BUREAUCRACY VS BUREAUCRACY VS INDIANSINDIANS

The Reservation System Under the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)AI_11_13

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Early BIA Early BIA Initially, Federal control over reservations Initially, Federal control over reservations

was very limitedwas very limited Single "Indian Agent" assigned to a reservation, Single "Indian Agent" assigned to a reservation,

or to multiple reservations, with responsibility or to multiple reservations, with responsibility for distributing food commodities to the for distributing food commodities to the Indians, but with relatively little responsibility Indians, but with relatively little responsibility beyond that. beyond that.

The entire BIA, initially called the Office of The entire BIA, initially called the Office of Indian Affairs, only had 108 employees in 1852Indian Affairs, only had 108 employees in 1852• By 1888, 1,725 employees in the Bureau. By 1888, 1,725 employees in the Bureau.

— Called on the military in the case of any disorder or Called on the military in the case of any disorder or if any Indians left the reservation without if any Indians left the reservation without permission.permission.

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Apache Chiefs with Indian AgentApache Chiefs with Indian Agent

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Reservation Life: Rosebud Reservation Life: Rosebud Reservation Indians and AgentReservation Indians and Agent

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Pine Ridge Reservation, late 1880sPine Ridge Reservation, late 1880s

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Sioux at Pine Ridge Waiting for FoodSioux at Pine Ridge Waiting for Food

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Commodity DistributionCommodity Distribution

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Cattle Killed at a Beef Issue Cattle Killed at a Beef Issue

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Skinning Beef at a Beef IssueSkinning Beef at a Beef Issue

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Blackfoot Woman Drying Meat, 1920Blackfoot Woman Drying Meat, 1920

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Early BIA FunctionsEarly BIA Functions

Small number of agents still meant BIA Small number of agents still meant BIA was not able to do much beyond was not able to do much beyond distribute commoditiesdistribute commodities

• Over time scope of activities and power expanded Over time scope of activities and power expanded as the bureau grew as the bureau grew

• 1911: 6,000 employees; and 1934: 12,0001911: 6,000 employees; and 1934: 12,000 Early reservation Indians relatively free to establish Early reservation Indians relatively free to establish

their own institutions and economic activitiestheir own institutions and economic activities• Dominant economic activity throughout the Dominant economic activity throughout the

country at the time, and especially in the parts of country at the time, and especially in the parts of the country where most reservations were the country where most reservations were established, was agriculture.established, was agriculture.— Most reservation land was suitable for growing Most reservation land was suitable for growing

crops or grazing livestock.crops or grazing livestock.

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Agriculture and Property Rights IssuesAgriculture and Property Rights Issues

To pursue agriculture, Indians had to To pursue agriculture, Indians had to allocate landallocate land Recall, systems of property rights in land Recall, systems of property rights in land

varied considerably among American varied considerably among American Indians depending on whether they were Indians depending on whether they were hunter-gatherers, agriculturists, or some hunter-gatherers, agriculturists, or some combination of the twocombination of the two• Once a tribe was confined to a reservation, Once a tribe was confined to a reservation,

generally encompassing a much smaller area than generally encompassing a much smaller area than had previously been claimed and in many cases, had previously been claimed and in many cases, in a totally different geographic area and physical in a totally different geographic area and physical environment than the tribe had controlled before, environment than the tribe had controlled before, it had to develop a system of property rights it had to develop a system of property rights suitable to the new conditions. suitable to the new conditions.

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Where Agriculture was Attractive, Where Agriculture was Attractive, Usufruct EvolvedUsufruct Evolved

Government's Agent and the members of the tribe Government's Agent and the members of the tribe recognized an individual's property rights to recognized an individual's property rights to animals, and where farming was practiced, a animals, and where farming was practiced, a family's claim to the land it worked was recognizedfamily's claim to the land it worked was recognized More land could be claimed by an individual or family by bringing More land could be claimed by an individual or family by bringing

it under cultivation (Locke)it under cultivation (Locke)

Essentially adopted on all of the reservations Essentially adopted on all of the reservations where farming was feasible, where farming was feasible,

Similar to the system of rights that had existed among Similar to the system of rights that had existed among agricultural tribes before they were placed on reservations. agricultural tribes before they were placed on reservations.

