FORTITUDIiBULLETIN OF THE MARINE CORPS HISTORICAL PROGLHISTORICAL BULLETIN VOLUME XXVI FALL 1996 NUMBER

PENDLEIDN VOLUNTEERS RESCUE FLOOD-DAMAGED MARINE CORPS LANDMARK.. . HIS1ORIAN DOCUMENTS

ACTIVITIES OF MARINES IN BOSNIA.. . MARINE HISIDRY DEBUTS ON THE WORLD WIDE WEB. . . RECORDS

SEARCH 10 AID GULF VETERANS. . . BUMPER CROP OF SUMMER COLLEGE INTERNS LIGHTENS CENTER'S TASKS

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution isunlimited.

PCN 10401220100

Marine Corps Historical CenterBuilding 58, Washington Navy Yard

901 M Street, SoutheastWashington, D.C. 20374-5040

Telephone: (202) 433-3838, 433-3840, 433-3841

DIRECTOR EMERITUS

BGen Edwin H. Simmons, USMC (Ret)

DIRECTOR

Col Michael F. Monigan, USMCActing

Secretary to the Director Mrs. Patricia E. Morgan.

DEPUTY DIRECTOR

Col Michael F. Monigan, USMC

HISTORICAL BRANCH

Acting Head/Head, Histories Section: Mr. Benis M. Frank,Chief Historian: Dr. Jack Shulimson; Mr. Charles R. Smith;Maj Steven M. Zimmeck, USMC; Ma) James G. Antal,USMC; Mrs. Wanda E Renfrow. Oral History Unit: Mr.Richard A. Long. Reference Section Mr. DannyJ. Crawford;Mr. Roberi V. Aquilina; Mrs. Ann A. Ferrante: Miss LenaM. Kaljot; Mrs. Shelia Gramblin. Archives: Mr. Frederick

J. Graboske; Mrs. Amy C. Cohen, Persona/Papers; Mrs. JoyceC. Hudson, Sgt Eric M. Trischan, USMC, Officio/Papers.

MUSEUMS BRANCH

Acting Head/Officer-in-Charge, Air- Ground Museum,Quantico: Mr. Charles A. Wood. Operations Officer lstLtKristina L. Wenger, USMC. Museums Section: Mr. CharlesA. Wood, Chief Curator; Mr. Kenneth L. Smith-Christmas,Material History; Mr. John G. Griffiths, Ordnance; Mr.Mitch Garringer, LCpI David Nieves, Jr., USMC, Restora-tion; Mr. Michael E. Starn, Aeronautics; Mr. RonaldJ. Per-kins, Mr. Ronnie D. Alexander, Exhibits; Mrs. Nancy E King,Uniforms; Mrs. Jennifer L. Castro, Registrar, Mrs. KathrynR. Trout. Programs Assistant. Security: SSgt HureIJ. Ward,USMC; Sgt Daryl L. Clark, USMC; Sgt Pete K. Basabe.USMC; Cpl DonaldJ. Yusko, USMC; Cpl Jeffrey B. Jones.USMC; LCpI Kanaya T Easley, USMC; LCpI Wesley C. Simp-

son, USMC; LCpI Tobias T Pasky, USMC.

MARINE CORPS MUSEUM UNIT, WASHINGTON, D.C.

Exhibits: Mr. James A. Fairfax; Mr. Gordon Heim. MarineCorps Art Collection: Mr. John T. Dyer. Jr.

SUPPORT BRANCH

Head/Division Executive Officer LtCol Leon Craig, Jr..USMC. Editing andDesign Section: Mr. Robert E. Struder;Mr. William S. Hill; Mrs. Catherine A. Kerns. Library: MissEvelyn A. Englander. Administration: lstLt Mark R.

Schroeder, USMC; SSgt Myrna A. Thomas. USMC; CplTodd M. Halacy, USMC; Cpl Tracey W. Thomas. USMC.Security Unit: SSgt Treaty N. Williams, USMC.

Mr. Robert E. StruderSenior Editor/Editor; Fortitudine

FORTITUD INEMotto of the United States Marine Corps in the 1812 era.

Historical Bulletin Volume XXVI FaIl 1996 No. 2

This quarterly bulletin of the Marine Corps historical program is published for Marines, atthe rate of one copy for every nine on active duty, to provide education and training in theuses of military and Marine Corps history. Other interested readers may purchase single co-pies or four-issue subscriptions from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office. The appropriate order form appears in this issue.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Memorandum from the Chief Historian: Tokyo OdysseyBenis M. Frank 3

Readers Always Write: Profiled Marine Compiled the Corps' 'Little Red Book' 9Marine History Now Available World Wide, on the Web

Danny]. Crawford 10

Archives Sending Cuban Missile Crisis Papers to StorageYashica Best and Frederick]. Graboske 11

Awards of Doctoral and Master's Degree Fellowships at Center AnnouncedCharles R. Smith 11

Pendleton Salvages Historic Marine Chapel from FloodCame Maffei 12

Acquisitions: Museum Gets Oscar Given to Marine FilmmakerJennifer L. Gooding 13

Historical Efforts of Marines in Bosnia Aided by DivisionCol Dennis P Mroczkowski, USMCR 14

Historical Quiz: The Navy CrossMidn 2/c Richard M. Rusnok, Jr 16

Records Searched for Origins of Gulf SXlir Veterans' IllsMa) Ray Celeste, Jr., USMC 17

Two New Titles Swell World War II Pamphlets SeriesCharles R. Smith 18

Cochrane Papers Reveal Long and Colorful Naval CareerAmy Cantin Cohen 19

New Books: New Publications a Bonanza for Military History ReadersJena Beth Antal 20

Answers to the Historical Quiz: The Navy CrossMidn 2/c Richard M. Rusnok, Jr 21

Mentioned in Passing: John Erskine, Linguist and Longtime Center VolunteerBenis M. Frank 22

Number of Marine-Related Papers Presented at Historical ConferenceBenis M. Frank 22

Marine Corps Chronology: January-June 1948Robert V Aquilina 23

Thriving College Intern Program Boosts Center's GoalsCharles R. Smith 24

ABOUT THE COVER

The chapel which is a part of the Ranch House complex at Camp Pendleton, California,is a true Marine Corps landmark, the scene of countless weddings, baptisms, and funeralsof both renowned and lesser-known Marines, InJune 1993 it was struck by a rampaging floodwhich took out one of its adobe walls, scattered its pews and other furnishings over a widearea, and buried its stained glass in inches of muck. Because of the interest and activismof a group of Pendleton volunteers, the chapel today appears once again as it did in Marineartist John DeGrasse's sketch, done in 1973, on the cover. Camp Pendleton writer CarrieMaffei describes the chapel restoration work beginning on page 12.

Fortitudine is produced in the Editing and Design Section of the History and Museums Division. Thetext for Fortitudine is set in 10-point and 8-point Garamond typeface. Headlines are in 18-point or24-point Garamond. The bulletin is printed on 70-pound, matte-coated paper by offset lithography.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Vshington, D.C. 20402.

2 Fortit'tidine, Fall 1996

HISTORYAND MUSEUMSDIVISION

Tokyo Odyssey

F OR A PERIOD NOW, the U.S. ArmyCenter of Military History (CMH) and

the Japanese Ground Self-Defense Force(JGSDF) Command and Staff Collegehave been holding a series of what theyjointly call "Military History Exercises"(MHX). The sites for these exercises havebeen in both the United States and Japan.This year, 15-22 February, LtGen HiromuFujiwara, JGSDF, commandant of theStaff College, and his assistant, MajGenKeiichi Ohnishi, hosted the activity atCamp Meguro in Tokyo, the site of theCommand and Staff College Head-quarters.

This year's topic was the Battle ofOkinawa. Since this had been an Ameri-can joint services operation involvingArmy, Navy, Marine Corps, and Army AirCorps forces, BGen John W. Mountcastle,USA, the Chief of Army History, invitedthe heads of the other Service historicaloffices to send one of their historians tothe exercise to present a paper concerningthe role of that service in the campaign.

Then-Director of Marine Corps Histo-ry and Museums, BGen Edwin H. Sim-mons, selected me inasmuch as I hadcoauthored with my predecessor as ChiefHistorian, Henry I. Shaw,Jr., the fifth and

final volume of our red-backed, officialWorld War II historical series—this onedealing with Okinawa, the end of the war,and the occupations of Japan and NorthChina. In addition, I had written twoother books dealing primarily with therole of the Marine Corps in the Okinawaoperation.

G EN MOUNICASTLE LED an American

delegation consisting of Dr. John T.

Greenwood, chief of the CMH Field Pro-grams and Histoncal Services Division; Dr.Gary J. Bjorge of the Command andGeneral Staff College, Fort Leavenworth,Kansas; LtCol Conrad C. Crane of the U.S.Military Academy's History Department;Dr. Donald Laird, U.S. Army, Pacific, com-mand historian; Dr. Peter Dulniawka, as-signed to the 9th Theater Army AreaCommand, U.S. Army, Japan; William T.Y'Blood, Air Force History Support Office;and Dr. EdwardJ. Marolda, senior histori-an of the Naval Historical Center. Four in-terpreters were present: Ms. YoshimiAllard, Defense Language Institute; CaptGeorge Roszko, USA, 9th Army ReserveCommand; LtCol Michael David, USAR;and LtCol Michael Beale, USA, who is theFort Leavenworth liaison officer to the StaffCollege. I represented the Marine Corps.

The Japanese participants were mem-bers of the Ground SDF, plus a navalofficer from the Maritime SDF and an avi-ator of the Air SDF. In addition, presentwere representatives from the National In-stitute for Defense Studies (NIDS), theNational Defense Academy, and the JointStaff College. One of the NIDS represen-tatives who presented a paper was Dr.Hisashi Takahashi, chief of the 1st MilitaryHistory Office of NIDS, who had been a

Me moran dii m from the Chief Historian

Benis M. Frank

The sign above the entrance to the Command and Staff College at Camp Meguroin Tokyo. and an elegant floral arrangement. welcomed participants to the 1996 Mdi-taly History Exercise. Topic of the exercise was the 1945 battle for the island of Okinawa.

At Tokyds Narita Airport, the Washington contingent. from left. Frank. Marolda, andMountcastle, meet u with Crane of West Point, and an SDF guide and interprete,:

Foriziiid,ne, Fall 1996

visiting professor at the University ofCalifornia, San Diego, for several years. Inaddition, there were four other civilianparticipants, three of whom were retiredJGSDF colonels, and the fourth a retiredAir SDF major general.

After a 14-hour, non-stop plane tripfrom Chicago to Narita airport, we weremet by LtCol Beale and several JGSDFofficers who served as escorts and who tookus to the New Sanno, which is a U.S.Army-built and U.S. Navy-run hotel. Sincewe were now 14 hours and a day ahead ofthe East Coast of the U.S., our body clocksneeded readjustment. (Actually, it was

much worse returning from Japan toWashington.)

T HE CORDIAL MEETING with the twoJapanese majors who accompanied

LtCoI Beale was a harbinger of the courtesyand hospitality we were to receive from ourJapanese hosts for the next eight days. Ihadn't been in Japan since 1953, when Ispent a week in Kyoto on R-and-R leavefrom Korea. On this 1996 trip over, I

thought of the Smithsonian Institution'sEnola Gay exhibit and the attendant hass-le, and wondered how it had played inJapan and whether it was to affect this con-

ference in any way. I need not have beenconcerned. Our association with theJapanese officers and civilians at the MI-liXwas objective and straightforward, as youshall see when I discuss the tone of papersthat the SDF personnel presented. As theoldest member of the American party andthe only veteran of the battle for Okina-wa participating in the conference, itseemed to me that I was given special at-tention which was almost embarrassing.One other thing: it was planned that af-ter the papers were presented, the MHXwould move on to Okinawa itself for a tourof the battlefield sites. In considering theanti-American demonstrations breakingout on the island, our hosts thought thispart of the exercise ill-advised, and so wedidn't visit Okinawa.

