Buyer Behavior 3

8/8/2019 Buyer Behavior 3

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BUYER BEHAVIOR

UNIT III

By: M Rafeeq

INDIVIDUAL DETERMINANTS OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

I. Personality and Self Concept :-These are two psychological notions that have been used by those

studying consumer behavior to account for the organized totality of the

consumers makeup.Purpose: These variables are used to determine their usefulness in understanding

Consumers basic orientations and their brand and other facts of consumer

behavior.

A) PERSONALITY:-

Def:- The inner psychological characteristics that determine and reflect, how aperson responds to his/her environment.

-The Nature of Personality:-

1. Personality reflects individual differences :-

Every individuals personality has unique combination of factorsi.e., no two individuals are exactly alike, but are similar in terms of a

single personality characteristic, which is useful to categorize consumers

into different groups on the basis of a single trait or a few traits. (Trait distinguishing quality).

If each person has different aspects it is difficult to develop

standardized products and promotional campaigns.

2. Personality is Consistent and Enduring :-

The two qualities consistent and enduring are essential for

marketer to explain or predict consumer behavior. Individuals personality will be consistent, but consumption behavior often varies,

because of psychological, socio-cultural and economic factors that effectthe behavior.

3. Personality can change:-

Personality changes under certain circumstances even though ittends to be consistent and enduring.

Personality can be altered by major life events i.e., as the birth of a

child, the death of a loved one, a divorce, a major career promotion.Personality is a part of a gradual maturing process.

-Determinants of Personality :-

1. Biological Factors a) Heredity-Genetic i.e., from parents to younger. b) Brain - Human personality and behavior

c) Physical features External appearance of a

person i.e, tall, short etc.2. Cultural Factors - It depends on how a person behave and what a

person learn.

Ex: Caste, Believes, Value System, etc.

3. Situational Factors - How a person behaves in a particular environment

or situation.


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4. Family & Social Processes - Socialization Process.

Identification Process.

It starts at the time of birth, from family members, relations.

Eg:- Relation between parent and child.

-Theories of Personality :-

1. Freudian Theory :-This theory was developed by Sigmund Freuds, Psychoanalytic

theory of personality. He has divided the human brain into 3 elements.

a) The Preconscious mind that can be recognized.b) Conscious through feeling, believes & desire.

c) The Unconscious without the knowledge.

Freud proposed that the human personality consists of threeinteracting systems the Id, the superego & ego.

The following figure represents the inter relationships among the

three interacting systems.

Gratification

1. The Id :- It was conceptualized as a Warehouse of basic physiological

needs i.e., thirst, hunger and sex for which the individual seek, immediatesatisfaction.

2. The Superego :- It is internal expression of societys moral and ethical

codes of conduct. The individual satisfies his needs in a socially

acceptable fashion. Thus superego is a kind of brake which stops the

impulsive forces of the id.3. The Ego :- It is the individuals conscious control, which functions as

internal monitor that attempts to balance the impulsive demands of the id

and the socio-cultural constraints of the superego.Stages of Personality Development :-

1. Oral Stage :- The infants first stage, experiences the social contact

with outside world through the mouth.Ex: eating, drinking, sucking.

A crisis develops at the end of this stage when the child is

weaned from the mothers breast.2. Anal Stage :- The Childs primary source of pleasure is the process

of elimination.

A second crisis develops at the end of this stage, when parents try

to toilet train the child.3. Phallic Stage :- The child experiences self-oriented sexual pleasure during

this phase, with the discovery of sex organs.

ID

System 1EGO

System 3

Super

EgoSystem 2


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A third crisis occurs when the child experiences sexual desire forthe parent of the opposite sex.

4. Latency Stage :- In this stage no important personality changes occur

during this time.5. Genital Stage :- At adolescence, the individual develops a sexual

interest in persons of the opposite sex, beyond self-oriented love and love

for parents.

2. Sheldons Physiognomy Theory :-a) Endomorph - Never get angry, stout

b) Mesomorph - Strong, smile brighter.

c) Ectomorph - thin, long,absentminded, brilliant.3. Jungian Theory :-

Carl Jung personality types that measures the following pairs of Jungian

inspired psychological dimensions.a) Feeling - Interpretation of a thing or event or a subject as a

whole.