Had sufficient legal status so that when land was taken for Had sufficient legal status so that when land was taken for some reason, (some reason, (e.g.,e.g., right-of -way for a railroad) owners would right-of -way for a railroad) owners would be compensated.be compensated.

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Development of Reservation Development of Reservation Agriculture (Ag)Agriculture (Ag)

Indians previously involved in Ag Indians previously involved in Ag moved quickly to reestablish Ag on moved quickly to reestablish Ag on reservationsreservations 5 Civilized tribes in Oklahoma in the 1830s 5 Civilized tribes in Oklahoma in the 1830s

and 40s, were the first to establish and 40s, were the first to establish subsistence farmingsubsistence farming• In 1877 they were producing about 70 percent In 1877 they were producing about 70 percent

of the wheat being produced on reservations, of the wheat being produced on reservations, over 80 percent of the corn, and almost 45 over 80 percent of the corn, and almost 45 percent of the vegetablespercent of the vegetables

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Ag Development Ag Development (Cont. 1)

Other traditional ag tribes also adopted Other traditional ag tribes also adopted quickly. quickly. Couer d'Alene in Idaho had practiced Ag Couer d'Alene in Idaho had practiced Ag

before being confined to a reservation. The before being confined to a reservation. The 1900 Census reported1900 Census reported• "Agriculture is their principle occupation, and with few "Agriculture is their principle occupation, and with few

exceptions, their farms are well supplied with buildings exceptions, their farms are well supplied with buildings and implements. Material progress is being made from and implements. Material progress is being made from year to year in the improvements of the farms, and new year to year in the improvements of the farms, and new land is being broken each year. Many of the Indian land is being broken each year. Many of the Indian farms at Couer d'Alene would compare favorably with farms at Couer d'Alene would compare favorably with those of neighboring white men in the number of acres those of neighboring white men in the number of acres under cultivation." under cultivation."

• Some Couer d'Alene became quite prosperousSome Couer d'Alene became quite prosperous

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Ag Development, Ag Development, (Cont. 2) Couer d'Alene achieved their Ag success with Couer d'Alene achieved their Ag success with

almost no supervision or guidance from almost no supervision or guidance from government agents (agent assigned to the government agents (agent assigned to the reservation also served another one)reservation also served another one) Point made in part because agents often claimed credit Point made in part because agents often claimed credit

for the development of agriculture of the reservations for the development of agriculture of the reservations that they supervised (discussed below)that they supervised (discussed below)

Traditional non-Ag tribes were slower to adopt ag Traditional non-Ag tribes were slower to adopt ag technology, as long as hunting remained feasibletechnology, as long as hunting remained feasible buffalo were gone from the plains by early 1870s, and buffalo were gone from the plains by early 1870s, and

populations of other food sources for hunters (deer, elk, populations of other food sources for hunters (deer, elk, and antelope) were also severely reduced by Indians, and antelope) were also severely reduced by Indians, white settlers, trappers, and army troopswhite settlers, trappers, and army troops

As hunting opportunities disappeared, these tribes also As hunting opportunities disappeared, these tribes also began to shift into Agbegan to shift into Ag

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Selling Hay to the CavalrySelling Hay to the Cavalry

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Yankton Reservation in South Yankton Reservation in South Dakota Provides a Useful CaseDakota Provides a Useful Case

Shows how Indian property rights evolved Shows how Indian property rights evolved before Congress and the bureaucratic before Congress and the bureaucratic apparatus began to assert their own apparatus began to assert their own vision about how land should be allocatedvision about how land should be allocated Reservation established by treaty with the Reservation established by treaty with the

Yankton Dakota (Sioux), in the late 1850sYankton Dakota (Sioux), in the late 1850s• Buffalo had largely vanished from that part of the Plains by Buffalo had largely vanished from that part of the Plains by

the 1860s, so government agents increased their efforts to the 1860s, so government agents increased their efforts to promote Indian farmingpromote Indian farming— Started agency farms as demonstration projects Started agency farms as demonstration projects — Hired white farmers to work the agency farm. Hired white farmers to work the agency farm.