The MI-TX began on the morning of 14February, when our escorts arrived withvans to transport us to the Command andStaff College. Here we met our hosts, allof whom bowed when introduced, a

gesture we all soon learned to emulate. Wealso soon discovered how well organizedand managed the conference was to be. Itwas more than having an establishedschedule for the presentations, it also washaving positions already indicated for thegroup photograph, which was one of thefirst items of business.

Next, we entered the conference roomwhere we took our assigned seats, theJapanese delegation facing the American

4 Fortitudine, Fall 1996

Before the exercise began, BGen John U'< Mountcastle, Chief of Army History, left,paida courtesy cal/on LtGen Hiromu Fujiwara, commandant of the Japanese GroundSelf Defense Force Command and Staff College. Cordiality was a constant for the week.

The first order of business of the first day was to photographthe participants in the Military Histoiy Exercise. All soon learnedhow well organized and managed the conference was to be; po-sitions were already indicated for the group photograph. The

formatfor the conference was that two presentations were giveneach day, one in the morning and one in the afternoon, oneby an American presenterand one by aJapanese presenter TheJapanese participants courteously gave their talks in English.

one, and each member stood, was in-troduced, and, again, bowed. The formatfor the conference was that two presenta-tions were given each day, one in themorning and one in the afternoon, oneby an American presenter and the otherby ajapanese. Our papers had been trans-lated into Japanese long before the con-ference and included in a conferencenotebook. The Japanese presentationswere likewise translated into English andput into the notebook. Although ourJapanese colleagues courteously gave theirpresentations in English, it was helpful toread the texts along with the talks. Follow-ing each presentation there was a periodgiven over for questions and discussions,which were generally lively and wide-ranging.

A s I STATED EARLIER, the papers given

by the Japanese were objective andfrank. This became obvious as we heard,on 15 February, the first presentation byDr. Takahashi, who spoke on "Despair ora Streak of Hope—The Situation of WarGuidance in the Spring of 1945:' Dr. Taka-hashi related the confusion of the ImperialGeneral Headquarters (IGHQ) staff inTokyo, discussed army- navy rivalries.and — following the fall of Saipan — the fallof the Tojo government. He also addressedthe IGHQ's lack of firm intelligence of thesituation in the Pacific and its inability toformulate realistically viable strategic plansto offset the Allied advance towards Tokyo.The other papers delivered by the Japanesedelegation were as realistic and objectiveas this first one.

LtCol Crane, who holds a Ph.D. degreefrom Stanford University, spoke that after-

noon on "Echoes of Okinawa —The Impactof the Okinawa Campaign on U.S. Esca-lation of the War Against Japan' He con-cluded that the battle for Okinawa was adefining moment for American strategy inthe Pacific. because American lossescaused by a fanatic Japanese grounddefense and kamikaze attacks strength-ened U.S. resolve to achieve unconditionalsurrender. As a result, after Okinawa,"there were no more restraints to limit theescalation to total war against the enemyhomeland."

On the first evening of the conference,Gen Fujiwara hosted his American guestsat a reception. Toasts were exchanged andwhat may be a peculiarly Japanese custombecame apparent. One did not fill one'sown glass; one of theJapanese officers withwhom you were talking would do it for you

and you would do the same for him. Theresult was to keep the glasses hospitablyfull at all times!

Dr. Marolda of the Naval HistoricalCenter began the presentations on the se-cond day with his paper, "Weathering theDivine Wind: The U.S. Navy and theOkinawa Campaign." He concluded that"while the battle for Okinawa was gener-ally an example of cooperation among theAmerican armed services, the U.S. Navyand the U.S. Army Air Forces disagreedabout the enemy's kamikaze threat.Despite the Navy's entreaties, AAF lead-ers delayed concentrating their bombingattacks against the Japanese fields fromwhich the kamikazes sortied against VAdmRaymond A. Spruance's Fifth Fleet."Marolda pointed out that once MajGenCurtis L. LeMay, commander of the XXIBomber Command, recognized the seri-ousness of the threat against the fleet, heordered his aircraft to hit kamikaze bases.Dr. Marolda also revealed the losses sus-tained by the fleet: 34 ships sunk; 368others damaged; and more than 5,000sailors killed.

T HAT AFTERNOON'S presentation,"What Did the Imperial General

Headquarters Try to Achieve Through theTen-Go Air Operation," was given by ColFujio ma. I later learned that Col ma'sfather had been killed in Philippinesfighting. Incidentally, before the presen-tations began, Col Ina told me that he hadread my paper and agreed with what I hadwritten in my last paragraph: "In reliving

Fe/i/u dine. Fall 1O)6

At the Japanese reception on the first night are, from left. BGen Mountcastle, LtColCrane, Di: Marolda, Mr Frank, and Dr Greenwood Traditional customs were observed

One of the conference's four interpreters. Ms. shimz Allard of the Defense LanguageInjtitute. looks on amused as Frank attempts to navigate a pair of lunchtime chopsticks,

On Saturday's escorted tour the exhibitsseen at the Edo-Tokyo Museum were spec-tacular This Ic one of the figures iv thesection devoted to the kabuki theater

World War II during the recent 50th an-niversary commemorations of the war, Iam pleased not only for myself and our Al-lied forces that we didn't have to invadethe Home Islands, but also for the peo-ple of Japan who would have sufferedmightily had the Emperor not decidedthat the war should end."

Col ma's paper was incisive and interest-ing to me because he presented someJapanese concepts and conclusions ofwhich I was not aware previously. Essen-tially, the Ten-Go operation was plannedto conduct decisive air battles against Al-lied invasion forces, mainly around the"South-West Islands," located in the for-ward area ofJapan. This was to be an ef-fort to defend Japan proper after thefailure earlier of the Sho-Go set of opera-tions. The success of Ten-Go would de-pend upon the close cooperation of theJapanese Army and Navy. Since this hadnot been accomplished in the war so far,there was only the hope of it beingachieved at this time, when the fate of theJapanese Home Islands was at risk. Ten-Go was launched on 18 March 1945, withonly some small degree of success, i.e., the

effect of the kamikaze raids on the U.S.fleet at Okinawa. Col ma conduded: "TheTen-Go operation was the last battle be-tween the two nations. It brought an endto the war before a final decisive battle oc-curred on Japan Proper, which allowed thepeople of both nations not to bear deepgrudges later. Furthermore, the end of theTen-Go Operation became the startingpoint for establishing today's close Japan-U.S. relations." Col ma's was the lastpresentation of that week.

On Saturday, our hosts took us on a tourof two city attractions—the Edo-TokyoMuseum and the Yasakuni War Shrine.The museum is concerned with the histo-ry of Tokyo, or Edo, as it was known until1868. The museum was modern in con-cept and exhibitry and well displayed whatEdo must have been like. In one area ofthe Edo section a typical street, withhouses and shops on both sides, waspresented, and in the shops contemporaryitems were shown. By the 18th century,Edo had become one of the largest urbanareas in the world. With the end of the250-year reign of the Tokugawa bakufureign, Edo was renamed Tokyo ("EasternCapital"). Throughout the Tokyo sectionin the museum, you can see how the cityemerged as one of the most heavily popu-lated worldwide. One section of the Tokyoexhibit is given over to a display entitled"War and Reconstruction," which gave mesome slight idea of howJapanese citizensfared in the war. According to the muse-um guidebook, "Museum exhibits ques-

tion the meaning of the war from variousangles And so they do.

F OR LUNCH, OUR HOSTS took us to atraditional sumo restaurant named

Tomoegata, after the retired sumo wres-tler who founded it. We were seated oncushions around a low table, in the mid-dle of which was a large electrically heat-ed stewpot used to cook the traditionalmeal of the wrestlers. This is chanko nabe,a stew of salmon and other fish, fried tofu,mushrooms, and other vegetables whichI couldn't identify. The solid items werepicked out of the stew with chopsticks, andthe remaining liquid poured into smallbowls. Noodles were placed into the re-maining stew to finish up. It was al-together exotic and delicious. All of thiswas accompanied by sake, beer Uapanese,of course), and soda.

After this repast, we were taken to theYasukunijinja, or Shrine, which was origi-nally known as the Tokyo Shokonsha. Theword Shokonsha means the shrine or placeto which the "divine spirits of those whohave made the great sacrifice are invited."Essentially, this is a shrine to all of theJapanese war dead of all ages. As I notedin a diary I was keeping of my Tokyo trip,the shrine is very impressive. After enter-ing through the first Toni gate leading tothe shrine we arrived at what is called "theHand-Washing Place," where, according totradition, we washed our hands andwashed out our mouths. There were many

6 Fortitudine, Fall 1996

Everything was white and extremely quiet at the Yasukuni Shrine. White doves ho-vered and gathered as they were fed birdseed from a coin-operated machine nearby.

white doves there which it seemed to mecould be spirits of those long past. It hadsnowed in Tokyo since morning, and theday was cloudy and overcast. All thesethings contributed to give a strange at-mosphere to the place.

Close by to the shrine is a museum.Yushukan, which is dedicated to thememories of the war dead and contains"things memorial to the wars that this na-tion has fought, and some weapons fromold and new ages." We were given a guid-ed tour of the shrine museum by its head,MajGen Daitche Shirosuke. This place wasestablished in 1882, and as Japan wentthrough the Sino-Japanese War, the Russo-Japanese War, and World War I, the facil-ity was enlarged by continual remodelingand construction of an annex. The muse-um was quite cold when we visited it.

While it holds a large collection of earlyJapanese weapons and armor, it alsohouses a number of exhibits dedicated toJapan's World War II heroes and events,with pictures, uniforms, medals, samuraiswords, and other artifacts. In the large ex-hibit hail there was an impressive dioramadepicting kamikaze attacks on the U.S.fleet at Okinawa, a kaiten (a human torpe-do such as those found at Okinawa), aswell as a World War II tank and a "Judy,"a carrier-based, single-engined Aichiborn ber.

T HE MONDAY MORNING session of theconference began with Mr. Y'B!ood's

paper on "Air Support on Okinawa' Y'B-lood related the story of the operations of

the Tactical Air Force, Tenth Army, and itsAir Defense Command, both comprisedprimarily of Marine Corps units and head-ed by Marine general officers. He alsospoke of the maturing of close air supporton Okinawa and the control of that sup-port by the Marine landing force air sup-port control units. He concluded that closeair support was successful at Okinawa, butthat there were some ripples which stillneeded to be ironed out.

In the afternoon, LtCol Masahiro Kawaispoke about his considerable research intoa relatively unknown Japanese unit whenhe discussed "The Operations of theSuicide-Boat Regiment in Okinawa' LtColKawai pointed out that while thekamikaze (Divine Wind) special air corpscreated within both the Japanese army andnavy in late 1944, and the Kaiten (Her-culean Task) suicide torpedo corps of thenavy were well known, another special unitwas not so well publicized. This was thearmy's suicide-boat regiments, which wereorganized and operated completely as ahidden force. They were neither publi-cized nor have they ever been researchedto any great degree since the end of thewar. One good reason, perhaps, is thatthey never achieved any great success,while their casualties were staggering.LtCol Kawai stated that "out of the total1,800-member first-time Army 'special'shipping officer cadet corps, as many as1,185 were killed in action." These specialcadets were recruited in December 1943from among the third- and fourth-gradestudents of the five-year Japanese high

school system, and were no more than 16or 17 years old. LtCol Kawai pointed outthat "in no other part of modernJapanesemilitary history would one come across aninstance where the minors constituted thevast majority of any operating group andso many of them were lost in battle." Heindicated that he is now in the process offinishing a detailed account of the suicide-boat regiments, the background leadingto their creation, and the actions of each.In his paper, he dealt with the role of theregiments at Okinawa.