Eg:- Emotional.

b) Thinking - Logical reasoning/analytical/rationalc) Extrovert - Optimistic outgoing and sociable.

Eg:- Communications capacity at all levels.

d) Introvert - They are less sociable, with drawn and absorbed in innerlife.

Ex: Negative attitude, Negative Opinions.

4. Trait Theory - The orientation of trait theory is primarilyquantitative/empirical, which focuses on the measurement of personality in terms

of specific psychological characteristics, called traits.

A trait is defined as any thing distinguishing, relatively enduring way inwhich an individual differs from another.

The trait measures of personality are:1. Consumer Innovativeness :-

This is to know the consumer willingness or acceptance towardsthe new products, new services. This measurement is important to both

consumers and marketers, because both are beneficiable from right

innovation.2. Dogmatism :-

Dogmatism is a personality trait that measures the degree of

rigidity, where individuals display towards the unfamiliar and towardinformation that is contrary to their own established beliefs.

a) Consumers, who are low in dogmatism (open-minded) aremore likely to prefer innovative products.

b) Consumers who are high in dog matism (closed-minded) are

more likely to choose established rather than innovative

product alternatives.3. Social Character : -

It focuses on the identification and classification of individuals into

Distinct socio-cultural types, which ranges from inner-directedness toother directedness.


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a) Inner-directed consumers rely on their own inner values orstandards in evaluating new products and are likely to be consumer

innovators.

b) Other directed consumers tend to look to others for direction onwhat is right/wrong, thus they are less likely to be consumer

innovators.

Inner and other directed consumers are attracted to differenttypes of promotional message, i.e., Inner-directed people prefer ads

that feature a social environment or social acceptance.

4. Optimum stimulation level (OSL) :-

OSL reflects persons desired level of lifestyle stimulation. If lifestyles are equal to OSL, then use say they are quite satisfied. If lifestyles

are underestimated, they we say they are likely to be bored if lifestyle are

over-estimated, they are likely to seek rest or relief.

Measuring Personality :-

There are four general approaches for measuring personality,

which are multi-dimensional in nature, because personality is a singleconcept and it interacts with many elements.

1. Rating Methods 2. Situational Tests 3. Projective Techniques

4. Inventory Schemes.

Subjective scoring & dependendent upon evaluator.

I. 1. Rating Methods :-

It involves one or more evaluators., which determines the

predetermined personality characteristics on a standardized scale, by usinga informal interview evaluation. The type of scale employed for

evaluation can be 5 point or 6 point.2. Situational Tests :-

This techniques develops a situation, which closely resembles toreal-life situation. A topic for discussion will be given to a group of

people and the behavior of the subjects are observed and measured.

3. Projective Techniques :-In this technique the individual is presented with an visual image

and is asked to explain it.

a) Rorschach Test :- It consists of ten inkblots, which varies in color,shape and shading.

b) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT):- It involves in presenting 20

pictures showing various situations, and asked to a develop a storybased on pictures, which is assessed by a trained evaluator.

4. Inventory Schemes :-

This method is in written form. The popular inventory method is,

Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI), consists of 550statements.

Eg:- I like to try new things True/false.


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B) SELF CONCEPT:- [ Self Image]Individuals describe his or her own view of himself or herself i.e., develop

their self-images through interaction with other people i.e., initially their parents

and then other individuals/groups.-How self concept develops :-

Products and Brands will have symbolic value for individuals, who

evaluate them on the basis of their consistency with their personal pictures or

images of themselves.Behaviorists have formed various theories of how people develop their

self concepts, which is based on social interaction. There are 4 views of self

concept.1. Self-appraisal - A person develops a self-concept by naming his

own dominant behavior patterns according to what is socially acceptable

and unacceptable behavior.2. Reflected Appraisal - It is also termed as looking glass well. In this

theory a person receives from others (i.e., Parents, friends) mold the self-

concept, which depends on the characteristics of the appraiser and his/herappraisal.

