PERSONALITY

PERSONALITYByDr Rosy WaliaMEANING AND CONCEPTPersonality is one of the major psychological factors affecting the human behaviour

A very common meaning of the word personality is the role which a person displays to the public.

Personality represents the sum total of several attributes which manifest themselves in an individual, the ability of the individual to organise and integrate all the qualities so as to give meaning to life and the uniqueness of the situation which influences behaviour of an individual.

According to Fred Luthans Personality means how a person affects others and how he understands and views himself as well as the pattern of inner and outer measurable traits and the person-situation interactionAccording to Carl Rogers Personality in terms of self is an organised, permanent, subjectively perceived entity which is at the heart of all our experience44CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONALITYSome of the fundamental characteristics of personality include:Consistency- There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. Essentially, people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations.Psychological and physiological- Personality is a psychological construct, but research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.

Impact behaviors and actions- Personality does not just influence how we move and respond in our environment; it alsocausesus to act in certain ways.

Multiple expressions- Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be seen in out thoughts, feelings, close relationships and other social interactions.

DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITYENVIRONMENTCULTUREFAMILYSOCIALSITUATIONALBIOLOGICALPERSONALITY

Biological FactorsHEREDITY

BRAIN

BIOFEEDBACK

PHYSICAL FEATURESHEREDITY It refers to physical,stature,facial,attractiveness,sex,temperament, muscle compositionand reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that areconsidered to be inherent. It plays an important part in determining an individual's personality.

Heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual's personalityis the molecular structures of the genes, which are located in the chromosomes. Recent research studies shows that young children lend strong support to the powerof heredity and finding shows that some personality traits may be built into the samegenetic code that affects factors like height and hair color

BRAIN Brain is the second biological approach to determine personality. It plays an important role in determining personality.

Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB) and Split brain psychology results indicatesthat a better understanding of human personality and behavior might come from acloser study of the brain.

The definite areas of the human brain are associated with pain and pleasure. Researchstudy shows that these things are true.

BIOFEEDBACK It is third biological approach to determine personality. Physiologists and psychologists felt that biological functions like brainwavepatterns, gastric and hormonal secretions, and fluctuations in blood pressure andskin temperature were beyond conscious control. Recent research shows that thesefunctions can be consciously controlled through biofeedback techniques. For this purpose, individual can learns the internal rhythms of a particular bodyprocess through electronic signals that are feedback from equipment which is wiredto body.

In this process, the person can learn to control the body process through questions. It is one of the interesting topics to do future research work in personality.

PHYSICAL FEATURES It is vital ingredient of the personality, it focus an individual person's externalappearance which also determined the personality.

Physical features like tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white. These physicalfeatures will be influenced the personal effect on others and also affect self conceptof individual. Recent research studies shows that definitely this features influence to individualpersonality in an organization.In totally, heredity would be fixed at birth and no amount of experience can be alteringthem through creation of suitable environment. Apart from this, personality characteristicsare not completely dictated by heredity. There are other factors also influenced to determiningpersonality.

CULTURAL FACTORS"Each culture expects, and trains, its members to behave in ways that are acceptable to the group. To a marked degree, the child's cultural group defines the range of experiences and situations he is likely to encounter and the values and personality characteristics that will reinforced and hence learned". -Paul H Mussen

Cultural factors are also major factors which influence to determine individualpersonality. It refers to traditional practice, customs, procedure, norms and rules and regulationfollowed by the society.

It significantly influence to individual behavior compare to biological factors.

Cultural factors determine attitudes towards independence,aggression, competition,cooperation, positive thinking, team spirit, and a host of the human being anddischarge his/her duties towards valuable responsibilities to society.

Western culture influence to Indian society. It is best example of the cultural factorsalso determine the personality.

FAMILY FACTORS Family factors are also major factors which influence to determine individualpersonality.

Family consists of husband and wife and their children's.

Family role is very important for nurturing and personality development of theirchildren.