Professor Yoshio Sugino-o of the Na-tional Defense Academy addressed thefate of Okinawan civilians in his paper,"Evacuation of Inhabitants on Okinawa."The sad fact of the matter is that wellabove 100,000 Okinawans died during thebattle for their island. Some of this num-ber were just caught in the middle of thefighting and could not get out of the way.Some civilians were killed as they were be-ing evacuated by the Japanese to thesouthern part of the island. And yet otherswere sealed in caves by Americans whothought that they were enemy forces. Dr.Sugino-o discussed Japanese plans for pro-tecting Okinawans before the Americanlanding, their evacuation after the land-ing, and finally the several causes leadingto civilian casualties.

T UESDAY AFTERNOON, Dr. Greenwood

read a paper, "The Battle of Okina-wa: Various Aspects of Ground Opera-

/1/ Wednesday lunch, LtCol Takeichi. withhlc ca/ligrapherc brush, some paper andzik. drew a beautiful example of hlc art.

Fortitudine, Fall 1996

MajGen Daitche Shirosuke. center right, gave the group a guided tour of his muse-um, located on the shrine grounds. Among exhibits were an ohka, a human-pilotedsuicide bomb, anda cased diorama of a kamikaze raid on the US. fleet at Okinawa.

tions," written by Dr. Arnold G. Fisch,Jr.,also of the Army Center of Military His-tory. Essentially, Dr. Fisch's paper providesa broad picture of the ground battle, andthe grinding efforts on the part of bothsides to succeed. He concluded: "In manyways, the battle for Okinawa came downto a struggle in which the basic tacticalunit on each side was a pillbox supportedby infantry." In the case of the Americans,it was an infantry-supported, fairly vulner-able, tank attack, while the Japanese used"almost invulnerable but immobile pill-boxes, the fortified caves." He also validlynoted that "For the average weary soldieror Marine, the battle of Okinawa, togetherwith the earlier bloody struggle for IwoJima, ominously showed how difficult thefinal conquest of the Japanese home is-lands might be."

My presentation on the Marine role inthe battle for Okinawa was given themorning of 21 February, whith happenedto be my 71st birthday. As I was about tobegin my paper, I was pleasantly surprisedby Col Hiroshi Shiraishi, chief of the Mili-tary History Branch of the Staff College,carrying in a birthday cake, with candles,and a tiny Marine Corps flag in the mid-dle. What a nice and generous touch! I be-gan my talk by thanking our hosts for theirgenerosity and graciousness, and then Itold them that some 51 years ago onOkinawa, never in my wildest imaginationcould I have ever thought that somedayI would be giving a lecture about the bat-tle to a group ofJapanese officers in Tokyo.I also told them that this trip is undoubt-edly the height of my professional career.

And then I delivered my paper. Afterdiscussing the Marine Corps order of bat-tle for Okinawa, and the major aspects ofthe fighting vis-a-vis Marine units, I con-cluded by saying: "I was a member of the1st Marine Division who fought on Okina-wa. I had also participated in the battlefor Peleliu, another fierce and costly fight"and that I was mightily relieved when Iheard that the Empire of Japan had sur-rendered to the United Nations. "All thatI could say was that I was mightily relieved,for I had been in the midst of two fiercelyfought campaigns and emerged withouta scratch. I was not so certain of this be-ing the case, or of my own immortality,had I been part of the forces which wereto invade Japan." I am positive that mostof the troops in the Pacific or destined tobe deployed to the Pacific for Operation

Olympic had the same mindset.

A T THE END OF my presentation, Dr.(formerly Col) Hara, director of the

National Institute for Defense StudiesLibrary, corrected an error that has exist-ed for more than 50 years. He pointed outthat Hagushi, the little town at the mouthof the Bishi Gawa, the river on Okinawawhich served as the border between IIIAmphibious Corps and XXIV Corps inthe landing, was really named Togushi.Apparently someone at the Joint Intelli-gence Center, Pacific Ocean Areas, (JIC-POA), had mistranslated ajapanse mapof the island, and so historians had beenmisnaming the town and the beaches overwhich the Tenth Army landed in 1945.

I was taken to a Chinese restaurant forlunch that afternoon by Professor Sugino-oand LtCols Ginjiro Takeichi and KazumiKuzehara, who had trained on Okinawawith Marines there. When we finishedlunch, my hosts presented me with sever-al gifts, and LtCol Takeichi, whom Ilearned was a member of the CalligraphersGuild in Tokyo, whipped out some paper,a brush, and ink, and designed a beauti-ful piece of calligraphic art for me. Themain message reads from left to right,"Honor," and from right to left, "Glory."It is inscribed down the left, "To my bigbrother Ben Frank," and he signed hisname with a flourish. What does one sayto such generosity, except "thank you."

That afternoon we heard two emotion-

ally moving presentations by two Japaneseveterans of Okinawa. The first was 76-year-old LtCol Tadashi Kojo, who was a captainand commander of the 1st Battalion, 22dRegiment, in the battle around Shun. Hewas captured and returned to Japan inMarch 1946. From 1947 to 1954, he wasan interpreter/translator for U.S. Forces,Japan. In 1954, he enrolled in theJGSDFand was commissioned a captain. He re-tired in his present rank in 1970. The se-cond veteran was lstLt YoshinakaYamamoto, who lost his left arm in theOkinawa fighting. His arm was so badlyinjured that he removed it with his ownsword, and buried both arm and sword.He owes his life to an Okinawan womanwho carried him on her back to an aid sta-tion in the Japanese rear. One could seethat our Japanese colleagues were verymoved by what both of these survivors hadto say, and so, too, was the American dele-gation.

A FTER ThE TWO Japanese veterans ofOkinawa spoke, as part of the clos-

ing of the conference, the Americans andthe Japanese exchanged "presentos." Eachof the U.S. representatives gave our col-leagues something symbolic of their in-dividual Services. Through the courtesy ofthe Marine Corps Historical Foundation,I gave each of the Japanese a Marine Corpstie tac.

As we returned to our hotel to preparefor the evening reception, at the invitation

8 Foruitudine, Fall 1996

The only three veterans of the Battle of Okinawa meet at the conference. Mr Frankshakes the hand of IstLt Yamamoto as former battalion commander LtCol Koyo lookson. During the battle, Lt Yamamoto removed his own badly damaged arm with a sword

of Dr. Hara, we visited his library/archivesand were given a tour. We viewed someold and interesting documents which sur-vived the bombing of Tokyo.

The final evening of our stay in Japanwas marked by a reception the Americandelegation gave for our Japanese hosts.Both LtCol Kojo and Lt Yamamoto, andthe latter's grandaughter, were present.Almost every member of the Japanesedelegation wore the Marine Corps tie tac.It was with a warm feeling of collegialitythat we toasted each other and looked for-ward to the next MHX, which is to be heldin February 1997 in Washington, with the

battle for Saipan the theme.Some odd thoughts about Japan: First

of all, it is a given that all Japanese chil-dren are cute, and they are. Second, itseems as though everyone in Tokyo has acellular phone and is calling everyone elsein the street with it. The Tokyo traffic ishorrific, but it is also that way in Washing-ton, New York, and also Paris and London,I hear. I don't think that I would ever wantto drive in Tokyo. The roads for the mostpart are very narrow, alleys most of them.Many Tokyo citizens drive as though theywere get-away men. I noted that therewere many new and expensive cars on the

roads and I was told that it can and doescost up to $500 a month for a parkingspace, because space is so limited in Tokyo.This is obvious when you see the many ex-traordinarily narrow buildings and apart-ment houses in the city.

The trip back to Washington, with astopover in San Francisco to change planes,was anticlimatic. It was difficult to sort outmy thoughts on the homeward-boundjourney. One could only hope that theconference and the meeting of new col-leagues and friends was as meaningful forthe Japanese as it was for me. L111775L1

Readers Always Write

Profiled Marine Compiled the Corps' 'Little Red Book'MAY HAVE HELPED FINANCESMs. Amy Cantin has written an interest-ing biographical profile of Col LutherBrown in her "Seniors Monitored YoungMarine's Career, Papers Show" in theWinter-Spring 1996 Fortitudine.

However, she has missed what was un-doubtedly Col Brown's most far-reachingaccomplishment. He was the compiler ofThe Marine's Handbook, the mainstay ofenlisted instruction from the mid-1930sthrough World War II. Generations of Ma-rines learned the fundamentals of theirtrade from his "Red Book:' as it was called.Written when he was a first lieutenant andprobably at least in part motivated by hisperennial financial problems, The Ma-rine's Handbook was first published by theU.S. Naval Institute in 1934. Sale wasauthorized in all Marine Corps Post Ex-changes (and purchase required of allrecruits). It was in catechism format, thatis, "The Marine's Handbook is a completeset of questions and answers on all sub-jects of training for Marine Corps enlist-ed personnel, as enumerated underMarine Corps Order Number 41."

The book had 25 chapters beginningwith "The Service Rifle" and goingthrough to "Combat Principles (Compa-ny)." The book went through at least seveneditions and revisions, expanding to 30chapters in 1940, by which time Brown wasa major.

My memory fades a bit at this point,but I believe all this knowledge was avail-able for a dollar.

After World War II Brown's "Red Book"

metamorphosed into the Guidebook forMarines published by the Leatherneck As-sociation.

Careful Reader

EDITOR 'S NOTE: "Careful Reader," a re-tired Marine with a seemingly encycloped-ic knowledge of the Corps' customs andtraditions, and who also values his priva-cy, has been firing off letters to Fortitu-dine from time to time for more than aquarter of a century.

SPLENDID ACQUISITIONI read of the donation of "Cates' Vented,Dented WWI Helmet" to the MarineCorps Museum (Fortitudine, Winter-Spring 1996). What an acquisition! I hadread about this occurence to Lt. Cates inother publications. I eagerly look forwardto your publishing the history of Marinesin World War I.

Robert A. TunisGlobe, Arizona

TO THE DIRECTOR EMERITUSI recently read, with interest and great ad-miration, your "Memorandum" on "WhyYou Should Study Military History" (For-titudine, Fall 1995). It immediately calledto mind a brief essay by PresidentJohn F.Kennedy, published after his death in theFebruary 1964 issue of "AmericanHeritage." Fortunately, I am a pack-ratwith reading material, and I was able tolocated this 32-year-old volume and makethe encosed copy for you. I think yourpiece is as eloquent in its more specialized

ized analysis as President Kennedy's onhistory generally.

Frank S. Craig, Jr.Baton Rouge, Louisiana

EDITOR'S NOTE: President Kennedy be-gan his American Heritage article with thisparagraph: 'There is little that is more im-portant for an American citizen to knowthan the history and traditions of his coun-try. Without such knowledge, he standsuncertain and defenseless before theworld, knowing neither where he hascome from nor where he is going. Withsuch knowledge, he no longer alone butdraws a strength far greater than his ownfrom the cumulative experience of the pastand a cumulative vision of the future."

Just received my Fortitudine Fall 1995 is-sue and as usual it is great. Thank you andthe Corps in Albany, Georgia, for send-ing it. The saddest thing I learned in this

issue . . . was the fact that we are los-ing you to retirement . . . . You have morethan earned your retirement but you arestill going to be missed by all those whohave come to enjoy the efforts you haveput into your duties and especially yourwork in making Fortitudine such an ex-cellent source of information . . . . Con-gratulations on a career serving the UnitedStates for an amazing 55 years. You shouldbe very proud. We are proud of you. I

hope you will continue to keep in touchwith Fortitudine and hopefully continueto contribute articles and share your think-ing with us.