3. Social Comparison:- It states that peoples self-concepts depends on, howthey see themselves in relation to others.

5. Biased Scanning :- It views in terms of identifying aspirations andbiased scanning of the environment for information to confirm

how ell the person is meeting his/her aspirations, i.e., collect

information and remove unnecessary/not required information.-Self Concept and Consumer Behavior :

Consumers self-concept have a strong influence on their behavior in the

market place. Consumers perceives various products/services and are reflected byhis/her own-image. Based on the possible influences consumer researchers and

marketers have developed the following concerns.

1. Alternative Views of the Self :-The self concept is generally divided into 2 groups.a) Single Component perspective

b) Multiple Component perspective

The single component focuses on single component or dimensionsi.e., the actual self. The multiple component focuses on 2 or more

components or dimensions.


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Diagram

Components (Or) Dimensions:

1. Actual Self - How consumers in fact see themselves.

2. Ideal Self - How consumers would like to see themselves.3. Social self - How consumers feel others see them.

4. Ideal social self How consumers would like others to see them.

5. Expected self How consumers expect to see themselves at some

specified future time.2. Major Areas of Investigation :-

The self concept has 5 major types of reseach investigations

relating to consumer behavior.1. To determine the types of self concepts, that are related to socio-

economic or psychological factors.

2. Study related to degree of congruity between their self-conceptsand their perception of product and brand images.

3. The degree to which consumers behavior is consistent with their

perceptions of themselves.4. Studies related to self-images of products

5. Study on product images, whether they are consistent with theconsumers self-concept influence his/her self-image.

3. Consumer Behavior and Self Concept/Product Image Congruence :-Consumer develop and hold images of various products and these

images are viewed as symbols that communicate meaning about those who

purchase them.The summary of this behavior is as follows:

1. Consumers form self concepts through psychological

development and social interaction.2. Products and Brands perceived by consumers have image or

symbolic meaning.

3. Because of their symbolic role, selective possession, displaysinfluence individual in defining and enhancing his self concept forhimself or for others.

4. The behavior of individuals will be motivated toward furthering

and enhancing their self concept through the consumption ofgoods as symbols.

5. The brands preferred by consumer are perceived with having

images, which are most consistent with his self-concept.


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-Diagram-

Fig: A model of the brand choice process as a function of self-image and brand image.

The above shows the consumers preferred brands areidentified through a matching between self-image and brand

image. According to congruity theory the greater the self/brand

image, the more a brand will be preferred.

II. MOTIVATION & INVOLVEMENT :-A. MOTIVATION :-

1. Model of Motivation Process :-

Learning

Unfulfilled

Needs, wants Tension Drive Behavior Goal or need& desires fulfillment

CognitiveProcesses

Tension

Reduction

Motivation :-

It is described as the driving force within individuals that impelsthem to action. This driving force is produced by a state of tension, which

exists as the result of an unfulfilled need. Individual reduces the tensionby both consciously and sub-consciously.

Needs :-

Every individual has needs some are inmate, others are acquired.a) Inmate needs :- The physiological (i.e. biogenic), which includes the

needs like food, water, air, clothing, shelter, called as primary needs

(or) motives.b) Acquired Needs :- The needs are learned in response to our culture or

environment, which includes the needs like self-esteem, for prestige,

affection, power, learning, called as Secondary needs (or) motives.Goals :-

Goals are the sought after results of motivated behavior which are

goal oriented.

a) Generic Goals :- i.e., the general classes or categories of goals thatconsumers select to fulfill their needs.

b) Product Specific Goals :- i.e, the specifically branded (Or) labeled

products, they select to fulfill their needs.Eg:- Calci Tums (Product-specific goals, based on a generic goal)

The selection of goals :-


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For every need, there will be different goals, which are selected byindividuals based on their personal experience, physical capacity, values,

acceptability in physical social environment. The goal object should be

socially acceptable and physically accessible. The goal selection dependsupon the persons self-image.

Eg: A man who perceives himself as young may drive a Porsche, a

woman who perceives herself as rich and conservative may drive aMercedes.

Positive & Negative Motivation :-

Positive motivation is deriving toward some object or condition,refers to positive drives, such as needs, wants or desires.

