah is the raw water source for chairh WTP. Nauti Khad and Kalyan nallah are the raw water sources for Gumma WTP. All the sources are well protected. It was reported that 80% of the population is served by these water supplies.

There was no significant change in raw water quality on daily and seasonal basis. Overall performance of water works was found satisfactory. The water samples from service reservoir receiving water from Gumma Water Treatment Plant showed the presence of total coliform count on some occasions and no faecal contamination was detected during the winter season. Water quality at distribution system indicated the presence of total coliform in some samples even after the presence of residual chlorine and may be related to insufficient contact time in the system.

SURAT

The main source of the water for the city is river Tapi, both surface water and ground water sources are used for water supply, 40 MLD water is drawn from radial collection well in the riverbed. The Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) concentration observed was 188 to 227 mg/L. All the water quality parameters observed in raw water were found within the limits prescribed by CPHEEO guidelines. Changes in water quality from source to the distribution stations were negligible. The treated water residual chlorine was observed from 0.7 to 2 mg/L. As far as the bacteriological quality is concerned, cent percent removal was observed due to high chlorination practices. Therefore, the overall functioning of the treatment units are observed satisfactory.

UDAIPUR

The city draws water from three freshwater lakes, viz. Jai Samand, Fateh Sagar and Pichola. The lake Jai Samand, 55 km away from the city, provides major portion of raw water. The Pichola and Fateh Sagar lakes are located within the city. In addition tube wells and open wells at several locations in the city are used. There are 78 tube-wells of which 9 are in the lake Fateh Sagar and operated only when lake water level is very low. Another ground water source is located at mining area of Rajasthan State Minerals and Mines (RSMM) where water pumped from the mines is stored in Jhamar Kotra Dam Reservoir, which also serves as water source for city water supply.

It is evident form the results that the physico-chemical parameters of quality of water supplied in the city are within the permissible limits of CPHEEO guidelines and there is no fluctuation on daily basis. No bacterial counts were found in the samples of the service reservoirs, showing that they are free from contamination. Total 77 samples were collected from representative consumer ends and 27 samples showed residual chlorine concentration less

79

than 0.2 mg/L of which 11 samples had positive bacterial counts. These samples indicated TNC values for all the three bacteriological parameters, viz. Total Coliform, E.Coli and Faecal Coliform.

VARANASI

Surface water source (river Ganga) and ground water sources, contributing almost equally, are used for water supply to Varanasi. The quality of raw water received at Bhadaini intake point is satisfactory with respect to physico-chemical parameters. Raw water from ground sources is drawn through 109 tube wells spread throughout the city with the present yield of approximately 145 MLD. Total coliforms were found in 30%, 47% and 88% of the analysed samples for 1 to 5 days of sampling in different seasons. Faecal coliforms were detected in 10%, 44% and 28% of the analysed samples. The tube wells water is disinfected by bleaching powder solution.

Contamination of most of the tube wells with coliforms during monsoon season might be due to percolation of water accumulated in the monsoon ponds. It was observed that cleanliness is not maintained around some of the tube wells and garbage was also found dumped near pump house of some tube wells. As there is no proper arrangement for drainage of the wastewater, it is likely to percolate and result into contamination of sources. There is no adequate security and protection of tube well sources, hence, bathing and washing activities are common near some of tube wells premises using the water from bypass pipes like RP Ghat and Bhadani.

Raw, treated and stored water and water at consumer ends were assessed during three seasons, viz. winter, summer and monsoon. Turbidity of raw water varied between 8 and 10 NTU. Total Alkalinity and Hardness ranged as 200 - 210 and 180 - 184 mg/L respectively. The parameters of raw water were well within CPCB guidelines for raw water acceptable for drinking water, except bacterial count and turbidity. The residual chlorine was detected in all the 16 OHTs in the range of 0.1 to 1.0 mg/L and the quality of stored water in reservoirs and tanks was safe for supplies to consumers.

Results of microbial analysis revealed that the water sample of house connections in Sheopur and PSP in Lahartara, Mint House, Durgakund, Sundarpur, Rathyatra and PSP in BHU were found contaminated with total as well as Faecal coliforms and residual chlorine was absent. Total coliforms were also detected in the samples collected from PSPs in Sarnath, Sikraul, Nadeser, BHU, Assi, Godaulia and Sigra. Residual chlorine was not detected in these samples except those of Assi and Godaulia. It has been observed that 20 to 44% of the collected samples were contaminated with coliforms in various sampling sectors in all the seasons.