Clarence W. MartinBethany, Connecticut

Fortitudine, Fall 1996 9

Marine History Now Available World-Wide, on the Webby Danny J. Crawford

Head Reference Section

E ARLIER THIS YEAR, Headquarters, U.S.Marine Corps, inaugurated "Marine-

Link," the Corps' own home page on theWorld Wide Web. MarineLink providesaccess to a wide range of informationabout today's Marine Corps, includingnews releases from around the Corps, afact file on current weapons and equip-ment, information on recruiting, andschedules of upcoming public eventsfeaturing Marine bands and ceremonialunits.

Of particular interest to the history-minded is an ever-expanding body of his-tories, articles, fact sheets, and listingscovering a wide range of topics, which areaccessible by "clicking on" the history sec-tion of MarineLink. Among the morepopular items found on MarineLink arelists of Marine Corps commandants, assis-tant commandants, and sergeants major;fact sheets on World War II, the KoreanWar, and Desert Storm; information onMarine Corps customs and traditions; andvarious lists of Marine Corps casualties andstrengths spanning the Corps' history.

Prior to the establishment of Marine-Link, a U.S. Marine Corps home page, be-gun in 1995, was housed and maintainedby the Administration and ResourceManagement Division at the Navy Annexin Arlington, Virginia. Updates to thehome page were difficult at that time, assuch work had to be done manually, aslow, laborious process. Beginning in Sep-tember 1995, an Internet Working Groupwas convened at HQMC to look for waysto enhance the dissemination of MarineCorps information and to formalize theprocess for selecting appropriate materi-als for the Internet.

J J NDER THE DIRECTION of MajLi Elizabeth Kerstens of the Public Af-fairs Division, the group made progresstoward the goal of direct, easily updated,Marine Corps participation in Defense-Link, the Department of Defense's officialWorld Wide Web information service.DefenseLink is accessible via web browsers,24 hours a day, seven days a week, at:

http://www.dtic.dla.mil/defenselink!

In December 1995 a Memorandum ofUnderstanding was signed between Head-

quarters Marine Corps and the DefenseTechnical Information Center (DTIC) onhousing the Marine Corps' home page atDTIC at Fort Belvoir, Virginia. By agree-ing to house a Lotus Notes-equippedserver (provided by the Marine Corps) ontheir premises, this agreement with DTICwould allow the Marine Corps to automat-ically update home page items throughLotus Notes.

By late January of this year, MarineLinkwas up and running and by the earlyreviews was a huge success. The followingare a sampling of some of the commentsreceived during MarineLink's first fewmonths of operation:

"Nice to see the Corps online and intothe 21st century. Keep up the good work."

"A most excellent page!"Visit MarineLink at:

http://www.usmc.mil!New information is being added daily,sometimes hourly. Among the items to beadded to the Marine Corps history sectionof MarineLink in the coming weeks are anupdated list of Marine deployments sinceWorld War II, a brief history of tanks inthe Marine Corps, and a number of arti-cles dealing with Marine operations inVietnam. You can also download the "TheMarines' Hymn," as played by the Marineband. L1111775L1J

10 Fortitudine, Fall 1996

From the ha/Is of Montezuma, to the shores of Tripoli, We fight our country'sbattles in the air, on land and sea. First to fight for right and freedom, and to keepour honor clean; We are proud to claim the title of United States Marine.-The Marines Hymn-

Welcome to MarineLINK, the officialWWW information service of the United States

Marine Corps.

i: News about the Marine Corps.Opportunities: Recruiting information and other opportunities within the MarineCorps.Public Events: Marine Corps events open to the public, including Marine Bandperformances.Fact File: Fact sheets on Marine Corps weapons and equipment systems.

Archives Sending Cuban Missile Crisis Papers to Storage

M ARINE CORPS records held in theArchives Section related to the

Cuban Missile Crisis are now being sentto storage, as new ones dealing with Carib-bean refugee issues are arriving.

The missile crisis started when intelli-gence reports reached Washington in Sep-tember 1962 confirming that the SovietUnion was building missile sites in Cuba.The Kennedy Administration determinedthat the presence of Soviet missiles was anintolerable threat to the security of thiscountry; the President demanded theirimmediate removal. The launch sites werenot yet operational, so they did not yetpose an actual threat, but the intelligenceexperts estimated that the sites wouldreach operational status by the end of theyear. Kennedy ordered a naval blockadeof Cuba to prevent the delivery of anymore missiles or of materials for the launchsites. Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchevbacked down. Soviet freighters displayedthe missiles on their decks as they were re-moved from the island; this process wascomplete by December. The crisis proba-bly was the closest the two great powersever came to nuclear war.

These were very dramatic weeks. TheUnited Nations Security Council debatedthe issue and the debates were televisednationally. Pictures of the missile sites wereshown to the world. An "invasion force"

by Yashica Best, Center Internand Frederick j Graboske, Head, Archives Section

was assembled rapidly in south Florida. SixLatin American nations sent naval vesselsto join in the blockade of Cuba. Khrush-chev agreed to remove the missiles in ex-change for Kennedy's promise not toinvade Cuba and for the removal ofAmerican missiles from Turkey by 1964.

T HE MARINE CORPS played a role inpreparations for the "invasion" of

Cuba. The Kennedy Assassination RecordsReview Board has requested that the mili-tary services turn over to them the recordsof this aborted operation. In order to ac-commodate this request we have photo-copied all of our records, a total of 2 cu-bic feet. A set of copies of the records willgo to the Board and will become a partof its permanent records in the NationalArchives. The originals will be retired tostorage at the Archives' Records Center atSuitland, Maryland, where they will re-main a part of the permanent record ofthe Marine Corps.

More than 30 years later Cuba again be-came important to Marme commanders.In 1994 thousands of refugees fleeing Cas-tro's Cuba in flimsy craft were brought tothe U.S. Naval Base at Guantanamo,Cuba. Additional thousands of Haitiansfleeing their poverty-stricken nation alsowere brought there. Marines stationed inGuantanamo were tasked with the

problems of sheltering and feeding theseindividuals as part of Operation Sea Sig-nal 94. One cubic foot of records of thesehumanitarian efforts were collected for usby a former member of the HistoricalCenter staff, Capt David A. Dawson.

The Sea Signal 94 records provide an ex-cellent example of cooperation between acommand historian and the History andMuseums Division. When a commandhistorian such as Capt Dawson takes thetime to gather and preserve the minuterecords of operations, the records aremaintained as part of the history of theMarine Corps. Marines often are deployedto provide assistance in the wake of naturaldisasters or to extract American citizensfrom zones of armed conflict. Seldom aredetailed accounts of these activities for-warded to us. If units are to receive properhistorical credit for the work performed,the commanding officer and commandhistorian must ensure that complete andaccurate documentation is created andsent to the History and Museums Division.

A shipment of hundreds or thousandsof pages to us via the chain of commandshould be preceded by an e-mail or letternotifying us of the shipment, and recordsshould be shipped separately from thecommand chronology, which must be for-warded via the chain of command.

Eli 775L11

Awards of Doctoral and Master's Degree Fellowships at Center Announced

T HE MARINE CORPS HistoricalFoundation's 1996 General Lemuel

C. Shepherd, Jr., Dissertation Fellowshipwas awarded to Thiguo Yang, a doctoralcandidate in history at the University ofMaryland, College Park. A native of Tsing-tao, China, Mr. Yang completed graduatestudies at Beijing University before com-ing to the United States. His dissertationwill examine the influence on the ChineseCivil War of the Marine Corps' occupationof Tsingtao from 1945 to 1949, first led bythen-MajGen Shepherd as commander ofthe 6th Marine Division.

A second, partial Dissertation Fellow-ship was awarded to John Cashman of

by Charles R. SmithSecretary, Marine Corps Historical Foundation

Boston College for his study of a little-known episode in Marine Corps history,the 19th-century interventions at NavassaIsland. This small, American-owned is-land, located midway between Jamaicaand Haiti in the Windward Passage, wasmined for phosphate after the Civil Warusing, and often abusing, contract laborersfrom the United States. Riots and ir-regularities prompted several visits by Ma-rine landing parties, with the most seriousoccurring in October 1889, as a result ofa breakdown in order and healthstandards.

Maj Timothy J. Jackson, USMCR,received the Lieutenant Colonel Lily H.

Gridley Master's Thesis Fellowship for hisproposed thesis: "Special Trust and Con-fidence: Command Relationships inNorthern I Corps Sector of the Republicof Vietnam, 1967-1968." Currently servingon active duty with the II Marine Expedi-tionary Force at Camp Lejeune, Maj Jack-son is pursuing his graduate studies atWestern Carolina University at Cullowhee.A second Master's Thesis Fellowship wasawarded to Scott D. Welch of PepperdineUniversity for a thesis on Marine Corps hu-manitarian and disaster relief missions.The Marine Corps' recent involvement ina number of these missions raises the lev-el of current interest in this topic. Eli 775E1

Fortitudine, Fall 1996 11

Pendleton Salvages Historic Marine Chapel From Floodby Came MaffeiCamp Pendleton

I T WAS MORE THAN THREE years agowhen a river of water raged over a le-

vee, across the grounds, and through thewalls of the chapel of the Santa MargaritaRanch House complex on Camp Pendle-ton. The ranch house, which is home tothe I Marine Expeditionary Force com-manding general, and the bunkhouse,which serves as a museum to visitors, sus-tained minimal water damage. The chapeldid not fare so well.

"Nothing could have prepared me forwhat I saw the morning after the flood,"said Episcopal Chaplain R. Stephen Pow-ers. Pews and other furnishings and arti-cles were strewn about the chapel; someof them were carried outside and came torest several hundred yards away. Thechapel, which had been the subject ofchange throughout its long existence, hadonly recently experienced what manythought would be its final renovation.

As the articles were recovered, and acontracted survey team deemed the struc-ture salvageable, thoughts of a reconstruc-tion project for the historic chapel brewed."There wasn't money readily available to

All but one of the stained glass pane/sswept out in the Jlood were located in thethick residual mud Photo from June 1993shows the chapel missing one of its walls.

reconstruct, so we got together to keep thehopes of reconstruction alive," Ann Roth-well, chairwoman of "The Friends of theChapel," said. The non-profit organizationraised nearly $30,000 through fund-raisersand private donations. In addition, a

$100,000 grant from the Department ofDefense's Legacy Resources ManagementProgram was approved.

C OLJOHN H. ROBERFUS, USMC (Ret),former assistant chief of staff for fa-

cilities, noted that the structure was notonly an historic site, but also an activelyused chapel at the time of the flood. Oncethe State Historic Preservation Office gavethe go-ahead to begin work, the workforce, consisting of volunteers, base facili-ties personnel, and an outside consultingelement, began "to reconstruct the chapel,while salvaging as much of the originalmaterial as possible," according to the basehistorian at the time of reconstruction,Nick Magalousis.

The project sparked a wealth of interest.Volunteers with special abilities dedicat-ed their time and talents in a variety ofways—from labeling artifacts and photos

Volunteers took accurate readings of thecolor and consistency of the chapel's ado bewalls as part of the conservation process.

to replicating missing artifacts. Carpenters,painters, masons, sheet metal workers,electricians, heavy equipment operators,and other specialists worked endlessly torebuild the chapel, according to HunterNewman, project manager. Because many

12 Fortiiudine, Fall 1996

The now fully restored chapel glistens in the California sun. Organizers of a groupcalled The Friends of the Chapel raised $30,000 in donations toward the restoration.The building was constructed in 1810, making it the oldest one on Camp Pendleton.

members of the team had no experiencein historical preservation, the base facili-ties and the consulting team worked hand-in-hand to maintain the historical integri-ty of the structure, the most demandingfacet of the task, Newman said.

To help remedy any misgivings, thecrew was provided an on-site library ofliterature from the U.S. Department of In-terior to ensure that the historical natureof the site was maintained. Wayne

A N "OSCAR," the figurine represent-ing an award by the Academy of

Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, was re-cently donated to the Marine Corps Muse-um by B. R. Hendricks of Shreveport,Louisiana. This Oscar represents anhonorary award to Mr. Hendricks' brother,the late Col William L. Hendricks,USMCR (Ret), for his "patriotic service inthe production of the Marine Corps film'A Force In Readiness.'