Negative Motivation is a driving force away from some object or

condition, refers to negative drives such as fears.Eg: Tooth paste for decay prevention.

Insurance to protect loved ones.

Positive & Negative Goals:-

A positive goal is one towards which behaviour is directed, and isreferred as an approach object.

A negative goal is are which behavior is directed away, and is

referred as an avoidance object.Conscious Vs Unconscious Motives :-

Conscious motives says about awareness.

Unconscious motives says about unawareness.Eg:- Color preference while purchasing a product, we really dont

understand, why we prefer certain colors.

Rational Vs. Emotional Motives :-In rational motives, consumers select goals based on total objective

criteria i.e., size, weight, price.In emotional motives, consumers select goals according to

personal or subjective criteria.Eg: The desire for individuality, pride, fear, affection, status.

2. Maslaws hierarchy of Human Needs :-

(Dr Abraham Maslow, a clinical psychologist)Self actualization

(self fulfillment)

Ego needs(prestige, status, self-respect)

Social needs

(Love, affection, friendship, belonging)Safety & Security Needs

(Protection, order, stability)

Physiological needs

(Food, water, air shelter, sex)3. The dynamic nature of Motivation :-

Motivation is a highly dynamic construct that is constantly

changing in reaction to life experience.Motive is an internal energy, which directs the selective fashion

towards goals usually located in the external environment.


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1. Needs and goals are constantly changing :-Needs and goals are growing and changing, because of

individuals physical condition, environment, interactions with

others and experiences.a) Needs are never fully satisfied.

b) New needs emerges as old needs are satisfied.

c) Success and failure influence goals.d) Substitute goals.-

Eg: Pepsi diet pepsi

Coke - diet coke.

Whole milk - Skimmed milk.

2. Frustration :-

Failure to achieve a goal results to frustration. Every onehas to experience the frustration that comes from the inability to

attain a goal. The barrier that prevents attainment of a goal maybe

personal to the individual.Eg: Physical or financial limitations.

Inability to achieve a goal as a personal failure and

experience leads to frustration.

3. The measurement of motives :-Measuring motives is difficult, because they cannot be seen

or touched, handled, smelled etc., so no one measurement method

is considered as reliable. Researchers rely on a combination ofobservations., self reports and projective techniques to try to

establish the presence and / or the strength of various motives.

B. INVOLVEMENT: -

There are two different types of buying situations.

E.g.: -1. Purchasing a new pair of shoes for running : -

a) Can talk to other runner b) Read magazines and advertisements

c) Collect information from sales people at sports store.Based on above three sources consumer can confirm their

choice and lead to a purchase. This decision making

process takes nearly 2 weeks.2. Distamlur to house : -

a) Advertisement

b) Local hardware store to purchase.The above process can be done in one day and

involvement with little effort.

The above two buying situations differ considerablyin terms of the energy devoted to purchase decisions.

The level of involvement affects the amount of

effort that consumers give to learn about products

and decide, which brands to buy.- Dimensions of Involvement: -

Moderating Factors-Opportunity to process

-Ability to process.


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-Diagram-

Fig: Major dimensions of Involvement.

The concept of involvement is multifaceted, which appearsto have a number of important dimensions.

1. Antecedents: - These are the sources that interact with each otherto generate the degree of involvement, which is based on

consumers experience. The variables involved are:

a) Person : Personal needs, values, experiences and interests.Eg:- Body fitness people have strong value to show

interest on fat and fiber contents in foods.

Pepsi - diet Pepsi.

b) Stimulus/object : - Products that are closely related toconsumer values, interests, etc lead to high involvement.

Involvement is influenced buy stimuli used to

promote products and brands.c) Situational Type of situation also influence the level of

involvement.

Eg: Purchase of rope for a clothes line, where involvementis less.

2. Moderating Factors :- The variables or conditions that may exist

to limit or constrain the impact of antecedents an consumers stateof involvement.

Eg: A person interested to buy a sterio, watching a TVAdvertisement of sterio, the door bells rings and he is distracted

from the ad.a) Opportunity to process : - Information and consequently

influence the level of involvement that will be experienced.

b) Ability to process : - Information may influence the level ofinvolvement that is experienced. This happens when consumer

has poor knowledge and he cant understand and evaluate

alternative products.3. Involvement Properties: - It is an internal state, where the

consumer experiences i.e., by motivation.

a) Intensity : - It refers to the degree of involvement that theconsumer experiences. It has 2 categories.