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Yankton, ContinuedYankton, Continued

According to Department of Interior, Office of Indian According to Department of Interior, Office of Indian Affairs publications, the demonstration project and Affairs publications, the demonstration project and other activities to encourage farming resulted in a other activities to encourage farming resulted in a substantial growth of small scale farming:substantial growth of small scale farming: by1878 farming was conducted "by each man on his own plot of by1878 farming was conducted "by each man on his own plot of

ground”ground” actual impact of these government efforts to encourage farming is actual impact of these government efforts to encourage farming is

unclear since the Indians themselves faced increasingly strong unclear since the Indians themselves faced increasingly strong incentives to farm as hunting options disappeared. incentives to farm as hunting options disappeared.

Cultivated farming plots only ranged from 5 to 15 Cultivated farming plots only ranged from 5 to 15 acres in size, but by 1888, according to an Indian acres in size, but by 1888, according to an Indian Affairs publication, many individuals had land claims Affairs publication, many individuals had land claims that had been recognized and maintained for as long that had been recognized and maintained for as long as 20 yearsas 20 years

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Teaching Agriculture to Indian Teaching Agriculture to Indian Boys Tulalip ReservationBoys Tulalip Reservation

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Yankton, ContinuedYankton, Continued

The tribe certainly was not self-sufficient in Ag, The tribe certainly was not self-sufficient in Ag, so it continued to require food and other so it continued to require food and other commodities from the government, commodities from the government,

Members also clearly were not unwilling to get Members also clearly were not unwilling to get involved in ag activities, even though this was involved in ag activities, even though this was not a tribe that had been involved in Ag before not a tribe that had been involved in Ag before they were placed on the reservationthey were placed on the reservation Same ownership patterns emerged on a large number of other Same ownership patterns emerged on a large number of other

reservations, often with much larger individual land holdings, reservations, often with much larger individual land holdings, even for tribes that had never had any experience with ag even for tribes that had never had any experience with ag (e.g., Yakima in Washington and the Flathead in Montana, both (e.g., Yakima in Washington and the Flathead in Montana, both of which had very fertile farm land on reservations). of which had very fertile farm land on reservations).

Frequently cited hypothesis that Indian culture Frequently cited hypothesis that Indian culture prevented development of Ag is not validprevented development of Ag is not valid

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Trends in Indian AgTrends in Indian Ag Acres cultivated by reservation tribes excluding Acres cultivated by reservation tribes excluding

the 5 civilized tribes:the 5 civilized tribes: 117,267 in 1875, up to 369,974 by 1896117,267 in 1875, up to 369,974 by 1896

Reservation grain production grew by an Reservation grain production grew by an average of 5.5% per year from 1875 to 1895, average of 5.5% per year from 1875 to 1895, from about 1.1M bushels in the mid 1870s to from about 1.1M bushels in the mid 1870s to about 3.2M bushels in 1895about 3.2M bushels in 1895

Census of Agriculture: 19,910 Indian farms in Census of Agriculture: 19,910 Indian farms in 1899 1899 One farm for every 12 Indians on reservations; One farm for every 12 Indians on reservations; Given family sizes, a large portion of the Given family sizes, a large portion of the

reservation Indians in areas where ag was reservation Indians in areas where ag was feasible were actively pursuing farming.feasible were actively pursuing farming.

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Size of Indian FarmsSize of Indian Farms

Average farm size was 172.5 acres.Average farm size was 172.5 acres. In North central region where the Northern In North central region where the Northern

plains states are included, most of the plains states are included, most of the reservations involve tribes like the Sioux who reservations involve tribes like the Sioux who had traditionally not been farmers. had traditionally not been farmers. Nevertheless, there were 4,037 Indian farms Nevertheless, there were 4,037 Indian farms in this region in 1899 with a mean size of 307 in this region in 1899 with a mean size of 307 acres and a median of 135 acres. acres and a median of 135 acres. • Homestead act allocated 160 acres to Homestead act allocated 160 acres to

homesteaders, so many of the Indian farms homesteaders, so many of the Indian farms were much larger than the homesteader's were much larger than the homesteader's farms, although most were clearly smaller. farms, although most were clearly smaller.