Family will be guided, supervised, take care of all family members, cooperation,coordination and cooperation in work and also explained the role and responsibilitiestowards the family, society and real life.

Family either directly or indirectly influence to person for development of individualpersonality.

SOCIAL FACTORS Social factors are also major factors which influence to determine individualpersonality. It involves the reorganization of individual's in an organization or society. It refers to acquiring of wide range of personality by acquiring and absorbed bythemselves in the society or an organization.

Socialization process is starting from home and extending to work environment inan organization or society.

It focuses on good relationships, cooperation, coordination and interaction amongthe members in the society or an organization or a family.

In totally, environment factors consist of cultural factors, family factors, and socialfactors.

SITUATIONAL FACTORS Situational factors also influence to determine of personality.

Situational factors are very important to change the individual behavior in adifferent circumstance at different situations, it also influence to personality ofindividual person.

In general term, personality is stable and consistent and it does change in differentsituations.

THE INTERACTION OF PERSONALITY AND SITUATIONAL FACTORS ARE OUTLINED: Strong situational pressures Personality may not predict behavior Example: enforcement of rules Weak Situational pressures Personality may predict behavior Example: Customer sales representative A strong situation can overwhelm the effects of individual personalities by providingstrong cues for appropriate behavior.

THEORIES OF PERSONALITYThe prominent psychologists who have contributed to theories of personality are:Sigmund FreudEriksonAlfred AlderCarl JungFREUDS PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORYPsychoanalytic theory, as devised by Freud, attempts to explain personality on the basis of unconscious mental forcesLevels of consciousness: We are unaware of some aspects of our mental states

Freud argued that personality is made up of multiple structures, some of which are unconscious

Freud argued that as we have impulses that cause us anxiety; our personality develops defense mechanisms to protect against anxiety

Freudian Theory

Levels Of consciousnessConsciousWhat were aware ofPreconsciousMemories etc. that can be recalledUnconsciousWishes, feelings, impulses that lies beyond awareness

Structures of Personality

IdOperates according to the pleasure principle

EgoOperates according to the reality principle

SuperegoContains values and ideals

IdBasic psychic energy and motivationsOperates to demands of Pleasure Principle - strive to satisfy desires and reduce inner tensionSea around an Island

EgoDeals with real worldOperates to demands of Reality Principle solves problems by planning & actingCity Hall on island roots and foundation in sea - id

SuperegoInternalized social norm & moral forces pressing on and constraining individual actionThe over-I over egoChurch on island roots and foundation in sea - id

Freudian TheoryAnxiety occurs when: - Impulses from the id threaten to get out of control - The ego perceives danger from the environment

The ego deals with the problem through: - coping strategies - defense mechanisms

Defense MechanismsDefense mechanisms refer to unconscious mental processes that protect the conscious person from developing anxietySublimation: person channels energy from unacceptable impulses to create socially acceptable accomplishmentsDenial: person refuses to recognize realityProjection: person attributes their own unacceptable impulses to others Repression: anxiety-evoking thoughts are pushed into the unconscious

Defense MechanismsRationalization: Substituting socially acceptable reasonsIntellectualization: Ignoring the emotional aspects of a painful experience by focusing on abstract thoughts, words, or ideasReaction formation: Refusing to acknowledge unacceptable urges, thoughts or feelings by exaggerating the opposite stateRegression: Responding to a threatening situation in a way appropriate to an earlier age or level of developmentDisplacement: Substituting a less threatening object for the original object of impulse

Contributions of FreudFirst personality & psychotherapy theory

Importance of early childhood experienceConcept of unconsciousEmphasis on Helper Role in therapeutic relationshipScientific approach to mental health on continuum from physical health

Limitations of Freuds WorkPessimistic and deterministic approach to personalityPathology based theoryHydraulic model of psychic energy exaggeratedNo controlled studies-poor researchOveremphasis on differences between men and womenUnconcerned with interpersonal relations, individual identity and adaptation over ones lifetime