Water samples were collected from handpumps for analysis of physico-chemical and bacteriological parameters and showed that turbidity, total dissolved solids (TDS), Total Hardness, Magnesium, Chloride and Fluoride exceeded the limit and all other physico-chemical parameters were within the acceptable limits as per CPHEEO guidelines. None of the parameters exceed the permissible limit. Chloride and Fluoride exceeded in one and three samples respectively. Total coliforms were also detected in all the samples except that of Kajjakpura and Pitarkunda. Faecal contamination was also found in sample of Bari Piari. Water from none of these surveyed handpumps was suitable for potability, hence, may be used only in absence of alternate sources.

80

VISAKHAPATNAM

There are 3 surface water sources and 2 ground water sources for the city water supply. All the water sources are properly protected. Reportedly there are no industries in the catchment area.

The turbidity values in treated water exceeded the CPHEEO Guidelines in post-monsoon and summer seasons in Maghadrigedda phase I and phase II of water treatment plants. The turbidity of treated water samples in Narava and Tatipudi have been found within the CPHEEO norms in all the three seasons. The values of iron in post-monsoon season exceeded the CPHEEO norms in Narava and Tatipudi samples. The values of iron in winter season exceeded the CPHEEO standards in all the samples except Tatipudi. The values of the remaining parameters were found well within the limits prescribed by CPHEEO norms.

In post monsoon season a total of 102 samples covering the entire distribution system encompassing problem areas, low pressure zones, areas with high leakage, dead ends in the distribution system and farthest points from service reservoirs including the old distribution system were analyzed for residual chlorine. Out of the 102 samples five samples were found with residual chlorine less than 0.2 mg/L and were analyzed for bacteriological quality and were found to have TC and FC count. A total number of 64 samples were analyzed for residual chlorine during winter season sampling and all were found to have sufficient residual chlorine. In summer season, a total number of 66 samples were analyzed for residual chlorine in the same localities. Out of 66 samples 1 sample with residual chlorine less than 0.2 mg/L was analysed for bacteriological quality and showed presence of TC and FC. In post monsoon season five samples were found to have TC and FC count. In summer season, out of 66 samples 1 sample with residual chlorine less than 0.2 mg/L was analysed for bacteriological quality and showed presence of TC and FC.

4.7 Waste Management and Sanitation

4.7.1 Solid Waste Management

The quantity of solid waste generated per day in the cities under study is shown in Fig. 4.11. Solid waste management facilities for collection and disposal of the generated waste exist in most of the cities. The maximum solid waste is generated at Bangalore, 2000 MT/day and least at Shimla, 60 MT/day (Fig. 4.11). The methods of disposal normally followed are landfilling, dumping, composting and biological treatment of waste.

4.7.2 Sewerage System and Sewage Treatment

Some of the cities are partially sewered, whereas there are many cities without any sewerage system. The cities with partial sewer lines are Allahabad, Bangalore, Bhopal, Chandigarh, Coimbatore, Durgapur, Faridabad, Indore, Kochi, Patna, Puri, Surat, Udaipur, Varanasi, Vishakhapatnam and city without any sewer lines are Bhubaneshwar, Dehradun, Guwahati, Patiala, Raipur, Ranchi, Shillong, Shimla. However, none of the cities have the facilities of treating the total sewage generated in the city. Sewage treatment plant exists in 15 cities. The treated effluent as well as untreated sewage is disposed off in the nearby water bodies.

81

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4.8 Health Status

The details of diseases prevalence, particularly number of cases of cholera, gastroenteritis, hepatitis, dysentery, diarrhoea, jaundice and typhoid for the cities of Allahabad, Bangalore, Bhopal, Coimbatore, Guwahati, Indore, Kochi, Patna, Puri, Raipur, Shimla, Surat, Udaipur, Varanasi and Visakhapatnam recorded during last five years are given in Table 3.4. There were no cases of illness due to water borne diseases during last 3 - 5 years in the cities of Bhubaneshwar, Chandigarh, Durgapur, Patiala, Ranchi and Shillong.

4.9 Training and Human Resource Development

The performance of a plant will only be as good as the designer, the builder and more importantly the operator allow it to be. Even the best designed and constructed plant cannot perform well in the hands of a poor operator. Therefore, a competent plant personnel is a sine quo non to produce, at all times, a consistently good quality, safe water meeting the prescribed standards.

In number of water supply systems maintained by local bodies, there are too many plant personnel, especially at the lower level and their productivity is far from satisfactory. With the result, they constitute a major source of drain on the revenue receipts of the water works. Excepting in a few states there are no well-defined norms prescribed for the number of personnel at various levels vis--vis the size of the plant and the treatment flow sheet. Their job description is not clearly laid down. The other side is that a definite policy for career and human resources development opportunities for plant personnel is lacking. Also, proper motivation and incentives aimed at development of technical skill and knowledge in plant operation commensurate with salaries appears to be missing.

