Strategic Management Strategic Choices: Differentiation Mohammad Najjar, PhD Management Science 1.
By Mohammad Junaebur Rashid, PhD
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Transcript of By Mohammad Junaebur Rashid, PhD
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ByMohammad Junaebur Rashid, PhD
Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), University of Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM).
Post Doctoral Researcher
Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)
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Introduction What is epitaxy?
Different epitaxy techniques
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Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)
Working principles and conditions
Outline
Growth Mechanism
Conclusion
System
Growth monitoring
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What is epitaxy?
The term “epitaxy” comes from the
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Introduction
Greek roots epi (ἐπί) mean «above», and
taxi (τάξις) mean «in ordered manner».
Epitaxy Growth of a single crystal film on top of a crystalline substrate
Registry between the film and the substrate
Overlayer is called an epitaxial film or epitaxial layer.
Substrate atom
Epitaxial atom
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Types of epitaxy
Homoepitaxy: substrate and material are of same kind (Si-Si).
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Introduction
Heteroepitaxy: substrate and material are of different kinds (Si-Ge, AlN/Si).
In-plane lattice mismatch: %
sub
subfilm
aaa
Allows for optoelectronic structures and band gap engineered devices.
Leads to unmatched lattice parameters.
Causes strained or relaxed growth lead to interfacial defects.
Altered the electronic, optic, thermal and mechanical properties of the films.
Lattice mismatch:
where, afilm is the lattice parameter of the film and asub is the lattice parameter of the substrate
Effect on the film
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Different epitaxial techniques
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
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Introduction
The semiconductor is dissolved in the melt of another material (example: InP)
Undesired polycrystalline layers
Liquid-phase epitaxy (LPE)
Growth rate: ~2 µm/min.
Hard to make thin films
Growth rate: 0.1-1 µm/min
Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) Relies on the sublimation of ultra-pure elements, then molecular beam arrive at wafer.In a vacuum chamber (pressure: ~10-11 Torr).
“Beam”: molecules do not collide to either chamber walls or existent gas atoms.
Growth rate: 1µm/hr (even lower).
Others: MOCVD, HVPE, MOMBE
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System
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MBE
Schematics of MBE
Typical Knudsen cell contains a crucible made of pyrolytic boron nitride, quartz, tungsten or graphite heating filaments (often made of metal tantalum), water cooling system, heat shields and opening shutter.
Knudsen effusion cells: used as sources evaporators.
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System
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MBE
http://www.uni-giessen.de/cms/
TurboRotation system
Effusion Sources
RHEED Gun
Substrate Holder
LN2 Cryopanel
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System
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MBE
Sample Transfer
Mass Spectrometer
LayTec
In-situ Measurement System
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System
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MBE
RHEED Monitor
RHEED controller
Crystal Oscillator(Beam flux monitor)
Sample Load Lock
RIBER 21 MBE systems: 8 sources (Al, Ga, C, NH3, Si, SiH4)
LayTec
Turbo
(In-situ Measurement System)
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MBE
Control mechanisms Independent heating of material sources in the effusion cell.
The beams can be shuttered in a fraction of a second
Both solid and gas source can be used
Via computer / manual controlled shutters.
Water cooling system
Drawback of gas (thin layer formation on the chamber’s wall)
Memory effect of the sources and dopants
Growth rates are typically on the order of a few A°/s.
Nearly atomically abrupt transition from one material to another.
Control composition and doping of the growing structure at monolayer level
High resolution TEM of the lattice image shows the sharp interface between AlN and Si(111)
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Working principles and conditions
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MBE
Epitaxial growth occurs because
the substrate is heated to the necessary temperature
The gaseous elements can crack / condense on the wafer where they may react with each other.
Atoms on a clean surface are free to move until finding correct position in the crystal lattice to bond.
The solid source (sublimation) provides an angular distribution of atoms or molecules in a beam.
interaction of molecular or atomic beams on a surface of a heated crystalline substrate.
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Working principles and conditions
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MBE
The mean free path (l) of the particles > geometrical size of the chamber (10-5 Torr is sufficient)
Mean free path for N2 molecules at 300 K
Outgassing from materials has to be as low as possible.
Pyrolytic boron nitride (PBN) is chosen for crucibles (chemically stable up to 1400°C)
Molybdenum and tantalum are widely used for shutters.