ERIK ERIKSON S THEORY OF PERSONALITYFocus on psychosocial development throughout the life cycle 8 Stages of ego development Last stage: ego integrity vs. despair Purpose: to establish a sense of meaning in ones life, rather than feeling despair or bitterness that life was wasted; to accept oneself and ones life without despairErikson's Stages of Development (Personality development as epigenetic stages) Developmental processes of socialization 8 stages of development

We develop through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages

Progress through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages

A little like the unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up at a certain time, in a certain order

If we interfere in the natural order of development by pulling a petal forward prematurely or out of order, we ruin the development of the entire flower. Erik Eriksons 8 Stage of Man (woman!) trust vs. mistrust (0-1 infant) autonomy vs. shame (2-3 toddler) initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 preschooler) industry vs. inferiority (7-12 School age) identity vs. confusion (12-18 Adolescence) intimacy vs. isolation (20s Young adult) generativity vs. stagnation (late 20s to 50s middle Adult) integrity vs. despair (50 + Old Adult)

Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation - middle adulthood. To establish a sense of care and concern for the well being of future generations; to look toward the future and not stagnate in the past (20 -50s)

Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair - old age. To establish a sense of meaning in one's life, rather than feeling despaired or bitterness that life was wasted; to accept oneself and one's life without despair (50 & up)

In a departure from the strict stage approach, well known organisational behaviour theoristChris Argyrishas identified specific dimensions of the human personality as it develops. Argyris proposes that a human personality rather than going through precise stages, progresses along a continuum from immaturity as an infant to maturity as an adult. However, at any age, people can have their degree of development plotted according to seven dimensions CHRIS ARGYRIS'S IMMATURITY-MATURITY THEORY

THE ARGYRIS IMMATURITY-MATURITY CONTINUUMImmaturity CharacteristicsPassivityDependenceFew ways of behavingShallow interestsShort-time perspectiveSubordinate positionLack of self awareness

Maturity CharacteristicsActivityIndependenceDiverse behaviourDeep interestsLong-time perspectiveSuper ordinate positionSelf awareness and control

(i) The seven dimensions represent only one aspect of the total personality. Much also depends upon the individual's perception, self concept and adaptation and adjustment.(ii)The seven dimensions continually change in degree from the infant to the adult end of the continuum.(iii)The model, being only a construct, cannot product specific behaviour. However, it does provide a method of describing and measuring the growth of any individual in the culture.(iv)The seven demenions are based upon latent characteristics of the personality, which may be quite different from the observable behaviour.

TRAITS THEORYUnderstands individuals by breaking down behavior patterns into observable traits (instead of observable behavior)

TRAITS THEORYAssumption of trait stability has led researchers to examine personality traits longitudinally McCrae and Costa (1984, 1990) proposed 5-factor model of personality traits: Neuroticism Extraversion Openness to experience Agreeableness ConscientiousnessBig Five Personality TraitsCosta and McCrae (1992) - Broad dimensionsNeuroticism- individuals who experience negative affects (tense,

moody, anxious) tendency to easily experience unpleasant emotions

Extroversion individuals who are sociable (talkative, energetic,

assertive) a tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others

Openness to Experience individuals who have have active imaginations and are attentive to their inner feelings a tendency to enjoy art, new intellectual experiences, and ideas

Agreeableness - individuals who are fundamentally altruistic, (sympathetic, kind, affectionate) tendency to be compassionate rather than antagonistic towards others

Conscientiousness - individuals who are purposeful (organized, thorough & planful) a tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement

Cardinal Traits- Dominant and all individual action can be traced to themCentral Traits- Characterizing an individuals behavior to some extent but not in such a complete way as cardinal traitsSecondary traits-influential but only within a narrow range

Allports Traits Theory- Distinctive & personal forms of behaviors

Carl Gustav Jung

Wholly unprepared, we embark upon the second half of life . . . we take the step into the afternoon of life . . . with the false assumption that our truths and ideals will serve as before. But we cannot live the afternoon of life according to the program of lifes morningfor what was great in the morning will be little at evening, and what in the morning was true will at the evening have become a lie. For a young person it is almost a sin, or at least a danger to be too preoccupied with [the] self; but for the aging person it is a duty and a necessity to devote serious attention to [the] self. Carl Jung (1933)

Jungs Psychoanalytic PerspectiveCarl Jungs model of personality assumes changes throughout life Model emphasizes stages in the development of consciousness and the egoFocus early in life (youth and middle age) is extraversion (focus on external world) to introversion (focus on ones inner world in old age)

Life must contract and attention needs to be paid to inner life.