Adequate programmes are not available for sub-professionals like filter operators and attendants. Necessarily, these courses have to be designed by the state agencies in the local language keeping in view the educational level of such personnel.

It is also observed that some of the training courses are essentially classroom oriented without adequate practical or hand-on training. This imbalance in the course contents needs to be removed through a proper blend of theory and practice. Also a system of certification of plant operators would seem very necessary in the light of large investments made on sophisticated plants to ensure their satisfactory performance. Necessary legal provision to this effect should be made for all the cities / towns preferably at the state level. A system of gradation of the operators should be devised through a National or State Board.

4.10 Organizational Aspects

The institutional structure for management of water supply in different states takes different forms such as Public Health Engineering Department (PHEDs), Water Supply and Sewerage / Drainage Boards, Municipal Corporations, Municipalities etc. While uniformity in structure may not be feasible because of diverse local factors, there should be only one organisation in one urban area with full responsibility and accountability for water supply.

Very few local bodies have adequate qualified and competent engineering and technical personnel for planning, designing and implementing water supply projects on their own. Works

83

of capital nature are, therefore, invariably assigned to the Public Health Engineering Department or Water Supply and Sewerage/Drainage Boards. While local bodies should take on the full responsibility for operation and maintenance of water supply systems, experience has shown that some of them are reluctant to do so because of their weak resource base.

4.11 Financial Aspects

The information on annual expenditure for water supply is available only for eight cities, viz. Allahabad Rs. 2021.9 Lakhs, Bangalore Rs. 2554 Lakhs, Bhopal Rs. 360 Lakhs, Coimbatore Rs. 537 Lakhs, Indore Rs. 493.6 Lakhs, Kochi Rs. 801 Lakhs, Shimla Rs. 184.4 Lakhs and Visakhapatnam Rs. 2306 Lakhs. The annual collection towards water charges for the cities of Allahabad, Bangalore, Coimbatore, Faridabad, Kochi, Patna, Shimla, Varanasi and Visakhapatnam are depicted in Fig. 4.12.

A major constraint in effective operation and maintenance of water supply systems has been inadequate financial resources. Because of several contributing factors, the revenue receipts from water supply rarely meet the expenditure incurred in the production and distribution of potable water. The shortfall is usually madeup, if at all, through other sources of revenue.

It is imperative that the water supply system must generate necessary funds to meet the annual cost of operation and maintenance and to provide for a reserve for meeting the capital expenses for future improvement to the system. This will require suitable restructuring of water rates and tariff based on the cost of production, operation and maintenance and effective collection of the same. It would be difficult to collect the entire cost from the beneficiaries. But the systems have to be maintained properly to utilize the investment already made and infrastructural facilities created and to provide the basic need of water supply to the people. This also means stringency on manpower deployment and expenditure incurred on consumables.

4.12 Public Relations

Perhaps, one of the most neglected aspects of water works management has been public relations. The KAP and Sanitary Survey for all the project cities/towns based on the specified set of questionnaire was undertaken. In most of the cities it was observed that the awareness about drinking water pollution, SDWQ programme, health aspects, sanitation etc. among the general public was less than 50%. On the other hand 50 90% of the respondents from water supply agencies and health agencies were aware of the SDWQ programme and other aspects of water supply and sanitation.

The local elite and the common public in general are ignorant about the source of their water supply, the various steps the water goes through before it is turned into a potable product, the complexities and cost involved in the process of treatment and distribution. A general awareness and appreciation of this information could increase the goodwill and cooperation of the consumers and pave the way for better relations between the two. This could be achieved through the media, handouts, popular lectures and brochures and through 'open days' when the population is allowed to visit the water works.

Voluntary agencies can play a useful role in improving the quality of service to community from local bodies, facilitate community level dialogue in planning, motivation and monitoring of water supply.

84

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5.0 Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality (SDWQ)

Any agency responsible for product is also responsible for product quality. The product quality is subject to the standards. The quality in itself is above the standards. The standards focus on lowest level of quality; something below which the product is no longer acceptable. But where are the limits for improving the product or service? The quality, therefore, is under constant up-surge. With the intrinsic implication of "quality", the product quality control is imperative. The water supply is an industry with water for public consumption as the product. The product water quality must be of the standard acceptable for drinking water. Entrusted with this responsibility, the water supply agency has liberty and responsibility to inspect, protect and improve the installations and collect and analyze the water samples. All those activities are for water quality control.

The surveillance of drinking water quality also involves inspection of site and sanitary condition of installations. The activities of SDWQ include assessment of design, commissioning and O&M of source, treatment, storage and distribution. The sampling and analysis of water from source to distribution are main components of SDWQ. The water analysis laboratories of water supply agency, financial and manpower structure are in the perview of SDWQ. The surveillance of drinking water quality is to seek the answer to the question is the water supply agency in a position to give the specified quality of water to total population within reasonable cost? The SDWQ includes all the activities to seek answer to the question.