Col Hendricks received the Oscar at the34th annual Academy Awards presenta-tions in 1961 for his "outstanding patriot-ic service in the concept, writing, andproduction of the Marine Corps film, 'AForce In Readiness,' which has broughthonor to the Academy and the motionpicture industry:' The film is a 26-minuteshort documentary in Technicolor that isnarrated by actorjack Webb. A 1961 Var-

Donaldson, the consulting architect, andMagalousis conducted presentations forthe workers, underscoring the special con-servation procedures required to completethe project.

T HE BASE WORKERS, as well as thevolunteers and supporters of the

project, really rallied together to recon-struct this historical building in a first-rateway, Magalousis said.

iety Weekly review states that the filmshows the "streamlined and superchargedcondition of the modern Marine Corpsand its instant readiness in the event ofenemy aggression."

Col Hendricks was a vice-president ofWarner Brothers Studio and wrote andproduced many other films that depictedthe Marine Corps, including "The JohnGlenn Story" (1962), which was nominat-ed for an Academy Award, and "A Storyof Old Glory" (1967), which received aFreedoms Foundation award.

A copy of "A Force In Readiness" ismaintained at the Visual InformationRepository of the Archives Branch, MarineCorps Research Center, Marine CorpsBase, Quantico, and is in relatively goodcondition.

The Museum received a donation fromCol Hendricks' estate in 1992 that consist-

After the last adobe brick was in place,and the bell tower was fixed on the clay-shingled roof, the work force put thefinishing touches on the chapel interior.Christmas Eve 1995 marked the first serv-ices in the 19th-century building in almosttwo years. With the arrival of the holidayseason, which often represents new lifeand renewed hope, Chaplain Powers saidthe rededication could not have come ata better time. "I think the opening of thereconstructed chapel was like a resurrec-tion, because something very meaningfulthat was nearly destroyed, was broughtback to life."

On 1 May 1995, Marine Corps Base,Camp Pendleton, was honored to receivethe California State Governor's Award forHistoric Preservation for its work on thechapel project. According to GovernorPete Wilson, through its efforts the chapelproject's work force has brought Pendle-ton, and the state, ". . . closer not onlyto a fuller understanding of the past butalso to a clearer vision of the future."

The chapel once again serves as a fullyfunctioning house of worship, hostingSunday services, weddings, baptisms andother religious events. It has resumed itsstatus as an important stop in interpret-ing the California and Marine Corpsheritage on the tour of the historic SantaMargarita Ranch House complex. Eli 7 75 El

Col Hendricks' "Oscar" joins collection.ed of several rare specimens of shoulderarms and edged weapons from the Ameri-can Civil War, as well as some other ac-coutrements from the same period.

L111775El

Forijiudine, Fall 1996 13

First services to be held in the Santa Margarita Ranch House Chapel since the 1993flood took place on Christmas Eve, 1995. Volunteers—carpenters, painters, masons,sheet metal workers, electricians, and other specialists — made the reopening possible.

Acquisitions

Museum Gets Oscar Given to Marine Filmmakerby Jennifer L. Gooding

Registrar

Historical Efforts of Marines in Bosnia Aided by Division

OMPLEX PROBLEMS require in-4..4 novative solutions; it certainly hasproven to be so with the historical cover-age of the current U.S. operations inBosnia-Herzegovina.

The war in Bosnia has been watched bythe members of the Marine Corps Histor-ical Center's Field Operations Branch sinceat least the summer of 1992. In the threeyears that followed, as the fighting in-creased in intensity and as the need for in-tervention became more evident, thequestion of how events in the regionmight affect the Corps and the membersof the unit became ever more important.We began such preparation as could bedone in the midst of an uncertain situa-tion; briefings on Bosnian history and cur-rent operations were scheduled for drillmeetings, books and articles were read,and individual records were updated incase of a call for deployment.

Such a call increased from being just apossibility in October 1995. The situationin Bosnia had changed dramatically. TheBosnian Serbs, heretofore recalcitrant,were now prepared to seek a diplomaticsolution to the conflict. At the same time,it was recognized that the UN-led Protec-tion Force would have to be replaced witha stronger force which could ensure com-pliance with the Dayton Peace Accords.This new force would be formed aroundNATO, and would therefore require theparticipation of the United States. It alsowas at this time that the Joint HistoryOffice had scheduled one of its biannualtraining conferences. The conference'smain purpose was to introduce the histori-ans of the unified commands, who woulddiscuss their programs.

Dr. Bryan van Sweringen, the historianfor the United States European Command(USEUCOM), presented what he then sawas the necessity for gathering thedocumentation for the upcoming opera-tion on a theater-wide scale. Only in thisway could he be certain of the complete-ness and accuracy of the historical record.He foresaw the need to divide the theaterinto levels, with specific responsibilities ateach. These would extend from USEU-COM through the forces which would ac-tually make up the American portion of

by Col Dennis P Mroczkowski, USMCRHead, Field Operations Branch

the "Implementation Force." Dr. vanSweringen saw the requirement for an in-dividual to oversee and coordinate thislarge collection effort.

I N MID-DECEMBER, I received orders toreport to Camp Lejeune on 2 January

for active duty in support of OperationJoint Endeavor. Camp Lejeune was to bethe first stop in the mobilization processwhich ultimately would bring me to theheadquarters of USEUCOM, in Stuttgart,

Germany. After initial processing with theMarine Corps and the drawing of specialcold weather clothing and a weapon. Ireported to Fort Benning, Georgia, alongwith a half dozen other mobilized Ma-rines, for additional training. By this timethe operation was well underway, and allwho were processing through Fort Benningwere eager to move on to their destina-tions. By 13 January, I arrived at Stuttgart,ready to take up my new duties.

I earlier had contacted Dr. van Swerin-

14 Fortitudine, Fall 1996

Col Mroczkowski stands at the war-damaged Srbija Hotel in Sarajevo, in use as theheadquarters of the Allied Command Europe RapidReaction Corps, composed of threemultinational divisions. The colonel outlined a historical program for the command

gen and discussed with him how weshould form the "architecture" of thehistorical collection effort. As it turnedout, these initial ideas were sound,although as I discovered on my arrival theywere off in a few minor details. The ideashad to be related to the realities of themilitary structures of the operation itself.These were complex, and worked throughtwo distinct chains of command.

The first chain was national. It extend-ed from USEUCOM through the servicecomponents (Marine Forces Europe and,U.S. Army Europe, as examples) and tosuch U.S. units, assets, and organizationswhich had been designated to support theoperation. Within this chain, at the com-ponent level, were historians who werecharged to record their service's contribu-tions. The lines of authority and mannerof cooperation with these historians wererelatively clear and unambiguous.

L ESS SO WAS the second chain. Thiswas the NATO structure. As this was

a NATO-led operation, those U.S. forceswhich were contributed to the Implemen-tation Force were transferred to NATO andwere no longer under USEUCOM com-mand. Interestingly, there were severalhistorians working in this chain, all Ameri-cans. For instance, Dr. Gregory Pedlow isthe historian for Supreme HeadquartersAllied Powers Europe in Mons, Belgium.Capt James Williams, USNR, is thehistorian for the Implementation Force.The Army had several of its Military His-tory Detachments in the theater, mostlywith MultiNational Division North(MNDN), the United States' main contri-bution to the operation, created aroundthe 1st Armored Division. Since most ofthese historians were actually in the field,their efforts were vital to the coverage ofthe operation. However, there was noauthority for command or control of theseindividuals who were attached to NATO.

The answer lay in the drafting and pub-lication of a Letter of Instruction, whichwas prepared by late January and direct-ed to the service component historians andtheir subordinate organizations. The mainpurpose of the document was to describethe limits of authority at each level of thetheater, and to describe a manner in whichall would work to a common goal, evenwhile achieving our individual historicalresponsibilities. By making all playersaware of how the others were working, and

A US. Marine in Bosnia is a young officerwhom ColMroczhowski met at his deploy-ment from Camp Lejeune, and whom heencountered again on his tour in Europe.

how the USEUCOM historian saw the cen-trality of his office, we could be assuredthat there would be no confusion aboutwho was responsible at each level. The let-ter also showed the critical role played bythe historians working on the NATO side,and again provided a framework forcooperation and mutual support. Dr. vanSweringen had already created a goodworking relationship with all of the com-ponent historians and the SHAPE histori-an as well. Through a series of annualmeetings and discussions, these individu-als had met and worked together before.They were therefore agreeable to theproposals of the 101, and to the introduc-tion of yet another player into the histori-cal structure.

This was the Bosnia Field HistoryDocumentation Project Officer, whichwould be my main position in support ofthe operation. Dr. van Sweringen and Ihad discussed the broad outlines of sucha position before my arrival. Essentially,this position would work throughout thetheater, gathering and monitoring thedocumentation of the operation. Thiswould include the "hard-copy" and elec-tronic messages and correspondencegenerated and received by the USEUCOMheadquarters, interviews conducted withprincipal staff members, and an annotat-ed chronology to be prepared at the end.

A MONG THE FIRST TRIPS I made wereones to visit with the U.S. Air Force

Europe historian, Dr. Thomas Snyder, andthe U.S. Army Europe historian, Mr. BruceSiemon. From these colleagues I learned

how their individual programs were struc-tured, and where their historians were lo-cated in the theater. My next, and final,piece of preparation was to attend anothertraining course. This one focused on suchtopics as mine identification and aware-ness, and first aid. Completing this course"certified" me for travel into the area ofoperations and for work with NATO forces.

For the next 14 weeks, my time wasdivided among headquarters at USEU-COM and the various American andNATO headquarters throughout Italy,Croatia, Bosnia, and Hungary. When Icould, I visited with the historians work-ing with NATO or with the soldier-historians in the field. While I was pre-pared to offer any needed guidance, Ifound all of these individuals motivatedand professional, with comprehensive pro-grams in place and functioning. It was alsoheartening to see how closely integratedsome of the Army's teams were with theircommands. It has always been a majorgoal of the Field Operations Branch thatour Marine historians develop a sense oftrust and confidence with the staff of theunits they support.

Much of the work I accomplished in thefield fell into that category of assistancewhich was an important part of my cen-tral position. With more than 60,000troops assigned to the operation, there wasmore than enough work for the fewhistorians. Where necessary, I helped tocover some of the more remote com-mands, reviewing documents and con-ducting recorded interviews. Such workbrought me to the headquarters of AlliedForces South, in Naples, Italy; to the U.S.National Coalition Cell in Zagreb, Croa-tia; the headquarters of the Implementa-tion Force in Sarajevo, Bosnia; theheadquarters of the Communication ZoneForward in Split, Croatia; and the Army'sintermediate support base in Taszar,Hungary.

Q NE ASPECT OF my position I definedfor myself. I was the only Marine

historian operating in the theater. There-fore, I had determined that I would makea special attempt to record the efforts andcontributions of the Corps. I had alreadyknown that the Marine presence would belimited to a Marine Expeditionary Unit inthe Adriatic as the theater reserve and twofixed-wing squadrons stationed in Aviano,Italy. But I was not prepared for the num-

Fortitudine, Fall 1996 15

ber of individual Marines who were con-tributing expertise and special skills atevery level. From Stuttgart to Naples, andfrom Zagreb to Split, I found Marines andinterviewed as many as I could to gain thefull story of what the Corps was bringingto this joint operation.

There were two personally gratifyingresults of this aspect of my duties. First,I found that the old tradition of the Corpstaking care of its own was alive and well.Everywhere I travelled and met anotherMarine, I was welcomed and provided withany assistance needed. Camaraderie con-tinues. Second, although I was in a jointbillet, I confess to enough service pride tohave been pleased to see the amount ofexpertise which all of these individualswere contributing.