3 Levels of Consciousness

Ego: conscious level; carries out daily activities; like Freuds Conscious

Personal Unconscious: individuals thoughts, memories, wishes, impulses; like Freuds Preconscious + Unconscious

Collective Unconscious: storehouse of memories inherited from the common ancestors of the whole human race; no counterpart in Freuds theory

CARL JUNGTheory of Individualism: People either introverted or extrovertedIf balanced = good mental health

Major focus of the second half of life should be mortality and that anything that took away from that was in the direction of not being mentally healthy

2 shifts in personality Extroversion-introversion Masculinity-femininity (anima-animus)

anima (Latin for soul)a wildly imaginative and seductive feminine power within man; eros...

animus (Latin for spirit)a fiercely willful and visionary masculine luminosity within woman; logos...

feminine side of a male's unconscious mind a set of unconscious masculine attributes and potentials for females Masculinity/Femininityless differentiated in late lifewoman assertiveness, more dominant men nurturing, expressive qualitiesTurning Inwardness

OTHER IMPORTANT PERSONALITY TRAITSSocial traits.Surface-level traits that reflect the way a person appears to others when interacting in various social settings.An important social trait is problem-solving style.4646Problem-solving styles.Sensation-feeling (SF).Intuitive-thinking (IF).Sensation-thinking (ST).Intuitive-thinking (IT).4747Personal conception traits.The way individuals tend to think about their social and physical settings as well as their major beliefs and personal orientation.Key Traits:Locus of control.Authoritarianism/dogmatism.Machiavellianism.Self-monitoring.4848Locus of control.The extent to which a person feels able to control his/her own life.Internal locus of control.People believe they control their own destiny.External locus of control.People believe that much of what happens to them is determined by environmental forces.4949Authoritarianism/dogmatism.Authoritarianism.Tendency to adhere rigidly to conventional values and to obey recognized authority.Dogmatism.Tendency to view the world as a threatening place.5050Machiavellianism.Rooted in Niccolo Machiavellis The Prince.Evokes images of guile, deceit, and opportunism.Tendency to view and manipulate others purely for personal gain.5151Machiavellianism cont.People with a high-Mach personality:Approach situations logically and thoughtfully.Are capable of lying to achieve personal goals.Are rarely swayed by loyalty, friendships, past promises, or others opinions.Are skilled at influencing others.Try to exploit loosely structured situations.Perform in a perfunctory or detached manner in highly structured situations.5252Machiavellianism cont.People with a low-Mach personality:Accept direction imposed by others in loosely structured situations.Work hard to do well in highly structured situations.Are strongly guided by ethical considerations.Are unlikely to lie or cheat.5353Self-monitoring.A persons ability to adjust his/her behavior to external, situational factors.High self-monitors:Sensitive to external cues.Behave differently in different situations.Low self-monitors:Not sensitive to external cues.Are not able to disguise their behaviors.5454Emotional adjustment traits.How much an individual experiences distress or displays unacceptable acts.Type A orientation.Characterized by impatience, desire for achievement, and perfectionism.Type B orientation.Characterized as more easygoing and less competitive in relation to daily events.5555Personality and self-concept.Personality dynamics.The ways in which an individual integrates and organizes personality dimensions and traits.Self-concept.The view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, and spiritual beings.5656Two aspects of self-concept.Self-esteem.A belief about ones worth based on an overall self-evaluation.Self-efficacy.An individuals belief about the likelihood of successfully completing a specific task.5757