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Another Example: Santee SiouxAnother Example: Santee Sioux

Several tribes adapted fairly quickly to Ag Several tribes adapted fairly quickly to Ag Santee Sioux, one of the three Eastern sub-Santee Sioux, one of the three Eastern sub-

tribes of the Sioux, were located in Minnesotatribes of the Sioux, were located in Minnesota• In 1862, the tribe was under considerable stress due In 1862, the tribe was under considerable stress due

to the decline in hunting opportunities, White to the decline in hunting opportunities, White encroachment into their territory, and broken encroachment into their territory, and broken promises of aidpromises of aid— War broke out, and although it was relatively short it War broke out, and although it was relatively short it

was quite bloodywas quite bloody— Most of the Santee were removed from Minnesota and Most of the Santee were removed from Minnesota and

placed on three scattered reservations - the Santee placed on three scattered reservations - the Santee reservation in Nebraska, the Sisseton Reservation reservation in Nebraska, the Sisseton Reservation (mostly in South Dakota, but also parts of North Dakota (mostly in South Dakota, but also parts of North Dakota and Minnesota, and the Devil's Lake Reservation in and Minnesota, and the Devil's Lake Reservation in North Dakota). North Dakota).

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Santee Santee (Cont.)

Ag began to develop on these reservationsAg began to develop on these reservations Considerable strides were made toward self-sufficiently Considerable strides were made toward self-sufficiently

through the 1870s and 1880s, as individuals developed through the 1870s and 1880s, as individuals developed private farms (not unusual: similar progress occurred on private farms (not unusual: similar progress occurred on the Yankton Reservation that I mentioned earlier, where, the Yankton Reservation that I mentioned earlier, where, by 1895 several farmers were raising enough for their by 1895 several farmers were raising enough for their own subsistence)own subsistence)

Tribe was not prosperous or even approaching self-Tribe was not prosperous or even approaching self-sufficiency, but they were making steady progress sufficiency, but they were making steady progress toward Ag-based economies on reservations.toward Ag-based economies on reservations.

Case studies suggest similar implications for a Case studies suggest similar implications for a number of other tribes, and a few, including the number of other tribes, and a few, including the 5 civilized tribes, were doing very well5 civilized tribes, were doing very well

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Apache HarvestApache Harvest

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Indian RanchingIndian Ranching

Some reservations, particularly in parts of Some reservations, particularly in parts of the high plains east of the Rockies, and the the high plains east of the Rockies, and the arid lands between the Rockies and the arid lands between the Rockies and the Sierras are not well suited for cultivation Sierras are not well suited for cultivation farmingfarming

Some are more suited for cattle ranching (e.g. parts of Some are more suited for cattle ranching (e.g. parts of the Blackfoot Reservation on the high plains of Montana).the Blackfoot Reservation on the high plains of Montana).

For these tribes, as hunting became difficult, cattle were For these tribes, as hunting became difficult, cattle were acquired, and individual ownership of cattle was acquired, and individual ownership of cattle was recognized. recognized. • Private ownership of cattle was so well established that when Private ownership of cattle was so well established that when

the Federal Government replaced private herds with tribal the Federal Government replaced private herds with tribal herds between 1910 and 1920 the Indians were very herds between 1910 and 1920 the Indians were very resistant to the changeresistant to the change

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Jackson Sundown: An Indian CowboyJackson Sundown: An Indian Cowboy

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Grazing Land was not Broken into Grazing Land was not Broken into Individual ParcelsIndividual Parcels

