Lesson 5

By the end of this lesson, students will learn to use the fourth and fifth Keys of Reasoning in debating, i.e. Point of View and Concept.

Lead-in: Round-the-table Reporting and Introduce the Fourth Key, Point of View (PoV)

1. Share the examples from homework.

2. Discuss how the speaker uses assumptions to have the audience assimilated into what they are speaking about.

Paul’s Elements of Reasoning (Key 4)

Key 4: Points of View 

1. From what point of view are you looking at this?

2. Is there another point of view we should consider?

3. Which of these possible viewpoints makes the most sense given the situation?

 More advanced:

4. What are you implying by that?

5. When you say ____________, are you implying ___________?

6. But, if that happened, what else would happen as a result? Why?

7. What effect would that have?

8. Would that necessarily happen or only possibly/probably happen?

9. What is an alternative?

10. If _______________ and ___________________ are the case, then what might also be true?

11. If we say that _________is ethical, how about _____________?

Paul’s Elements of Reasoning (Key 5)

Key 5: Concept

1. What is the main idea you are using in your reasoning?

 

2. Could you explain that idea?

 

3. Are you using your concepts justifiably?

 

More advanced:

4. How does _______________ relate to _______________?

Effective debaters should define ideas and concepts clearly to address a particular PoV as well as considering other PoVs to develop consistent and objective arguments.

Consistency in thoughts will reinforce a team line and enhance persuasion.

Think about Concepts

Trick Question:

What is a dog?

Think about Concepts

1. Work in groups.

2. Improvise and introduce its special features which make the object a specific object.

Conclusion

1. Besides the factual, declarative statements, a concept, or an idea, may vary from person to person.

2. It depends on how a person/thing/object is perceived.

3. The physically same person/thing/object is NOT identical if it carries meaning given or interpreted by a person who has a particular point of view.

4. Given the variation in people’s interpretation of a concept, we should learn how to think based on some methodical process of reasoning to avoid committing logical fallacies as we form arguments, such as, in a debate.

Problems with the Concepts from Logical Fallacies

Logical Fallacy

Example Error in Reasoning (including the

reasoning about the main idea, i.e.

concept, on which the statement is

based)

Possible Question to Ask

and Rebut

Argument to Defend after Mistakenly Committing the

Fallacy

Argument directed at the person

You claim to understand animals, but you are not thinking straight.

Misconception: There is a necessary relationship between one’s understanding of animals and their ability to think straight.

Thank you for recognising that I am one of those who understand animals, but we should focus more on the motion today, ‘Animals should not be kept in captivity’, and my team’s argument. Our arguments are well thought, and please allow me to reiterate that the motion must stand.  

As we, including you and me, are part of the animal world, there is no doubt that we, like all counterparts, need the freedom to live. Freedom, however, as to the best of our knowledge, is not infinite. In a world of scarcity, one’s freedom exists at the expense of another’s. If we assume that animals will live freely as they are not kept in captivity, we are making a false condition because any animals are not born free as we live by the law of nature. Therefore, the motion does not stand.

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Logical Fallacy

Example Error in Reasoning (including the

reasoning about the main idea, i.e.

concept, on which the statement is

based)

Possible Question to Ask

and Rebut

Argument to Defend after Mistakenly Committing the

Fallacy

False appeal to authority

I know that tigers can be tamed because Angelina Jolie says so.

Misconception: Words from a celebrity are reliable.

In what way can you come to a conclusion that tigers can be tamed because Angelina Jolie says so? Is she an expert on tigers? How can your argument be valid just based on her ‘words’?

This fallacy is fatal. It is hard to reverse and defend; the wisest way, if the fallacy is made, would be to drop this line of reasoning immediately, clarify it and move on to another or next reasoning. Time is costly in a debate!

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Logical Fallacy

Example Error in Reasoning (including the

reasoning about the main idea, i.e.

concept, on which the statement is

based)

Possible Question to Ask

and Rebut

Argument to Defend after Mistakenly Committing the

Fallacy

Circular argument

Young people should go to school because they are young.

Misconception: The argument fails to achieve its purpose, i.e. there is a proposition/reason which should prove its conclusion. The reason here contains no evidence that is distinct from the conclusion.

Young people are no doubt young. What makes you think it is the reason why they should go to school? It is every child’s right to receive education, but it is not because they are young, but because it is a human right.

Young people, in particular, need schooling, because they are too young to make mature decisions not just intellectually but also socially. School provides the most opportunities for young people to watch and learn, and to make mistakes as they interact with others, including different role models and negative examples outside their families. The encounters with different people are something that home schooling cannot offer to a young person. 

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Logical Fallacy

Example Error in Reasoning (including the

reasoning about the main idea, i.e.

concept, on which the statement is

based)

Possible Question to Ask

and Rebut

Argument to Defend after Mistakenly Committing the

Fallacy

Hasty generalisa-tion

Teenagers nowadays are lazy and undisciplined because my 15-year-old cousin playing TV games all day and never finishes his homework.

Misconception: Teenagers are lazy.

In what way can you say that teenagers are generally lazy, because your cousin is thought to be lazy as he plays TV games all day and never finishes homework? How do you know your cousin does so simply because he is lazy but not for other reasons, such as, learning difficulties, problems with peers, boredom at school, or family problems?