1) High involvement : - Consumer will be interested in

differentiating different brands of a product and invest

considerable energy in decision making aboutpurchasing them.

2) Low Involvement: - Consumer does not go for active

search about alternative brands.b) Direction : - It refers to the focus or target of involvement the

possible targets are actual products i.e., cars and perfumes.


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The target is a purchase decision itself, where involvement willbe high, because of variant product category.

c) Persistence :- It deals with the length of time, where the

consumer involves in purchasing a product.1. Enduring involvement long term interest in a product or

object.

3. Situational involvement Temporary (Short- term) involvementinterest in a product. This occurs because of purchase situation

i.e., gift low knowledge about products etc.

4. Response factors :- It characterizes how a consumer behaves underdifferent involvement conditions i.e., it describe mental and

physical actions.

a) Search Consumer goes for active search of sources ofproduct and brand information i.e., involvement will be

high.

Consumer goes for little active search of sources of

product and brand information i.e., involvement will behow.

b) Information Processing : - After searching information, the

Consumer process this to determine its meaning. The stepsin information processing are viewed in terms of a

hierarchy of effects, because they appear to describe mental

processes that lead to purchase decision.

High Involvement Low InvolvementHierarchy hierarchy

Cognition Cognition

Attitude Behavior

Behavior Attitude

Fig: The hierarchy of effects under high and low involvement

Conditions.

c) Decision/Persuasio n:- The output of processed informationis a decision, i.e., which leads to purchase a product. The

decision depends on the involvement i.e., either low or

high.III. LEARNING & MEMORY :-

A) LEARNING

Learning results in relatively permanent changes in behavior.

Def :- It is the process by which individuals acquire the purchaseand consumption knowledge and experience they apply to future related

behavior.

The role of experience in learning helps for careful search forinformation.

-Types of Learned Behavior :-


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Every type of behavior, that we exhibit are all learned.1. Physical Behavior :-

It is to respond a variety of situations faced in every day life.

Eg: Humans learn to walk, talk and interact with others.Modeling where consumers learn physical activity i.e., they

mimic the behavior of celebrities.

2. Symbolic Learning and Problem Solving :-Symbolic meanings are highly efficient communications

through the development of languages. Marketers use these

symbols to communicate with consumers through vehicles

as brand names (Kodak& Sony), Slogans (You got theright one, Baby diet Pepsi) and signs (Charminar an

Cigarette packets)

Problem solving learning has two processes, they are

thinking and insight.Thinking involves mental manipulation of symbols

representing the real world to form various combinations of

meaning, which leads to insight, i.e., understanding the

relationships involved in the problem.3. Affective Learning :-

Learning involves in their wants, goals & motives.

Learning influences consumers to develop favourable or unfavorable attitudes towards a company and its products, i.e.,

learns to elements which have a certain value.

-Elements of learning :-The 4 elements included in most learning theories are: most

motivation, cues, response, & reinforcement.

1. Motivation :-It is important to learning theory. Motivation is

based on needs and goals. Motivation acts as a spur tolearning with needs and goals serving as stimuli.

2. Cues :-Motives serve to stimulate learning, Cues are the

stimuli that give direction to those motives.

In market, the cues are place, price, styling, packaging, advertising and store plays. Cues help

consumers to fulfill their needs in product, specific ways.

Cues provides direction to motivated activity i.e.,cues do not upset those expectation.

3. Response :-

It is a mental or physical activity, where consumersmakes in reaction to a stimulus situation. Response arelearned overtime through experience.

4. Reinforcement :-

It is any thing that follows a response and increasesthe tendency for the response to re-occur in a similar

situation i.e., in the future.

Eg:- An advertisement on headache tablets enabled him toget relief, next time also be will purchase the same tablet,

because the tablet was up to expectations.


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-Classifying Learning :-Learning Theories

Connectionist Cognitive

Classical instrumental

Conditioning Conditioning

Fig: Classification of learning theories.