Ultrapure materials are used as source.
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RHEED
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Growth Monitoring
RHEED (Reflection High Energy Electron Diffraction) for monitoring the growth of the layers.
Growth rate can be obtained from RHEED oscillation.
Probe only few monolayers
Information about the crystallinity.
Measure the lattice parameter.
Information about the state of the layers (2D, 3D etc.)
GaN QDs(chevron like
shape)
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In-situ growth monitoring
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Growth rate can be obtained using beam flux monitor
Should use before and after the deposition
A pyrometer is a type of thermometer used to measure high temperatures.
Emissivity Corrected Pyrometer (ECP).
[Substrate temperature is one of the key parameters during epitaxial growth.
→ Influences the growth rate, the composition of ternary and quaternary compounds and the doping level.
→ Impact on the quality of the grown layer and its roughness, thereby influencing the performance of devices based on such epitaxial layers.]
Temperature range 450°C ... 1400°C
Growth Monitoring
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In-situ growth monitoring
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Wafer-selective curvature measurements
Light beams send nearly perpendicular to the surface in the center region of the wafer while rotating the wafer (8 – 10 rpm).
LAYTEC curvature measurement system based on two parallel laser beams (635 nm)
Curvature range: from -7000 km-1 (convex) to +800 km-1 (concave)
Here, D = displacements of two laser beam, R = radius of curvature,L = distance between the layer and detectors,S = displacements of detected signals, W = wafer diameterM = biaxial modulus and h = thickness.Subscripts f and s referring to the film and substrate.
1𝑅− 1
𝑅0=𝑆−𝑆0
2𝐷𝐿Curvature, R
Strain(Deduced from Stoney’s equation)
Bow, b 𝑏= 1𝑅 (1− cos (𝑊𝑅
2 ))
𝜀=𝑅𝑀 𝑠h𝑠
2
6𝑀 𝑓 h𝑓[Valid for hf / hs << 1 and for small value of stress (linear approximation). For large bending non-linear theory will be applicable.]
Growth Monitoring
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In-situ growth monitoring
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950 nm, 633 nm and 405 nm
Reflectance at different wavelengths (using LAYTEC)
Growth rate, layer thickness and roughness
Measuring growth rate
Choose the reflectance wavelength
Growth rate per hour:
λ2𝑛
3600𝑡 𝑓 −𝑡 𝑖
Ref
lect
ance
Time / s
Example:tf = 2300 sec, ti = 2000 sec, n = 3.25 @ 950 nm (for Ga0.5In0.5P)Growth rate: 1.75 µm/hr (app.)
http://www.semiconductor-today.com/news_items/2011/NOV/LAYTEC_141111.html
Growth Monitoring
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Growth Mechanism
In a typical MBE-deposition process the material that needs to be deposited is heated in UHV and forms a molecular beam.
http://www.physik.uni-kl.de/hillebrands/research/methods/molecular-beam-epitaxy/
The atoms of the beam are then adsorbed (adhesion of atoms) by the sample surface (adatoms).
During the deposition, the adatoms interact with the atoms of the surface.
This interaction depends on the type of adatoms, the substrate, and the temperature of the substrate.
Behavior of adatoms in the surface diffusion process
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Modes of epitaxial growth regarding kinetics
Growth Mechanism
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Modes of epitaxial growth regarding thermodynamics
i.e., competition between surface / interface energies.
Growth Mechanism
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Growth Mechanism
Modes of epitaxial growth regarding thermodynamics
i.e., competition between surface / interface energies.
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Modes of epitaxial growth regarding thermodynamics
i.e., competition between surface / interface energies.
Growth Mechanism
(Layer & island growth mode)
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Thin film growth process
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Surface diffusion and island density
Growth Mechanism
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
The larger the diffusion coefficient, D, the lower the island density, N.
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Presented the MBE system
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Behavior of adatoms in the surface diffusion process
Summary
Control mechanisms
Growth monitoring (by RHEED, growth rate, curvature, etc.)
Working principles and conditions
Growth mechanisms
Learned different growth modes
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Thank you very much for your attention
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Thin film growth process
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Surface diffusion and island density
Growth Mechanism
The larger the diffusion coefficient, D, the lower the island density, N.