5.1 Status of SDWQ

Surveillance of drinking water quality can be defined as the combined measures adopted by the competent authorities to evaluate the risk to public health of the quality of water provided by public water systems, as well as to evaluate the degree of compliance with legislation linked with water quality.

The water quality surveillance is an activity of investigation generally carried out by the competent public authorities, directed toward identifying and evaluating risk factors associated with public water system and which can imply a threat to the health of the population. It is an activity which is preventive as well as corrective in ensuring the reliability and safety of water for human consumption. Surveillance is preventive because it facilitates the early detection of risk factors so that action can be taken before abnormalities in water quality occur or negative health impacts are produced. It is corrective because it permits the identification of sources of outbreaks of water-related diseases in order to act on them, re-establish water quality and keep the problem from spreading. If good use is made of the information resulting from this type of analysis or evaluation, it will be possible to improve standards on drinking water quality, as well as operational, maintenance, storage and distribution procedures and the regulations concerning design, construction, building materials or chemicals employed in water treatment. The guidelines for designing the water quality surveillance programme for the city / town are illustrated in Annexure IX.

The total percentage of cities, where some SDWQ programme is undertaken regularly is shown in Fig. 4.13. A total of 26% of the cities, which have SDWQ programme include Bangalore, Coimbatore, Surat, Kochi, Raipur and Visakhapatnam. In Bangalore, Coimbatore, Surat, Kochi and Visakhapatnam the sampling frequency is once in a month (Table 3.4). On the other hand 74% of the total cities do not undertake SDWQ programme. These include

86

Allahabad, Bhopal, Bhubaneshwar, Chandigarh, Dehradun, Durgapur, Faridabad, Guwahati, Patiala, Patna, Puri, Ranchi, Shillong, Shimla, Indore, Udaipur and Varanasi.

5.2 SDWQ Programme Planning

Organizing and implementation of surveillance of drinking water quality programme are no longer matter of debate. Having spent nation-wide multiple resources on the installations of public water supply schemes with the objective of provision of safe water supply to the population, it is logically obvious to know the results of these efforts. This is highly essential to known that the resources are aptly uti l ized or need on-line intervention or improved productivity. The surveillance of drinking water quality is not for finding fault in any particular sector of organised community water supply and implicating punishment but for integrated assessment of organised community water supply for ranking and improvement. All the relevant agencies and personnel must understand this aspect of surveillance programme. An enforceable corrective action for specific improvement with identified responsibility is an integrated part of surveillance outcome.

The objectives of the surveillance of drinking water quality call for uniformity in formulating the SDWQ programme. Considering the national coverage of SDWQ and large local variations, it is neither possible nor desirable of formulate a uniform standard for rigorous implementation. There are several local and regional variations in total design of water supply schemes. The persistant changes due to erratic urbanization demand alterations in water supply installations and practices and this call for modified SDWQ. Such modifications need not rest on excuses as sound socio-economic, scientific and engineering analysis of changed situations is possible. The change in SDWQ and variation in adoption of guidelines for SDWQ must be based on strong foundation of relevant knowledge.

Several local variations warranting the difference in conducting SDWQ were noticed in course of these studies. The cases of erratic local decisions were noted. On certain matters high degree of uniformity of strongly objectionable nature was observed. Coverage of all such local variations, errors and erroneous uniformities is not aimed in the studies. The important issues are discussed for consideration in SDWQ for a city.

The city of Mumbai uses Vaitarna impoundment water as sources of raw water for public water supply. As an inflow of recharge water in the dam takes considerable time before reaching the point of intake of water supply scheme, the physico-chemical and bacterial water quality is stabilized. No daily changes are anticipated and frequency of sampling and analysis must take cognizance of this site-specific situation. The Kake dam in Ranchi in highly influences by wastewater flow, solid waste dragged into water and washing of cattle and vehicles. The dam did not overflow in last 10 years. A proposal was prepared for desilting of dam. The dam does not need desilting. Protection of dam from influence of polluting waste and pollution causing human actives is highly essential. The water distribution network of Ranchi needs interconnection to utilize the Swarnarekha water in part of the city with low supply levels. The water sources of the city of Bangalore are under the threat of pollution due to colonies and slums occupying the sensitive catchment area resulting in discharge of waste and interference in natural impounding watershed. This is leading to closure of these water bodies. The intake of Kolar Water Works of Bhopal in from a single sluice get of the Kolar dam and bottom water of the dam is susceptible to change in water quality due to change in bacterial degradation of sediments. The temperature of water zone in the vicinity of the sediment influences the bacterial

87

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88

degradation of sediments. This temperature changes seasonally. The season change, therefore, influence iron and management content of water. For prompt modification of treatment commensurate with raw and treated water quality, the raw water sampling schedule of Kolar water supply scheme demand frequent sampling. This site-specific situation is different from the condition of Vaitarna dam.