Reinforcement has two fundamentally different methods of

learning connections: classical & instrumental conditioning.1. Classical Conditioning :-

(respondent conditioning)

It involves on already established response to stimulus.

The outcome is not dependent on learners actions. The influencesdevelopment and changes in opinions, tastes and goals.

2. Instrumental Conditioning :-

(Operant conditioning)It involves in developing connections between stimuli and

responses, but no previous stimuli response connection is

necessary. The outcome is dependent on learners action. Theinfluences changes in goal directed behavior.

B. MEMORY :-

It says how consumers store, retain & retrieve information.Sensory Sensory Rehearses Short term Encoding long-term Retriever

input Store Store Store

Forgotten Forgotten Forgotten

Lost Lost Un available.

Fig: Information processing and Memory stores.

The central important processing of information is the human memory

The structure of Memory :-

As information processing occurs at several stages it is generally

believed that there are separate store houses in memory, where information is

kept temporarily, waiting to be processed further:

1. Sensory Store :- The data come from sensory input, which lasts for just a second

or two in the minds of sensory store.Eg: a T.V. image.

2. Short term store :- It is the real memory, where information is processed and

held for a period. If information in the short term store undergoes the processcalled rehearsal, which will be transferred to the long-term store. This can be

about 4 or 5 items.

3. Long term store :- It retains information for relatively extended periods of

time. Storage last for days, weeks or even years.

Rehearsal and Encoding :-

The purpose of rehearsal is to hold information in short-term storage, long enough

for encoding to takes place, encoding is the process by which use select and assign a word


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or visual image to represent a perceived object.

When consumers are presented with too much information it is called information

overload.Retention :-

Information in long-term memory, should be constantly organized and re-organized

to get new links, where this process is called as activation.

The total packages of associations brought to mind when a cue is activated is called

a Schema.

In Long-term information is stored in 2 ways.

a) episodically by the order in which it is acquired.b) Semantically according to significant concepts.

Retrieval :-

It is the process by which, we recover information from long-term storage. Most

people do not recollect. Information processing theorists look on such forgetting as a

failure of the retrieved system.

Advertising Implications :-

1. Advertising messages with unique aspects have a greater potential for beingremembered

2. The order in which material is presented.

3. Messages that encourage immediate rehearsal.

4. More information can be processed and retained.5. The amount of information that can be transferred to long-term memory is a

function of time available for processing.

6. Memory is Cue-dependent and presentation of relevant cues will stimulate recall.

7. Meaningful material is learned quickly.

8. Material retained in long-term is different from the information presented in a

learning situation.

Marketer should develop the following to learn quickly for the consumers.

1. Visual Material - Say it with pictures, which is more memorable than

verbal content.

2. Interactive imagery - Use pictures, symbols and other visual devices,

showing the two concepts how they relate to each other.

Eg : - Sun, kissing, an Orange for Sunkist brand oranges.

3. Showing Mistakes :- During demonstration of mechanical skills, it is oftenuseful to show how things should not be done, as well as how they should

be done.

Eg:- All electronic goods how to prevent shocks.

4. Incomplete messages :- Leaving some messages open-ended, so thatconsumers must become involved to complete them.

5. Mnemonic Techniques :- It allows consumers to see some pattern for

associating otherwise meaningful facts will usually be helpful.

Eg: Music, Jingles.

IV ATTITUDES & PERCEPTIONS :-

A) ATTITUDE :-

Involvement has the following sequencing of steps:

1. Processing information

2. Forming attitudes3. Making choices in the market place.Attitude influences the lives of everyone and affect the ways in which

individuals judge and react towards other people, objects and events.Def : An attitude is a learned predisposition to behave in a consistently

favourable or un-favourable way with respect to a given object.

Def: A persons overall feeling towards some object.


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Attitudes - Behaviour

(Manner/Feeling)

-Characteristics of Attitudes :-1. Attitudes have an object :- It is a physical thing such as product or it can

be action. It can be either one item, such as a person or a collection of

item such as social group.

2. Attitudes have direction, Degree and Intensity :-Direction - Favourable/Un favourable towards the object.Degree - Likes/dislikes of the product.