One portion of my duties, recognizedeven prior to mobilization, was the likelyrequirement to fill any "gaps" in thehistorical coverage. It was evident that themajor headquarters were covered by theirown resident historians. The one impor-tant level not so covered was the AlliedCommand Europe Rapid Reaction Corps(ARRC), headquartered in Sarajevo. Thiscorps contains the three multinational di-visions. Its headquarters is composed of acombined staff representing all NA1X) na-tions and some non-NATO allies. Its his-tory is thus critical to the overall historyof the operation. However, it is a NATOorganization, for which the British Armyis the framework nation. Dr. Pedlow, theSHAPE historian, contacted the BritishMinistry of Defence and the chief of staffof the ARRC, and approval was received

for me to help with the documentation ofthis headquarters.

On my first trip to the ARRC I outlinedan historical program for the command.This initial visit also was used to make aquick "inventory" of the headquarters or-ganization, determining what work wasbeing performed in the various sectionsand what records were being kept. There-after, as I would visit the ARRC, I wouldreview documents and make a summaryof the most pertinent ones as the start ofan annotated chronology of the operation.I also conducted a few interviews with staffmembers.

A LTHOUGH THE British Army has nofield historians, I did make contact

with Dr. John Harding, an historian withthe British Ministry of Defence. He andI arranged to meet during one of my visitsto the ARRC, and we discussed how wecould work together. This was one of thefirst times that the British Army had sentan historian to the field, even if only fora short time, but I believe that if may bethe start of a tradition of cooperation andcollaboration between the historical serv-ices of the two countries.

By mid-May my replacement, LtColBruce Zophy, USA, had arrived in Germa-ny. After a few days of briefing him abouthis duties, I began the return to civilianlife by retracing my steps along thedemobilization process. This was also atime for me to take stock of all that I hadbeen involved with for nearly five months.I recognized two features of this experiencewhich might be of value to the future of

the Historical Center's Field OperationsBranch.

First of these was the validation of theposition of the Bosnia Field HistoryDocumentation Project Officer. AlthoughI had worked as a field historian before,this was the first time I was working froma CINC headquarters, and in which I hadthe opportunity to see an operation fromthe perspective of so many different lev-els. This in turn provided me with a verycomprehensive view of the operation, asI saw decisions and actions being handledat each step of the chain of command. Iwas able to use this to interpret the im-portance of documents I was collecting, tomore critically prepare the chronology, andto ask more relevant questions during in-terviews.

Second, I was greatly impressed with theextent to which jointness has become thenorm of operation within our militarystructures. I have already mentioned thelarge number of Marines assignedthroughout the theater. But for me, theimportant fact is that these individualswere selected for their abilities, knowledge,and expertise. In these circumstances it isthe qualification of the person, not the cutor color of the uniform which is of value.Therefore, my presence as a Marine officer,working as an historian during this oper-ation, was neither inappropriate nor un-usual. As our armed forces continue towork together in such a highly integratedmanner at unified commands, joint taskforces, and within combined commands,I can easily foresee the need for more Ma-rine historians at these levels. EJ1775E

Historical Quiz

The Navy Crossby Midn 2/C Richard M. Rusnok, Jr

United States Naval AcademyReference Section Intern

1. When was the Navy Cross established?

2. Describe the Navy Cross Medal.

3. How have the criteria for receiving aNavy Cross changed over the years?

4. Approximately how many Navy Cross-es have been awarded to Marines?

5. What Marine holds the record for themost Navy Crosses?

6. Which Secretary of the Navy earned aNavy Cross in Vietnam?

7. How many former Commandants havereceived the Navy Cross?

8. What famous Marine Raider earnedthree Navy Crosses?

9. What other medals are equivalent tothe Navy Cross in the other services?

10. Gen Lewis W. Walt, former AssistantCommandant, was awarded how manyNavy Crosses?

(Answers on page 21)

16 Fortitudine, FaIl 1996

Records Searched for Origins of Gulf War Veterans' Illsby May Ray Celeste, Jr USMC

Department of the Navy Gulf WarDeclassification Project Director

Q N ii MARCH 1995, the DeputySecretary of Defense made an

historic first step for the United StatesGovernment by signing the DoD Initia-tive on Persian Gulf War Veterans Illness-es. In this action memorandum, heoutlined four major initiatives:

•Establishment of an investigative team"to analyze and expedite the provision ofinformation to the public on reports of ex-posure, with the primary focus on chemi-cal and biological warfare."•Establishment of a toll-free "800" tele-phone number "staffed for people whowant to report Persian Gulf War incidentsthat might have resulted in an illness."•Establishment of a declassification effortto support the investigative team's effortand to declassify operational records thathave health-related issues in them forpublication on the World Wide Web.•Establishment of a DoD senior-level over-sight panel chaired by the Deputy Secre-tary. The oversight panel members includethe Principal Deputy Assistant to theSecretary for Atomic Energy, the AssistantSecretary for Health Affairs, the Directorof the Defense Intelligence Agency, theUnder-Secretary of the Army, the DeputyAssistant Secretary for Intelligence andSecurity, and the Deputy Director for Cur-rent Operations, Joint Staff.

T HE DEPUTY SECRETARY assigned thefollowing DoD officials responsibili-

ty for locating, reviewing, and declassify-ing all intelligence, operational, andmedical records: the Secretary of the Armyfor all operational records; the AssistantSecretary of Defense for Health Affairs forall medical records; and the Director of theDefense Intelligence Agency for all intel-ligence records.

The search is for health-related informa-tion that may offer some insight into thepossible causes of "Gulf War Syndrome."The three officials above have the authori-ty to task Secretaries of the MilitaryDepartments, the Chairman of the JointChiefs of Staff, the Unified CombatantCommanders, and the DoD components,as necessary, for records information.

The Secretary of the Army is authorizedto request personnel and other resourcesupport from the Secretaries of the Navyand the Air Force for the purpose offinancing the assigned task on a fair sharebasis.

The intent of the effort is to help GulfWar veterans who suffer from "Gulf WarSyndrome" and their families. We are at-tempting to declassify expeditiously asmany health-related documents in oper-ational records as possible by 31 Decem-ber. If documents cannot be declassifiedin full, they will be redacted. Other areasof redaction are Privacy Act/Freedom ofInformation areas such as social securitynumbers, dates of birth, etc.

Q UR PRIORITY FOR processing is todeclassify/release documents relating

to the possible causes of Gulf War illness-es. It is important to note the third "5"in illnesses. There has been no single ill-ness identified, but rather a series of ill-nesses which may or may not be related.We are providing source documents to theinvestigative team, which analyzes the in-formation. At the close of this year it willreport on the findings of its analysis. Ourdeclassified documents are released on theWorld Wide Web (W"XTW), on the "Gulf-Link" home page. The World Wide Website address is: http://www.dtic.dla.mil/gulflink/index.html. GuifLink can also beaccessed via MarineLink (the MarineCorps' home page). There is an icon lo-cated on the bottom of MarineLink's coverpage.

Thre are a number of other efforts go-ing on in conjunction with ours. TheDepartment of Army, Department of theAir Force, Joint Chiefs of Staff, and U.S.

Central Command are all working fromthe same orders.

D OD IS MAKING an historic first stepto be as open and responsible as

possible to our veterans and active/Reservecomponent personnel. We have encoun-tered many problems, but we have madegreat progress. Department of the Navy(DON) has provided us with the resourcesto make our efforts viable. Only time willshow how successful those efforts will be.

We are going out with an unprecedent-ed Gulf War operational/medical recordsrecall. Marine Corps and Bureau of Medi-cine and Surgery (BuMed) messages stressthe priority given to this effort by theCommander-in-Chief. The messages stateclearly that any record that possibly couldshed some light on why a service membercould have gotten ill must be sent toHQMC or BuMed for further analysis.

We are seeking records such as unit-administered inoculations, any evidenceof service members being exposed to con-taminated water or food or animal carcass-es, and operational records of units whichhad come into contact with enemyprisoners of war.

Additionally, BuMed, at the directionof the Navy Surgeon General has beentasked by the Assistant Secretary forHealth Affairs to locate, collect, and, ifnecessary, declassify all Navy and MarineCorps medical records from OperationDesert Shield/Storm. The types of recordssought include messages, command or lo-cally written policies and procedures,reports, lesson-learned studies, handwrit-ten or computer-generated activity logs,sick call and immunization clinic logs, andother types of documents containing theinformation described. L111775L11

Fortitudine, Fall 1996

LAVs of the 2dLAI Battalion move past burning oil wells in Kuwait near the end ofOperation Desert Storm, the perzodfor which relevant Marine Corps records are needed

Two New Titles Swell World War II Pamphlets Series

T O THE CONTINUING series com-memorating the 50th Anniversary of

World War II, the History and MuseumsDivision recently has added pamphletscovering the savage battles for Peleliu andOkinawa.

The Palau Islands were a vital part ofJapan's inner defensive line which flankedthe American thrust towards the Philip-pines. As it had done in the landing atCape Gloucester on New Britain, the 1stMarine Division was again given the mis-sion of securing the right flank of Gener-al Douglas MacArthur's advance. Themain objective, Peleliu, was dominated bya long, precipitious, coral ridge honey-combed with caves and masked by densejungle. Here the Japanese constructeddefensive positions which made the islanda formidable fortress.

The Marine assault and attack againstthe first of the Japanese inner defensivefortresses is retold by BGen Gordon D.Gayle, USMC (Ret), in Bloody Beaches:The Marines at Peleliu. A veteran of thecampaign and recipient of the Navy Crosswhile in command of the 2d Battalion,5th Marines, BGen Gayle went on to servewith the 1st Marine Division in Korea andin a number of joint assignments in theFar East, in addition to directing theCorps' historical program. Following hisretirement in 1968, he joined GeorgetownUniversity's Center for Strategic and Inter-national Studies.

by Charles R. SmithHistorian

On the morning of 15 September 1944,elements of the 1st, 5th, and 7th Marineslanded on Peleliu amidst Japanese auto-matic weapons fire. After establishing abeachhead and five days of heavy fight-ing, the southern end of the island was inMarine hands. Bypassing the island's heav-ily fortified central ridges, the division se-cured Peleliu's northern tip and adjoiningislands. The Marines then concentrated onreducing the Japanese strongholds. Rely-ing on assault and maneuver, instead ofsiege tactics in the attack on the enemy'smain defensive positions, cost the Ameri-cans dearly, as Gayle points out.

Highly illustrated, the Peleliu pamph-let features the artwork of artist and vete-ran of the campaign, Tom Lea. One of hismost famous, the portrait of a young, bat-tleweary, and traumatized Marine withstaring eyes, adorns the cover.

E ARLY ON THE morning of 1 April1945, assault forces composed of the

Army's XXIV Corps and the III Amphibi-ous Corps, consisting of the 1st and 6thMarine Divisions, stormed out of theirlanding craft onto Okinawan soil. The 2dMarine Division and the ships of theDiversionary Force decoyed the Japanesewith a feint landing on the opposite coast.By the end of L-Day, the Marines had es-tablished a beachhead more than fourmiles wide and two miles deep. On 3April, the 1st Marine Division seized theKatchin Peninsula, effectively cutting the

island in two. What had been describedas a "cakewalk" landing would turn intoa nightmare battle, lasting more than 80days.

The fierce battle for Okinawa, the sub-ject of The Final Campaign: Marines inthe Victory on Okinawa, was written byCol Joseph H. Alexander, USMC (Ret), aveteran of 29 years on active duty and theauthor of two other pamphlets in the ser-ies, Closing In: Marines in the Seizure ofIwo Jima and Across the Reef The MarineAssault on Tarawa. His critically acclaimedbook, Utmost Savagery: The Three Dayson Tarawa, published by the Naval Insti-tute Press, was awarded the Marine CorpsHistorical Foundation's 1995 General Wal-lace M. Greene, Jr., Book Award and theNavy League's Alfred Thayer MahanAward for Literary Achievement.