Erroneous uniformity of objectionable nature in water treatment plants pertains to addition of chemicals in the treatment as a most important singular factor. Almost all the water treatment plants add alum blocks in raw water channel as a measure of alum dosing. Even the treatment plant having the functional chemical dissolution assembly, resort to throwing alum blocks in raw water channel at some stages. Whatever may be the reasons for such emergent actions, there need by strict vigilance to suppress this way of chemical dosing. Chlorination also need be done by appropriately dissolving the chlorine gas in gas dissolution assembly and dispensing uniformly dispersed and dissolved bleaching powder solution.

Community base approach to surveillance of drinking water quality has been tried at some cities. One of the examples is Bhagidari scheme for improvement of water and sanitation services in NCT-Delhi. The water supply agency of the city of Bangalore has designed elaborate and effective consumer services schemes. The complaints are properly recorded, grievances and complaints regarding water supply are attended at fixed places at the fixed and well-informed periodicity. Modern methods are adopted for convenience of consumers in making payments of water bills.

With reliance on the data obtained through the interaction with the city agencies, KAP survey, interaction with the officers of city water supply agency and consumers during the course of discussion while collecting the samples and the organised workshop for the project is considered together for preparing the guidelines for SDWQ programme. Long standing experience of the project team in handling various water supply related project cannot be kept aside while formulating the plan for SDWQ and this has been reflected in the foregoing discussion.

The guidelines for staff pattern of the laboratories, parameters of water quality assessment, frequency of sampling for bacteriological and physico-chemical parameters for surveillance of drinking water quality and identification of the instruments and equipment for water quality assessment laboratory has been prepared for the planning of surveillance of drinking water quality programme. The information is presented in table through Table 5.1 to 5.4. The planning of manpower and infrastructure may be done considering this information. A reasonable uniformity in SDWQ programme is essential for generation of comparable information.

The SDWQ programmes for each city, thus, need be planned taking cognizance of both favourable and adverse local variations in all the aspects and issues of surveillance and keeping the national objective of providing safe domestic water supply at the reasonable cost.

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Table 5.1 Suggested Guidelines for Staff Pattern of the Laboratories

Sl. No. Designation Category No.

1. City / District Water Supply Agency - Laboratory for Monitoring Water Quality Team - 1

1.1 Executive Analyst

(Post Graduate in Chemistry / Bacteriology/Microbiology/Environmental Science and minimum 5 years of experience in analysis of water and related material with knowledge of established techniques of chemical and bacteriological analysis of water & materials normally used in water treatment excluding the functional group analysis and monomer content estimation but including physical methods of quality control of polymers used in water treatment. Knowledge of PC operation with computer operated monitoring and measuring devices, Windows and MS Office) Team Leader of Team -1 & Reporting to Head of Water Supply Agency

Grade Rs. 8000-275-13500

With promotional avenues in three higher grades in time scale

1

1.2 Assistant Analyst

(Post Graduate in Chemistry with knowledge of established techniques of Physico-chemical analysis of water, alum, bleaching powder, chlorine solutions and lime. Knowledge of PC operation with computer operated monitoring and measuring devices, Windows and MS Office)

Grade Rs. 5500-175-9000


One per plant of capacity upto 200 mld or multiple upto 4 plants in single campus or within 5 km from the plant of highest capacity with total capacity of the system not exceeding 150 mld or proportional variation


(Post Graduate in Bacteriology / Environmental Sciences / Microbiology with knowledge of established techniques of bacteriological analysis of water. Knowledge of PC operation with computer operated monitoring and measuring devices, Windows and MS Office)

Grade Rs. 5500-175-9000


One per plant of capacity upto 200 mld or multiple upto 4 plants in single campus or within 5 km from the plant of highest capacity with total capacity of the system not exceeding 150 mld or proportional variation

1.4 Suitable support staff and infrastructure or out sourcing of associated jobs e.g. PC Operation, Photocopying, Cleaning, Stores, Transport

90

2.1 Superintending Analyst

(Post Graduate in Chemistry / Bacteriology/Microbiology/Environmental Science and minimum 10 years of experience in analysis of water and related material with knowledge of established techniques of chemical and bacteriological analysis of water & materials normally used in water treatment excluding the functional group analysis and monomer content estimation but including physical methods of quality control of polymers used in water treatment. Knowledge of PC operation with computer operated monitoring and measuring devices, Windows and MS Office) Team Leader of Team - 2 & Reporting to Surveillance committee as mentioned at Sr. No. 6.10 of Volume I