Intensity - The level of sureness/confidence of expressionabout the object or how strongly a person feels about his/herconviction.

3. Attitudes have structure :-The structure of human attitudes are complex, which consists of

individual important values and self-concept. Attitudes are learned,so they are more resistant to change i.e., newly formed attitudes are

easier to change.

4. Attitudes are learned :-

Attitudes develop from our experiences with reality as well asfrom information from friends, sales people and news media.

Attitudes are derived from both direct and indirect

experiences in life.

-Diagram-

Fig:- A simple diagram of the inter relationships of an attitude

toward a product/brand and other psychological process.-Structural Models of Attitudes :-

1. Tri component attitude model :-According to this model, attitudes consist of three major

components: a cognitive component, an affective component and a

conative component, which are mutually inter dependent.

-Diagram-

a) The Cognitive Component :- [Cognitive Knowledge]It consists of persons cognitions i.e., the knowledge


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and perceptions, which are developed by direct experience andfrom and other sources.

The knowledge and perceptions commonly takes the form

of beliefs.b) The affective Component :- [Affective Emotional]

Consumers emotions or feelings about a particular

product or brand, which constitute the affective component of anattitude.

The emotions and feelings are evaluated by researchers i.e.,

as favourable/un favourable, good/bad.

c) The Conative Component :- [conative behavioural tendency]

It is concerned with the likelihood or tendency that an

individual will undertake a specific action or behave in a particularway with regard to the attitude object.

In marketing and consumer research, this component is

expressed as attention to buy.

2. Multi Attribute Attitude Models :-This model is to examine attitudes in terms of selected product

attributes or beliefs. The models given by Fish-bein are considered.

a) The attitude-toward-object Model :-This model is especially suitable for measuring attributes

toward a product category or specific brands.Consumers generally have favourable attitudes towards those

brands and they believe that they have an adequate level of attributes., which are

evaluated as +Ve. Un-favourable attitudes towards those brands and they belivethat they believe that they do not have an adequate level of attributes, which as

evaluated as Ve attributes.

It is usually depicted in the form of equation:

Where Ao = The persons overall attitude toward the object.

bi = Strength of belief that the objective is related to

attribute i.

Eg: Jeans durable.

cj = evaluation or intensity of feelings

(liking/disliking) toward attribute i.

n = the number of relevant beliefs for that person.Calculating Consumers Attitude :-

This model determines a persons overall attitude toward some object.

The strength of each belief can be measured on a bipolar scale.The wristwatch is high in price.

Likely (+3) (+2) (+1) (0) (-1) (2) (-3) un likely.

Calculating a Consumers Attitude

Toward a Brand of Wrist watch.

Sl. Salient beliefs Belief Strength Evaluation Product (bi ej)

Ao = nbiej


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No. (bi) Score (ej)

1. Keeps Accurate Time +3 +2 6

2. Has Waterproof case +2 +3 6

3. Has day/date calendar +2 +2 4

4. Is high in price +1 -2 -2

5. Has digital display +1 -2 -2

Ao = nbi ej +12

i = 1

b) The attitude toward Behavior Model :-

It is the individuals attitude toward behaving or acting with respect to an

object, rather than the attitude toward the object itself.

Where AB - The individuals overall attitude toward

performing the specific behaviour.

bi - The persons belief that performing that

behavior results in consequence i.

ej - the persons evaluation of consequence i.

n - the number of relevant behavioral beliefs.

c) Theory of - reasoned - Action Model :-

Fig: - The relationship of components in Fish beins behavioral intentions

attitude model.

- Attitude Theories :-Attitude theories are primarily concerned with how attitudes

Develop and Change

1. Congruity (Agreement/Harmony) Theory :-

This theory is based on the consideration of holding positive andnegative attitudes towards a particular brand.

AB = nbi

ej

i = 1

Beliefs that the behaviour

leads to certain outcomes

Evaluation of the outcomes

Beliefs that specific referents think

I should/should not perform the

behaviour

Motivation to comply with

the specific referents

Attitude toward

The behavior

Intention Behavior

Sub ective norm


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If consumer is in a state of incongruity, which produces uncomfortable

tension, leads to resolution. The company should: now drop the product and reintroduce

with another name (Or) introduce a new formulated brand.Strong attitudes are more difficult to change than weak or moderate ones.