T HE ARMY'S XXIV Corps, by the endof the first week, had run into the

enemy's main battle position in therugged southern end of the island. The 1stMarine Division and then the 6th enteredthe fight after securing the northern two-thirds of the Okinawa. Led by experiencedofficers, the Marine veterans of severalCentral Pacific campaigns joined in bloodyattack on the Shun Line. Progress wasslow; "gains were measured by yards won,lost, and then won again." Although thecampaign represented joint service cooper-ation at its finest, Alexander points out,the Army commander squandered sever-al opportunities for tactical innovationsthat could have hastened a breakthroughof the enemy defenses.

Okinawa proved extremely costly: morethan 100,000 Japanese died defending theisland; as many as 150,000 native Okina-wans were killed; the Army sustained40,000 combat casualties; and Marinecasualties exceeded 19,000. Thirteen Ma-rines and Navy corpsmen received the Me-dal of Honor; eleven were posthumousawards, a testimony to the extraordinaryheroism exhibited by Marines in the finalcampaign of the Pacific War.

The Division's third recent publication,Marine Communications in Desert ShieldandDesert Storm, is an account of the roleof communications within the I Marine

18 Fortitudine, Fall 1996

Expeditionary Force and the Marine ForcesAfloat during the 1990-1991 Persian GulfWar. Written by Maj John T. Quinn II, ahistorical writer with the History andMuseums Division and a communicationsofficer by military occupational specialty,who served with Marine Wing Commu-nications Squadron 38 during the war, themonograph captures the essence of theMarine tactical communications system.

The volume fills a historical gap for theGulf War that is often overlooked in thecoverage of other American military con-flicts.

With the introduction of the microcom-puter into tactical units, the fields of com-munications, information systems, andelectronic maintenance have grown in-creasingly more complex and interrelated.Despite these advances, communications

personnel often do not record their efforts.Working with interviews and personal ac-counts from Marines who served at all lev-els in communications staff and commandpositions during Desert Shield and DesertStorm, Maj Quinn presents a detailed pic-ture of the expertise and equipment usedto facilitate the command and control ofthe corps-sized Marine force sent to thePersian Gulf. L111775L111

Cochrane Papers Reveal Long and Colorful Naval Careerby Amy Cantin Cohen

Personal Papers Archivist

I N THE PERSONAL PAPERS Archive, Ma-

rine BGen Henry Clay Cochrane's(1842-1913) papers are a treasured collec-tion consisting of personal letters, officialcorrespondence, and diaries spanning hismilitary career from 1861 to 1905. Withthe exception of the unaccounted volumesof 1861 through 1863, the diaries chroniclein detail his military experience and familylife.

Cochrane did not begin his militarycareer as a Marine. In 1861, he joined theNavy, eventually earning the rank of actingmaster's mate. In 1863, after serving onboard the USS North Carolina and theUSS Pembina, in March he was commis-sioned a Marine second lieutenant.Cochrane's career highlights included es-corting President Lincoln to the Gettys-burg battlefield for the dedication of theSoldier's Monument and his famous "Ad-dress," defeating contraband smugglers inKentucky, publishing controversial articlesin regard to Marine leadership and mis-sion, commanding a Marine Detachmentat the Paris Exposition, and deploying toCuba for service in the Spanish-AmericanWar.

Researchers will find this primary sourcematerial of the Cochrane Collection in-valuable because more than 50 diaries,hundreds of letters, and photographsdocument his Marine experience. As thecentennial celebration of the Spanish-American War (1898) approaches, this col-lection provides valuable information onMarine operations and logistics.

Researchers will find the Cochrane Col-lection reprocessed and a new finding aidfacilitating use of it. Interested research-

ton Navy Yard, Washington, DC,20374-5040 or phone 202-433-3396.

Th775

Fortitudine, Fall 1996 19

ers should contact Amy C. Cohen at thePersonal Papers Archive, Marine CorpsHistorical Center, Building 58, Washing-

Among other achievements, BGen Cochrane escorted President Lincoln to Gettysburg.

New Books

New Publications a Bonanza for Military History Readers

T HE LIBRARY of the Marine CorpsHistorical Center receives many re-

cently published books of professional in-terest to Marines. Most of them areavailable from local bookstores andlibraries.

Return With Honor. Capt Scott O'Gradywith Jeff Coplon. New York: Doubleday.1995. 206 pp. Captures the spirit of amodern-day American hero. From his F-16ejection following a missile attack, to hissix day struggle for survival, and finally hisrescue by members of the 24th Marine Ex-peditionary Unit, O'Grady recounts a storyof modern-day courage, faith and patri-otism. $21.95.

Good to Go; The Rescue of Scott 0 'Gra-dyfrom Bosnia. Mary Pat Kelly. Annapo-lis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. 1996.355 pp. Dr. Kelly, writing also about CaptO'Grady's rescue, interviewed more than100 participants in the mission. Her book'sappendixes list by name the participantsin the TRAP mission on 8 June 1995 andthe members of the MAW embarked onthe Kearsage at the time of the rescue.$27.95.

My American Journey. Cohn Powell withJoseph E. Persico, New York: RandomHouse. 1995. 617 pp. Persico, known forhis biographies of such notables as Nel-son Rockefeller and William Casey hasjourneyed into Cohn Powell's memories togive the reader an absorbing behind-the-scenes account of another of America'sheroes. We review Powell's childhood:visiting his father, his church, and his earlyjob in a bottling plant. Powell and Persi-co then take us into the making of acommander—detailing the career of thefuture Chairman of the Joint Chiefs ofStaff. Powell offers his perspective on theWashington political scene as he movescomfortably between Democrats andRepublicans. This book is a simple, for-thright story of how an American with adream can rise to the top of his professionwith perseverance, values, and a little bitof luck. $27.50.

Savage Peace. Daniel P. Bolger. Novato,California: Presidio Press. 1995. 405 pp.

by Jena Beth AntalHistorical Center Volunteer

Currently commanding the 101st AirborneDivision, LtCol Bolger tackles the subjectof "peacekeeping" from historical, politi-cal, and military perspectives, discussingAmerica's role in the future world. Theauthor deals with such questions as: whatare the nature of American peace opera-tions; why are they being conducted; howare they carried out; and have Americandecision-makers and practitioners learnedanything from previous experiences inthese undertakings? $27.95.Masters of War. Robert Buzzanco. NewYork: Cambridge University Press. 1996.361 pp. A recipient of a Marine CorpsHistorical Foundation grant, Robert Buz-zanco, now an assistant professor of histo-ry at the University of Houston, writes ofVietnam. The author interrelates fourthemes: military criticism, politicalresponsibility, civil-military acrimony, andinterservice disputes to support his thesisthat the Vietnam war was lost on theground, not because of politicians or an-tiwar movements at home. $29.95.

The Brigade in Review —A Year at the US.Naval Academy. Robert Stewart. Annapo-lis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. 1993.117 pp. Mr. Stewart has given readers awonderful view of the Naval Academythrough his lens. His camera has capturedthe demanding, rewarding life of midship-men, from their first hours to their com-missioning. $41.95.

Gods and Generals: A Novel of the CivilWar. Jeff Shaara. New York: BallantineBooks. 1996. Civil War buffs will recog-nizeJeffs surname—his father, Michael,was the author of the Pulitzer Prize win-ning, Killer Angels, about the men wholed the fight at the Battle of Gettysburg.Jeff assisted with the movie "Gettysburg,"based on his father's famous novel, andthen went on to write this book. In thisprequel to Killer Angels, Mr. Shaara tracesthe lives, passions, and careers of some ofthe great Civil War military leaders in theyears preceding Gettysburg. $25.00.

Bosnia, a Short History. Noel Malcolm.New York: New York University Press.1994. 302 pp. Malcolm, a political colum-

nist for the "Daily Telegraph" and formereditor of the "Spectator" has written abook that lays to rest historic fallaciesabout Bosnia. He writes about this com-plex nation that few Americans really un-derstand, providing a history from itsbeginnings to its tragic present. He dis-pels the idea that today's strife is the resultof "ancient ethnic hatreds." $26.95.

The Bosnian Muslims: Denial of a Nation.Francine Friedman. Boulder, Colorado:Westview Press. 1996. 277 pp. Anotherauthor helping the reader to better under-stand the complexity of the Bosnian Cri-sis, Ms. Friedman provides a history of theconversion of the formerly Christian Slaysinto an indigenous Islamic elite under theOttoman Turks. She traces their transfor-mation from a religious minority withinthe Habsburg empire and interwar Yugos-lavia, to a constituent nation of Com-munist Yugoslovia struggling for survivalas the nation fell apart in 1991. She takesus from the nation's birth to its present-day search for peace. $21.95.

Female Tars: Women Aboard ShzO in theAge of Sail. SuzanneJ. Stark. Annapolis,Maryland: Naval Institute Press. 1996. 197pp. Ms. Stark writes of a little-known orconsidered area—women on board sailingships of the Royal Navy. After a briefdescription of British 18th century war-ships and female "tars," there are firsthandaccounts of warrant officers' wives whospent years at sea living—and fighting—beside their men without pay or even foodrations. Her final chapter about Mary Lacy,who served as a seaman and shipwright inthe Royal Navy for 12 years, is a testamentto the human spirit of these strong, oftenunheralded women. $26.95.

Sailing on the Silver Screen; Hollywoodand the US. Navy. Lawrence Suid. An-napolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press.1996. 307 pp. The author provides a fullydocumented history of the making of theNavy's image on film from the earliestdays of cinematography to the present. Hishistory covers films from pie-World WarI to post-Cold War, more than 100 ofthem. $45.00 L111775L11

20 Fortitudine, Fall 1996

Answers to the Historical Quiz

The Navy Cross(Questions on page 16)

1. The Navy Cross came into existencewith the passage of Public Law 193 by the65th Congress on 4 February 1919.2. The medal consists of a one-and-three-quarter-inch-wide ribbon of blue moiresilk with a quarter-inch white center stripe.A bronze cross that is one and one-halfinches wide hangs from the ribbon. In thecenter of the cross is a sailing vessel andlaurel leaves are located where the armsof the cross join. On the reverse side thereare two crossed anchors with the letters"USN".

3. The Navy Cross was originally bestowedupon "any person who, while in the NavalService of the United States, since the sixthday of April nineteen hundred and seven-teen, has distinguished himself by extraor-dinary heroism or distinguished service inthe line of his profession, such heroism notbeing sufficient to justify a Medal ofHonor or a Distinguished Service Medal."In 1942, Public Law 702 changed the NavyCross to a purely combat-related awardand placed it second in precedence to the

Medal of Honor and above the Distin-guished Service Medal.4. Marines have garnered about 2,000 me-dals: more than 200 in World War I; morethan 950 in World War II; more than 200for Korea; more than 350 for Vietnam; onefor Grenada; and two for Operation DesertStorm.5. LtGen Lewis B. "Chesty" Puller wasawarded five Navy Crosses during hiscareer. The first two came during separatetours in Nicaragua during the early 1930s.The third was awarded for actions onGuadalcanal. Number four resulted fromthe battle on Cape Gloucester and the fi-nal one was awarded for his leadershipduring the successful withdrawal of the 1stMarDiv from the Chosin Reservoir inKorea.6. Marine First Lieutenant James H.Webb, Jr., earned the Navy Cross for ac-tions on 10 July 1969 during which his pla-toon uncovered several enemy bunkers.Webb, while directing the inspection ofthe bunker system, shielded one of his

men from the shrapnel of an enemygrenade explosion. Webb became Secre-tary of the Navy in 1987.7. Seven former Commandants own themedal: MajGen John H. Russell, Jr.; GenThomas A. Holcomb; Gen Alexander A.Vandegrift; Gen Clifton B. Cates; GenLemuel C. Shepherd, Jr.; Gen Robert E.Cushman; and Gen Robert H. Barrow.8. BGen Evans F. Carlson earned his firstNavy Cross in Nicaragua in 1930. The se-cond was for his leadership of the raid onMakin Island and the final one came forhis actions on Guadalcanal, both in WorldWar II.9. The U.S. Army has the DistinguishedService Cross and the U.S. Air Force awardsthe Air Force Cross. Both awards mustresult from "military operations against anopposing force."10. Gen Walt received two Navy Crosses,one awarded for his leadership of a bat-talion during the battle on Cape Glou-cester and the other for his leadership onPeleliu.