Grade Rs. 14300-400-18300


1

2.2 Executive Analyst

(Post Graduate in Chemistry / Bacteriology/Microbiology/Environmental Science and minimum 5 years of experience in analysis of water and related material with knowledge of established techniques of chemical and bacteriological analysis of water & materials normally used in water treatment excluding the functional group analysis and monomer content estimation but including physical methods of quality control of polymers used in water treatment. Knowledge of PC operation with computer operated monitoring and measuring devices, Windows and MS Office) Team Leader of Team -1 & Reporting to Head of Water Supply Agency

Grade Rs. 8000-275-13500


1

2. Water Supply of the City and District - Laboratory for Surveillance of Drinking

Water Quality Team 2

91


(Post Graduate in Chemistry with knowledge of established techniques of Physico-chemical analysis of water, alum, bleaching powder, chlorine solutions and lime. Knowledge of PC operation with computer operated monitoring and measuring devices, Windows and MS Office)

Grade Rs. 5500-175-9000


One per plant of capacity upto 200 mld or multiple upto 4 plants in single campus or within 5 km from the plant of highest capacity with total capacity of the system not exceeding 150 mld or proportional variation AND One per population of 10 -20 lakhs served in the distribution system



Grade Rs. 5500-175-9000


One per plant of capacity upto 200 mld or multiple upto 4 plants in single campus or within 5 km from the plant of highest capacity with total capacity of the system not exceeding 150 mld or proportional variation AND One per population upto10 lakhs served in the distribution system


3. State Agency Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality Team - 3

3.1 Chief Analyst Team Leader of Team - 3 & Chief Executive of Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality in the State

Grade Rs. 18400-450-20000 With promotional avenues in three higher grades in time scale

1

92

3.2 Expert Analyst - Microbiology - Analytical Chemistry - Organics - Pesticides - Instrumentation Specialist - Trace Metals

Grade Rs. 14300-400-18300 With promotional avenues in three higher grades in time scale

6

3.3 Assistant Analyst (Post Graduate in Chemistry with knowledge of established techniques of Physico-chemical analysis of water, alum, bleaching powder, chlorine solutions and lime. Knowledge of PC operation with computer operated monitoring and measuring devices, Windows and MS Office)

Grade Rs. 5500-175-9000


2



Grade Rs. 5500-175-9000


2

3.5 Suitable support staff or out sourcing of consolidated analytical assignment to an organisation


Grade and scale of pay as per Central Government Employees Year Book 2005, A Nabhi Publication, New Delhi 110 001.

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Table : 5.2

Parameters for Water Quality Assessment Sl. No.

Parameter Method(s)

Physical

Visual comparison method 1. Colour Spectrophotometric method

2. Odour Threshold odour test Flavour threshold test Flavour rating assessment

3. Taste

Flavour profile analysis pH meter 4. pH pH paper

5. Turbidity Nephelometer

6. Conductivity By Conductivity Meter Filtration and Evaporation method 7. Dissolved Solids Computation from conductivity measurement

Chemical

pH meter Potentiometric Titration

8. Alkalinity

Titration method 9. Total Hardness EDTA titrimetric method

Atomic absorption spectrometric method 10. Iron Inductively coupled plasma method

11. Chloride Argentometric method Iodometric method I Iodometric method II Amperometric titration method Low level amperometric titration method DPD ferrous titrimetric method DPD colorimetric method

12. Residual Free Chlorine

By chloroscopes 13. Calcium EDTA titrimetric method 14. Magnesium EDTA titrimetric method

Atomic absorption spectrometric method Inductively coupled plasma method

15. Manganese

Per sulphate method Ion chromatographic method Gravimetric method with ignition of residue Gravimetric method with drying of residue

16. Sulphate

Turbidimetric method

Ion chromatographic method U.V spectrophotometric screening method Nitrate electrode method Cadmium reduction method Automated cadmium reduction method

17. Nitrate

Automated hydrazine method 18. Fluoride Ion selective electrode method

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SPADNS methodAtomic absorption spectrometric method Inductively coupled plasma method

19. Sodium

Flame emission photometric method

Atomic absorption spectrometric method

Inductively coupled plasma method

20.

Potassium

Flame emission photometric method

Chloroform extraction method

21.

Phenolic Compounds

Direct photometric method

Cyanide selective electrode method

22.

Cyanide

Colorimetric Method

Heavy Metals



Neocuproine method

23.

Copper

Bathocuproine method


Inductively coupled plasma method Heptoxime method

24.

Nickel

Dimethylglyoxime method Cold vapour atomic absorption method 25. Mercury Dithiozone method Atomic absorption spectrometric method


26.

Cadmium

Dithiozone method

Atomic absorption spectrometric method Inductively coupled plasma method

Silver diethyldithiocarbamate method

27.