Like the open range ranching system of White Like the open range ranching system of White ranchersranchers Methods of dividing cattle into separate herds and confining Methods of dividing cattle into separate herds and confining

them onto separate lands was not technologically feasiblethem onto separate lands was not technologically feasible Water is scarce in these areas so several ranchers often had Water is scarce in these areas so several ranchers often had

to have access to the same water sourceto have access to the same water source

Plains Indians readily adapted to cattle ranching: Plains Indians readily adapted to cattle ranching: had been herding horses for a long time, and skill had been herding horses for a long time, and skill with horses was easily adapted to cattle ranching with horses was easily adapted to cattle ranching where horsemanship was a valuable inputwhere horsemanship was a valuable input Several tribes were making considerable progress toward Several tribes were making considerable progress toward

success in ranching by the late 1800ssuccess in ranching by the late 1800s

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Some Indian Lands Were too Arid Some Indian Lands Were too Arid for Agfor Ag

Some reservation Tribes never did Some reservation Tribes never did develop Agdevelop Ag Ute Indians on the Unitah and Ouray Ute Indians on the Unitah and Ouray

reservations in Utah provide an examplereservations in Utah provide an example Utes had never been involved in Ag before Utes had never been involved in Ag before

they were confined to reservations, and the they were confined to reservations, and the Indian agents contended that it was their Indian agents contended that it was their cultural resistance that prevented them from cultural resistance that prevented them from becoming farmersbecoming farmers• Actually, land they were on was clearly not suited for AgActually, land they were on was clearly not suited for Ag

— Very rough and arid terrainVery rough and arid terrain— Crops on experimental agency farms suppose to Crops on experimental agency farms suppose to

provide examples for Indians consistently failed provide examples for Indians consistently failed

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Adapting to New TechnologyAdapting to New Technology

A new form of Alfalfa hay was developed A new form of Alfalfa hay was developed that proved to be a successful crop on that proved to be a successful crop on the Ute reservations where irrigation was the Ute reservations where irrigation was possible. So as hunting opportunities possible. So as hunting opportunities declined, many Utes began to be declined, many Utes began to be involved in agricultural efforts, involved in agricultural efforts, By 1920, 79% of the adult males were By 1920, 79% of the adult males were

cultivating land, averaging 42 acres each. cultivating land, averaging 42 acres each. • However, by this time incentives for Indians had clearly However, by this time incentives for Indians had clearly

changed, and more cultivated land on the reservation was changed, and more cultivated land on the reservation was actually being leased to white farmers than was being actually being leased to white farmers than was being farmed by Indians.farmed by Indians.

• After this period the Utes moved out of farming.After this period the Utes moved out of farming.

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Trends Actually Changed in Mid-Trends Actually Changed in Mid-1890s1890sMid-1890s was the peak of Indian farmingMid-1890s was the peak of Indian farming

Stagnated after thatStagnated after that• Land under cultivation stayed roughly the same for the Land under cultivation stayed roughly the same for the

next decade, next decade, • grain output declined to about 2.5 million bushels from grain output declined to about 2.5 million bushels from

the high of 3.2 million bushels in 1895the high of 3.2 million bushels in 1895

Key question: Why did this stagnation occur?Key question: Why did this stagnation occur? Similarly, several tribes were making very good Similarly, several tribes were making very good

progress towards successful cattle ranching in progress towards successful cattle ranching in the late 1800s and even into the early 1900s the late 1800s and even into the early 1900s • Then the U.S. Government induced them to sell off Then the U.S. Government induced them to sell off

their herds and lease their lands to whitestheir herds and lease their lands to whites

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Why Did Incentives Change?Why Did Incentives Change?

Changes mandated by Congress and Changes mandated by Congress and imposed by the BIA. imposed by the BIA. A writer quoted by Anderson explainedA writer quoted by Anderson explained

• "When we hear it said today that Indians do not "When we hear it said today that Indians do not believe in property or in private enterprise, we believe in property or in private enterprise, we are still hearing the echoes of the struggle are still hearing the echoes of the struggle against Indian agrarian entrepreneurs in the against Indian agrarian entrepreneurs in the 1930s, a struggle waged in the name of 1930s, a struggle waged in the name of liberating landless Indians from poverty, but liberating landless Indians from poverty, but which in reality returned reservations economics which in reality returned reservations economics to government dependence.”to government dependence.”— This struggle actually began earlier, however.This struggle actually began earlier, however.

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