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Mentioned in Passing

John Erskine, Linguist and Longtime Center Volunteer

Co/one/John C. Erskine

Go! John G. "Tiger" Erskine, USMGR(Ret), died 2 February 1996 at the age of78. Go! Erskine, a longtime member of theMarine Corps Historical Foundation, wasa loyal volunteer working in the MarineCorps Historical Center's Personal PapersCollection. He was born in Japan, the sonof missionary parents. He spoke theJapanese language with native fluency andwas very knowledgeable of Japanese cus-

by Benis M. FrankChief Historian

toms and culture. These attributes were toserve the Marine Corps well when Gol Er-skine was commissioned and initially as-signed to the 1st Raider Battalion as itsJapanese language officer and assistantbattalion intelligence officer. He wasdubbed "Tiger" because of his diminutivesize and his apparent utter fearlessness oncombat patrols. He participated in sever-al operations with Edson's Raiders, and wasawarded the Bronze Star Medal with aCombat V for his services on Iwo Jima. Inthe postwar years, Go! Erskine was em-ployed by the Central Intelligence Agen-cy. He was buried with full military honorsin Arlington National Cemetery in thepresence of his family, fellow raiders, andhis CIA colleagues.

Co/one/Joseph J. McCarthy

Gol Joseph J. McCarthy, USMCR (Ret),83, a firefighter whose heroic dash acrossa field in World War Ii's battle of iwoJimaearned him a Medal of Honor, died 15June in Delray Beach, Florida.

He led his men zigzagging across a75-yard field swept by enemy fire from thefront and sides. He took oneJapanese pill-box single-handedly, then led the storm-ing of a second.

After World War II, Col McCarthyreturned to work at the Chicago FireDepartment. He retired in 1973.L111775L1J

Number of Marine-Related Papers Presented at Historical Conferenceby Benis M. Frank

Chief Historian

F ORMER AND RETIRED Marines, andothers, presented papers of Marine

Corps historical interest at the 63d annu-al meeting of the Society for Military His-tory, held 18-2 1 April at the Key BridgeMarriott Hotel in Rosslyn, Virginia. Morethan 650 Americans, amongst whom werea number of Historical Division staffmembers, and citizens of other countriesattended the meeting of the Society, form-erly the American Military Institute, giv-ing it the largest attendance in theorganization's history.

The meeting was hosted by The Centerfor the Study of Intelligence, which set theconference's theme, "Intelligence and Na-tional Security in Peace, Crisis, and War:'The Program Committee, headed by CIAhistorian Kevin C. Ruffner, organized a

full conference with seven sessions of sever-al concurrently running panels. Each panelhad an average of five participants—threepresentors, a panel chairman, and a com-mentator. Chief Historian Benis M. Frankpresented a paper entitled, "Colonel PeterJ. Ortiz—OSS Marine," which was basedon research he has done in the colonel'scareer. Former Marine Corps 1-listorical Di-vision staff member, Maj Charles D. Mel-son, USMC (Ret) was a commentator onthe panel, "The Use and Abuse of Intel-ligence in Low-Level Conflict: British Com-monwealth Approaches and Experiences."Curtis Utz, a former Naval HistoricalCenter staff member and currently a

Defense Intelligence Agency historian,presented a paper on "Tactical IntelligenceCollection at Inchon: A Combined Effort."

From Quantico, Dr. MarkJacobsen, on thefaculty of the Command and GeneralStaff College, chaired and commented ona panel, "British Military Intelligence inColonial India." Dr. J. KennethMcDonald, a former Marine and formerChief Historian of the CIA, chaired andcommented on two panels. Finally, of in-terest to Marine and naval historians, apaper, "Naval Intelligence and the TetOffensive" was given by Glen E. Helm ofthe Naval Historical Center.

The Conference was covered extensive-ly by broadcast and print media report-ers, while C-SPAN recorded the tour andreception of attendees at CIA headquart-ers in McLean, Virgina, as well as twopanel sessions on Saturday, 20 April.

LIi1775LI1

22 Fortitudine, Fall 1996

Marine Corps Chronology

January-June 1948by Robert V Aquiina

Assistant Head, Reference Section

F ortitudine's chronology series continues with selected Ma-rine Corps events from January-June 1948, including the

'Key West Agreement," the deployment of Marine forces to theMediterranean, and the passage of the Women's Armed Serv-ices Integration Act.

1 Jan—Marine Corps Base, San Diego, California, was redesig-nated Marine Corps Recruit Depot, which included the recruitdepot, former base activities, and the Camp Matthews RifleRange.5Jan-12 Mar—The 2d Marines (Rein) left Morehead City, NorthCarolina, on the Navy transports Bexar and Montague for as-signment to ships operating in Mediterranean waters. This moveinitiated the Marine Corps policy of maintaining an air/groundtask force with in the Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean.13 Feb—Chinese Communists confirmed the capture of five U.S.Marines who had disappeared on Christmas Day near Tsingtao,while on a hunting trip. PFC CharlesJ. Brayton,Jr., age 19, wasfatally wounded, and the four surviving Marines were takenprisoner. They were released by the Communists on 1 April.20 Feb-8 Jun —The 8th Marines (Rein) left Morehead City, NorthCarolina, to become the landing force of the Sixth Fleet in theMediterranean.17 Mar—At a joint session of Congress, President Harry S. Tru-man urged a temporary draft, universal military training, andspeedy passage of the European Recovery Program, to forestallthe USSR's expansion in Europe.25 Mar—The Commandant of the Marine Corps, Gen CliftonB. Cates, accompanied the Secretary of Defense, the three serv-ice secretaries, and the other service chiefs in appearing beforethe Senate Armed Services Committee to ask for an immediatestopgap draft, and the passage of universal military training.27 Mar—The Secretary of Defense, James V. Forrestal, publicized

agreements reached by the Joint Chiefs of Staff at Key West,Florida. The principal decisions were: (1) that the Air Force wouldreceive responsibility for strategic air warfare; (2) that the Navywould receive primary responsibility for antisubmarine warfare;(3) that the Marine Corps, under Navy Department direction,would receive primary responsibility for the development of am-phibious warfare; (4) that the Air Force would supply most airtransport for all services; and (5) that the Army's functions wereland, joint amphibious and airborne operations, intelligence,defense against air attack, and military government.12 Apr—MajGcn Lemuel C. Shepherd, Jr., represented the Ma-rine Corps in London, England, at the unveiling of the FranklinD. Roosevelt Memorial.15 Apr—The designation of Marine Barracks, Marine CorpsSchools, Quantico, was changed to Marine Corps Schools, Quan-tico, Virginia.23 May—Marine Garrison Forces, Pacific, became an adminis-trative command directly under the control of Headquarters Ma-rine Corps.lJun-2 Oct—The 21st Marines (Rein) left Morehead City, NorthCarolina, to become the landing force of the Sixth Fleet in theMediterranean.4Jun —Twenty-eight graduates of a class of 410 at the U.S. NavalAcademy accepted commissions in the U.S. Marine Corps.12 Jun—The Women's Armed Services Integration Act of 1948authorized 100 regular Women Marine officers, 10 warrantofficers, and 1,000 enlisted women in a gradual build-up overa two-year period with regular candidates coming from ReserveWomen Marines on active duty or those with prior service noton active duty.3OJun—President Harry S. Truman signed into law the ReserveRetirement Bill.3OJun —The strength of the Marine Corps was 84,988.L111775L11

Commandant Gen Clifton B. Cates asked for a "stopgap draft." James V Forrestal saw Corps responsible for amphibious warfare.

MARINE CORPS HISTORICAL CENTERBUILDING 58, WASHINGTON NAVY YARD

901 M STREET, SOUTHEASTWASHING1DN, D.C. 20374-5040

OFFICIAL BUSINESS

Thriving College Intern Program Boosts Center's Goalsby Charles R. Smith

Historian

F ROM ITS INCEPTION in the mid-1970s,the History and Museums Division's

college intern program has thrived. Thispast summer was no exception. The pro-gram consists of two categories of interns:those who perform their duties for collegecredit and those who volunteer on theirown, with sthool recognition given for theexperience they receive in the interchangewith civilian curators, historians, and ac-tive duty Marines. The Marine CorpsHistorical Foundation provides a small sti-pend to defray lunch and transportationexpenses.

At the Air-Ground Museum at Quan-tico, interns have helped to sort andregularize various collections of uniforms,weapons, and equipment. In the process,they often have cleaned and repaired theartifacts, and assisted in aspects of theMuseum's continuing cataloging effort.This summer, Sgt Jeffrey H. Buffa, a Ma-rine Enlisted Commissioning Program stu-Sgt Peterson picks out maps for volume.

dent at The Citadel, assisted the staff inthe Museum's edged-weapons collection,where he cleaned, preserved, and identi-fied Filipino items. Janet R. Meyers, asenior in history from Texas A&M Univer-sity, in addition to assisting Sgt Buffa,worked on a number of leather items inthe collection and helped to compile aguide for Museum docents. Airman Kel-ly Odem, a graduate student in history atGeorge Mason University on her secondinternship, completed her preservationwork in the Museum's Woman Marineuniform collection and also entered theitems into the computerized recordssystem.

E LEVEN INTERNS worked alongside staffmembers at the Historical Center in

Washington, D.C. Assigned to the Refer-ence Section, Sonja L. Dilbeck, a seniorin history at Pepperdine University; Timo-thy G. Myers, a University of Marylandsenior in history; Naval Academy Midn 3CRichard M. Rusnock, Jr.; and James E. Cor-bin, a junior in history at Beloit College,used command chronologies, unit and bi-ographical files, muster rolls, and otherhistorical resources in helping to answerthe numerous queries the section receives.

Working with staff members in theOfficial Papers Unit of the Archives Sec-tion, Air Force Cadet 1st Class David Den-gler and College of William and Marysenior Peter J. McNulty, processed, ar-ranged, and inventoried World War II,Cuban Missile Crisis, and Vietnam War-era collections. The collections are slatedto be transferred from the HistoricalCenter to the Federal Records Center atSuitland, Maryland.

Sgt Neil A. Peterson, like Sgt Buffa afull-time Marine Enlisted CommissioningProgram student at The Citadel, workedon maps and accompanying overlays thatwill illustrate the last volume in the Divi-sion's Vietnam chronological history series.

The largest number of students in-terned in the Archives' Personal PapersUnit. Working under staff members andvolunteers, Greg Davenport, a militaryhistory graduate student at Old Domin-ion University; Reginna Timmons, anhonor student at Suitland, Maryland HighSchool; Thomas A. Ferrell, a senior in his-tory at Gallaudet University; Bruce E.Phillips II, a junior at Prince GeorgesCommunity College; and Joshua Ander-son, a recent graduate of Rhode IslandCollege, processed and inventoried a num-ber of collections, among them those be-longing to Generals Holcomb, Cates, andVandegrift, in addition to helping to ar-range the Center's more than 10,000-itemmap collection. L1J1775L1

Mr Davenport pauses in archival chores.

24 Fortitudine, Fall 1996