Arsenic

Mercuric bromide stain method Atomic absorption spectrometric method


28.

Lead

Dithiozone method



29.

Zinc

Zincon method



30.

Chromium

Colorimetric method



Eriochrome cyanine method

31.

Aluminium

Automated pyrocatechol violet method

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Radioactivity

44. "Alpha" activity Counting method 45. "Beta" activity Counting method

Bacteriology

Membrane Filter Technique 46. Total Coliform Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique Membrane Filter Technique 47. Faecal Coliform Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique

Pesticides

32. Dieldrin 33. Aldrin 34. Endrin 35. Lindane 36. Heptachlor 37. Heptachlor Epoxide 38. o,p -DDT 39. p,p -DDT 40. pp' -DDE 41. BHC 42. Methoxychlor 43. Chlordane

Liquid - liquid extraction Gas Chromatographic Method I

Liquid - liquid extraction Gas Chromatographic Method II

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Table : 5.3

Frequency of Sampling for Bacteriological and Physico- Chemical Parameters

for Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality

Sl. No. Location Parameter Frequency of Sampling

Minimum Number of Samples

1. Source - Surface Water

Bacteriological Once in a month Physico-Chemical Once in a week Heavy Metals Once in three

months

1.1 -Rivers / Infiltration Wells

Pesticides Once in six months

One per source

Bacteriological Once in a month Physico-Chemical Once in a month Heavy Metals Once in three

months

1.2 - Impounded Reservoirs of Sustained impoundment

Pesticides Once in six months

One per source

Bacteriological Once in a month Physico-Chemical Once in a week Heavy Metals Once in a month

1.3 - Impounded Reservoir with Seasonal Variation and getting dried up in Scarcity Season Pesticides Once in three

months

One per source

2. Source - Ground Water

Bacteriological Once in a month Physico-Chemical Once in a month Heavy Metals Once in six

months

2.1 -Tube Wells

Pesticides Once in a year

10 % of the total sources

Bacteriological Once in a month 10 % of the total sources

Physico-Chemical Once in a month Heavy Metals Once in a year

2.2 -Hand Pumps

Pesticides Once in 3 years

5 % of the total sources

Contd ...

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Water Sampling and Analysis for Heavy Metals and Pesticides is to be conducted by the State Agency - Surveillance of Drinking Water Quality

Contd...

Sl. No. Location Parameter Frequency of Sampling

Minimum Number of Samples

3. Treatment Plants

Bacteriological Once every day Physico-Chemical Once in a month Heavy Metals Once in six

months

3.1 - Treated water before chlorination

Pesticides Once in a year

One per treatment plant

Bacteriological Once every day 3.2 -Various Units of the plant pH, Turbidity, Alkalinity, Conductivity, Sulphate

Once every day From appropriate units

Bacteriological Once every day 3.3 - Sump, Master Balancing Reservoir, Ground Level Reservoir, Elevated Service Reservoir, Overhead tank

pH, Turbidity, Conductivity, Residual chlorine

Once every day From 50% of the mentioned units

4. Distribution System

Bacteriological Once every day 4.1 - Stand Post and Consumer Ends pH, Turbidity,

Conductivity, Residual Chlorine

Once every day From 30 representative locations

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Table 5.4Instruments & Equipment for Water Quality Assessment Laboratory

Sl. No. Items Level of Laboratory State/ District/ City Instruments

1. Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer (GCMS)

State

2. Atomic Adsorption Spectrometer (AAS) State 3. Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC) State 4. High Performance Liquid Chromatography

(HPLC) State

5. Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometer (ICPS)

State

6. Total Organic Carbon Analyzer State 7. Stereo Microscope State, District and City 8. Flame Photometer State, District and City 9. Spectrophotometer (Visible & Ultraviolet) State, District and City

10. Monopan Digital Balance State, District and City 11. Conductivity Meter State, District and City 12. pH Meter State, District and City 13. Jar Test Apparatus State, District and City 14. Specific Ion Meter State and City 15. Microscope State and City

Equipment

1. Deep Freezer State and City 2. Refrigerator State, District and City 3. Micro Wave Oven State and City 4. Kjel Plus Nitrogen Analyzer State and City 5. Arsine Generating Apparatus State and City 6. Muffle Furnace State, District and City 7. Magnetic Stirrer State, District and City 8. Oven State, District and City 9. Autoclave State, District and City

10. Membrane Filter Assembly State, District and City 11. Incubators 37 0C & 44 0C State, District and City 12. Distillation Apparatus State, District and City 13. Centrifuge State, District and City 14. Colour Comparator and Comparator test set for

residual chlorine or Chloroscopes State, District and City

15. Celsius Thermometer State, District and City 16. Colony Counter State, District and City 17. Vaccum Pump State, District and City