2. Balance Theory :-This theory was developed based upon the work of Fritz Heider.

According to this theory, a person perceives his/her environment in terms of

traids i.e., it involves a triangular relationship of 3 elements (persons, ideas and

things) has either +Ve (liking, favourable) or negative (dis linking, unfavourable)relationships with each other. This relationship is termed as sentiment.

Like (+) dont like (-)

are (+)

Fig: - An unbalanced attitudinal structure.This model is unbalanced, when the relationship among the 3 elements is

Ve and balanced , when the relationship among the 3 elements is +Ve.

3. Cognitive dissonance (lack of harmony / agreement) :-

This theory was developed by Leon Festinger. Cognitive dissonance is apsychological state, which results, when a personpercieves that 2 cognitions

(thoughts), bath of which he believes to be true, do not fit together i.e.,

inconsistent.

Dissonance can arise in 3 basic ways:

1. Logical Consistency - can create dissonance.

Eg: all candys are sweet, my candy is sour.

2. Dissonance can be created when a person experiences an inconsistency

either between his attitude and his behaviour or between two of his

behaviors.

3. Dissonance can occur when a strongly held expectation is disconfirmed.

Cognitive dissonance can be reduced by the following three ways:

1. Rationalization (Conformable)

2. Seeking additional information3. Eliminating/altering same dissonant elements.

B) PERCEPTION :- (Immediate / Intuitive recog.).

Sensation :-

I

large, luxurious cars Energy wasting products


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It is the immediate and direct response of the sensory organs to simple

stimuli ( an ad, a package, brand name).

Def: - Perception :- It is defined as the process by which an individual selects,organizes and interprets stimuli into a meaningful and Coherent

(Consistent/logical)) picture of the world.

A stimulus is any unit of input to any of the sense. Eg: Of Stimuli

includes products, packages, brand names, advertisements and commercials.

Sensory receptors Eyes, Ears, Nose, Mouth & Skin.

Sensory functions See, Hear, Smell, Taste, Feel & Touch.

-Perceptual Mechanism : ( 3 aspects of perception)1. Perceptual Selection :- -Selective expose avoid painful

-Selective attention needs & interact.

A person exposed to 20,000 products of different colors, sizes

and shapes in super market, selects and pays for the items they need.

2. Perceptual Organization :-The specific principles underlying perceptual organization are

often referred by the name Gestalt psychology. The 3 principles are.

a) Figure and Ground depends on sound (louder/softer) on color

(bright/pale)

Eg: Fig of Old and 20s.

b) Grouping Grouping stimuli automatically develops a unifiedpicture/impression.

Eg: A adult for tea may show a young man & woman sipping tea

in a beautiful appointed room, i.e., drinking is associated with tea

with romance, fine living, and winter warmth.

c) Closure :- The pattern of the stimuli to which they are exposed toincomplete, expressing needs should form a complete picture.

3. Perceptual Interpretation : -People select stimuli according to how they perceive, organize

there stimuli on the basis of certain psychological principles.

The interpretation of stimuli is uniquely individual, and is based

on the past experience.

Weak Poor visibilityStimuli are often highly ambiguous - Strong varies in angles of

viewing.

Stimuli are highly ambiguous - Serve to fulfill personal needs.

- Distorting Influences :- (Distortion to give false meaning)

1. Stereotypes :- It is an idea/expression, which lacks in originality in the

mind. Individuals tend to carry Picture in their minds with various

stimuli. There stereotypes are called as expectations.

2. First Impression :- It tends to be lasting, because of subsequentinformation about its advantages.

Eg: Shampoos.

3. Halo Effect :- It includes the evaluation of multiple objects (Eg: Product

line) on the basis of the evaluation of first one dimension (a brand name)using this, marketers take advantage of the halo effect, when they extend

a brand name associated with on line of products to another.

Eg: Disposable Pen, Disposable Razors.

Brand

name

Perception ofBrand

Store

name

Perception of

Store


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Buyer Behavior 3

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