My 15-year-old cousin may not be a benchmark on which I can base to generalise that all teenagers are undisciplined and lack goals of their own. He IS a typical example though. According to the survey conducted by…, we find that…

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Logical Fallacy

Example Error in Reasoning (including the

reasoning about the main idea, i.e.

concept, on which the statement is

based)

Possible Question to Ask

and Rebut

Argument to Defend after Mistakenly Committing the

Fallacy

After this, therefore because of this

My uncle started playing football, and soon he had a heart attack. Therefore, football causes heart attacks.

Misconception: Playing football is the cause of heart attacks.

Was it proven that your uncle’s heart attack was caused by playing football? Why is it necessary to make this single incident general?

Perhaps I would be the one who have lately witnessed a case in which a person suffered from a heart attack because of playing football. According to the diagnosis by Dr …, professor at…, my uncle had a heart attack after… This was not an accident or a rare coincidence. There has been a research undertaken by…. 

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Logical Fallacy

Example Error in Reasoning (including the

reasoning about the main idea, i.e.

concept, on which the statement is

based)

Possible Question to Ask

and Rebut

Argument to Defend after Mistakenly Committing the

Fallacy

False dichotomy (or false dilemma)

If we have no exams, then we have no standards in our schools.

Misconception: The dilemma does not necessarily arise because it is just an either-or fallacy. The fallacy is caused in a situation or condition where negligible or even no alternatives are considered.

How can we assume that, without exams, there would be no standards in schools? Exams may be only one of the tools to reflect how much we have achieved against some standard. Definitely exams are not the single tool or what would be the meaning of our daily learning? We believe that each day counts.

Exams are not the only tool for us to know how much we are learning in the right track. Without them, we may still have ways to find out but it will take a much greater deal of time and effort from teachers and students. It will also demand the understanding of other tools among all, including parents. Anyone can foresee that there would cause a far more massive burden than exams to all.

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Logical Fallacy

Example Error in Reasoning Possible Question to

Ask and Rebut

Argument to Defend after Mistakenly Committing the Fallacy

False conditional  

If exams are cancelled, then students will enjoy learning.

Misconception: Exams are the only factor that determines whether students enjoy learning or not.  This is a common fallacy. The following are popular, easy to understand explanations about necessary and sufficient conditions, and how a conditional will falsely be formed if the two types of conditions are mixed:   If it rains (A), then there are clouds (B). (If A, then B.) If there are not any clouds (B), then it will not rain (A).

(If not B, then not A.) If it does not rain (A), then there will not be any clouds

(B). (If not A, then not B.) × Note: The proposition is NOT logically valid because it commits the fallacy of denying the antecedent.

• If there are clouds (B), it rains (A). (If B, then A.) × Note: The proposition is NOT logically true because it commits the fallacy of affirming the consequent.

Visit the following websites if you would like to find details about false conditionals and more others: http://faculty.uncfsu.edu/jyoung/chapter_4_notes.htm http://www.philosophicalsociety.com/logical

%20fallacies.htm http://www.google.com.hk/url?

sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CD4QFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gmu.edu%2Fcourses%2Fphil%2Fancient%2FEffective_Argumentation.ppt&ei=tmgEUtnPNqSAiQfHkYBw&usg=AFQjCNFmELMzOY1lp9gZ_q8vrXLQHbWQjQ&sig2=MaySxzBwEBxFvqq7lIJfbg  

  

Exams are neither a necessary or sufficient condition for learning enjoyment. Learning enjoyment does not hinge on whether there are exams or not, but on whether a student can find meaning from the learning process. Could you imagine how overjoyed one could feel after making a record in a swimming contest? That is not just about winning but the sense of fulfillment after one’s efforts have been rewarded. Working hard for an exam is like one’s striving for a swimming contest.

Perhaps we cannot say that students will enjoy learning if exams are cancelled, but you must agree that, without exams, students will have more autonomy to learn based on their own goals. They will then be free from exam-oriented exercises and practice to enjoy learning.

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Logical Fallacy

Example Error in Reasoning (including the

reasoning about the main idea, i.e.

concept, on which the statement is

based)

Possible Question to Ask

and Rebut

Argument to Defend after Mistakenly Committing the

Fallacy

Hearsay I’ve heard that tofu is good for the heart.

Misconception: What one has heard is assumed to be true.

What is the source of the information? Why should we consider it for today’s motion if it is hearsay?

Yes, I’ve heard that tofu is good for the heart, but I am sure that this would not be only me in this room who have heard of this. This is not hearsay. From the medical article by…

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Conclusion

A concept should be defined or re-defined to argue for or against a motion from the perspective of the listener to strengthen persuasion.

Rebuttal Practice

1. Have a mini-debate on a motion.

2. Identify the definitions from the Affirmative OR the Opposition perspective.

3. Find if there are any inconsistencies, ambiguous or conflicting points in the definitions. These will weaken the teams’ arguments.

4. Rebut an argument which was found to be built on an ill-defined concept.

5. Stand up and make a rebuttal at least once.

6. Further rebuttals will win bonus points.

7. Use the expressions for debating.

Take-home Job

Debaters need examples and evidence to support their arguments.

Look for any examples of using figures/information/or any evidence to support a point of view in daily life, or any examples that they think may interest the classmates.