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18. Deep Freezer State and City 19. Heating Mantle and Hot Plates State, District and City 20. Fuel Gas cylinder or pipe gas supply State, District and City 21. Burners State, District and City 22. Imhoff Cones State, District and City 23. Specific Ion electrodes (F, Cyanide & others) State and City 24. Fume Coup Board State, District and City 25. Physical Balance State, District and City 26. Water Bath 12 Concentric Holes and Discs State, District and City 27. Dessicators State, District and City 28. Soxhlet Extraction Unit State, District and City 29. BOD Incubator State, District and City 30. Fire Extinguisher State, District and City 31. First Aid Kit State, District and City 32. Safety Equipments (Goggles, apron, gloves,

gas mask) State, District and City

33. UPS Generator State, District and City 34. PC with printer State, District and City 35. Telephone State, District and City 36. Motorcycles with sampling kits District and City 37. Ice boxes State, District and City 38. Sieve Shaker with standard sieves State, District and City 39. Rotary Shaker State, District and City 40. Air conditioner State, District and City

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6.0 Recommendations

Recommendations are framed on the basis of the findings of the study. These are under ten sub-heads that are source, treatment, storage and reservoirs, distribution, leak detection, quality control, administrative and financial structure, staff, public awareness and organisation structure for surveillance of drinking water quality. The recommendations take cognizance of the safety and dependability of source and runs through a series of issues up to independency of the authority of the organisational structure of the agency to conduct surveillance of the drinking water quality. Public participation and multi laboratory approach has been recommended for credibility and low budget functioning of surveillance programme. Finally apex level supervision is a must. Empowerment does not mean anarchy. CPHEEO may periodically review SDWQ.

6.1 Source

! Holological approach to the resolution of the problems in urban water supply based on the concept of environmental carrying capacity is essential and need be practiced for sustainable solution to the problems of dependability of sources

! There is a need for a more realistic estimate of water needs through accurate projection of future population based on past growth trends, per capita water demand and the requirements of sectors of development other than water for domestic use and human consumption

! Augmentation of supply should be so planned and implemented that by the time the existing capacity reaches its exploitation to the limiting capacity, the facility for expansion goes on stream, so that there are no uncovered developing localities in terms of organised public water supply

! Water sources should always be protected from trespass, particularly sinking of bore wells within few meters, even in privately owned land, should be covered in prevention of trespass, as such bores are sunk only after the yield of public water supply tube well is adequately established

! No human activities like wastewater disposal, bathing, washing of cloths, washing of animals/vehicles should be permitted in the vicinity and particularly upstream of raw water intake and/or impounded water bodies

! Area around the bore / tube wells should be properly fenced in order to prevent entry of animals near the sources; in crowded localities where such source can not be isolated by fencing, the land surface should be properly treated to prevent seepage of water or wastewater in the vicinity of the installation

! Solid waste disposal sites and septic tanks should not be located in the vicinity of ground water sources; in any case if these are located in proximity, the source should be abandoned

6.2 Treatment

! Design of treatment flow sheet should not be decided as a matter of routine but based on an assessment of water quality and treatability studies to meet the prescribed standards of

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finished water quality

! Defective design, construction noted by O&M agency at any later stage must be rectified by the commissioning agency on the demand

! Small plants, which cannot afford technical resources, support services and competent personnel for operation and maintenance, simple, proven systems such as horizontal-flow rectangular settling tanks (without mechanical sludge removal mechanism) should be preferred

! Baffled hydraulic mixing devices and pebble-bed flocculators, when properly designed could provide simple alternatives to conventional systems without compromising on the functional efficiency

! Installation of mastermeters (Venturi/Orifice type) at the raw water pumping station(s) or a measuring flume/weir in the raw water inlet channel with appropriate indicating, recording and integrating system should be made mandatory for all water works to provide accurate information on raw water inflow which is vital for plant operation and control

! Master meters should also be installed in the clear water pumping stations to facilitate maintaining a record of the quantity of finished water supplied into the distribution system

! Gadgets in the treatment plant must be in working order and the person in charge at the level of Assistant Engineer should be responsible for the up keep, operation and maintenance of the gadgets

! Appropriate alum dosing arrangements should be made functional and practice of adding alum blocks in raw water channels as a matter of alum dose must be discontinued forthwith

! All the chemicals added in water treatment must be in the form of solutions and in some case it may be up to the extent of finely dispersed slurry as in case of lime addition

! All the polymers added in water treatment must be thoroughly dispersed and should not be in the form of clots

! Treatment plant must be properly designed and constructed and must be certified to that level by the design, construction and commissioning agency before handing over to the user an

C Volume I Part - 2

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Transcript of C Volume I Part - 2