BuildingResilience to ViolentExtremism AmongSomali ... · economic, social, and political drivers...

Building Resilience to Violent Extremism Among Somali‐Americans in Minneapolis‐St Paul

August2012

National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism A Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Center of Excellence

Based at the University of Maryland

3300 Symons Hall bull College Park MD 20742 bull3014056600bullwwwstartumdedu


About This Report

TheauthorsofthisreportareStevanWeine Professorof PsychiatryattheUniversityof Illinoisat Chicagoand OsmanAhmedofMinneapolis‐St PaulQuestionsaboutthisreport shouldbedirectedtoStevan Weine atsmweineuicedu

Thisreportispartof a seriessponsoredbytheHumanFactorsBehavioralSciencesDivisionScience and Technology DirectorateUSDepartmentofHomelandSecurityinsupportofthePreventDeterprogramThegoalofthisprogram istosponsorresearchthatwillaidthe intelligenceandlawenforcementcommunities inidentifyingpotentialterroristthreats and supportpolicymakers indevelopingprevention efforts

ThisresearchwassupportedbytheUSDepartment of Homeland Security(DHS)ScienceandTechnologyDirectoratersquosHumanFactorsBehavioralSciences Division(HFD)throughGrant AwardNumber2009ST108LR0003 made totheNationalConsortiumfortheStudyofTerrorismandResponsestoTerrorism(START)Theviewsandconclusionscontainedinthisdocumentarethoseoftheauthorsandshouldnotbeinterpreted asnecessarilyrepresenting theofficialpolicieseitherexpressedorimpliedofthe USDepartmentofHomelandSecuritythe UnitedStatesGovernmentorSTART

About START

TheNationalConsortiumforthe StudyofTerrorismandResponsestoTerrorism(START)issupportedinpart bytheScienceandTechnologyDirectorate ofthe USDepartmentofHomelandSecuritythroughaCenterofExcellenceprogrambased at theUniversityofMarylandSTARTuses state‐of‐the‐arttheoriesmethodsanddatafromthesocialand behavioral sciences to improveunderstanding oftheoriginsdynamicsandsocialandpsychologicalimpactsofterrorism FormoreinformationcontactSTARTatinfostartstartumdedu orvisit wwwstartumdedu

Citations

Tocite this reportpleaseusethisformat

WeineStevanand OsmanAhmedldquoBuildingResilience toViolent ExtremismAmongSomali‐Americansin Minneapolis‐StPaulrdquoFinalReporttoHumanFactorsBehavioralSciencesDivisionScienceand TechnologyDirectorateUSDepartmentofHomelandSecurityCollegePark MDSTART 2012



Contents

ExecutiveSummaryhelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip2

Backgroundhelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip5

Conclusionshelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip30

Introductionhelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip3

KeyConceptshelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip7

Methodhelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip9

Resultshelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip12

Referenceshelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphelliphellip33

Building Resilience to Violent Extremism Among Somali‐Americans in Minneapolis‐St Paul 1


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Thisstudy askedmembersofthe Somali‐Americancommunityin Minneapolis‐StPaultodescribethechallenges ofliving in arefugeecommunityhowviolent extremists trytoexploittheirconditionforrecruitmentpurposesandwhatresourcesand strategiesareneededto minimize theirvulnerability Using ethnographicmethodsthisstudylookedattheeverydaylivesof Somali‐Americanadolescentboys andyoung meninthe contextof theirfamiliesandcommunities Itfoundopportunitiesforentering violent extremismaswellascapacities fordiminishingthoseopportunitiesBasedonempiricaldataand informedbyrelevant theoryit identifiedthemesandbuiltamodelDiminishingOpportunitiesfor ViolentExtremism (DOVE)whichcanhelp toinformpreventionstrategiesforbuildingcommunityresilienceto violent extremisminthe Somali‐Americancommunityin Minneapolis‐StPaul

Noonerisk factorexplained involvement inviolentextremism Ratheritwasthe interaction ofmultipleriskfactors atthepeer familycommunityglobalstateand societallevelsThese risk factors combinedtocreateanopportunitystructure forviolent extremismwiththreelevelsofopportunity1)youthrsquosunaccountabletimesandunobservedspaces 2)theperceivedsocial legitimacy ofviolentextremism and3)contact withrecruitersorassociatesInvolvement inviolent extremismdependedonthepresence ofallthreewithdecreasingproportionsofadolescentboysandyoungmenexposedtothelattertwo

Efforts toincrease resilience shouldinvolvestrengtheningprotectiveresources orwhatare calledopportunity‐reducing capacities Furthermorefamilyandyouthcommunityandgovernmentcanhelptostrengthenprotectiveresourcesateachof thethreelevels ofopportunity Priorities includediminishing1)youthrsquos unaccountabletimes andunobservedspaces 2)theperceivedsocial legitimacy ofviolent extremismand 3)thepotential forcontactswith terrorist recruitersor associates

Buildingcommunityresilience toviolent extremismshouldbeapproachedthrough community collaboration and capacity buildingInterventionsmay involvegovernmentcommunityandfamilies workingcollaborativelytoimproveeachotherrsquoscapacitiesSharedgoalscouldbe to1)collaborativelystrengthen families2) developcommunitysupportforfamilies andyouthand3)adoptnewgovernmentalstrategiesforcommunitysupportandprotection

Onewayto determine priorityareasfor prevention mightincludeidentifying protectiveresourceswiththegreatestpotentialforaddressingmultipleriskfactorsCollaborationsbetweengovernmentcommunity andfamiliesandyouthcanthenbebuilttoenhance thesecapacitiesBasedonthe currentstudypromisingpreventive interventions in theSomali‐AmericancommunityinMinneapolis‐StPaulmightinclude1)buildingaweb‐basedresourcethatincludesinformationand trainingaboutrisksandsafeguards forusebyyouthparentsandcommunityserviceproviders2)providingSomaliyouthandyoungadultswithopportunities for servicein theircommunity andhumanitarian and peaceworkthuscreating alternative waysforyouthtochanneltheirpassion forSomaliaand3)providinglogistical supportandtrainingtoeldersandcriticalvoicesinthecommunityandonthe web

Additional research isneededincommunities underthreattoshowwhichactsofbuilding resilienceworkwithwhomunderwhatcircumstances andwhyOneway todo thiswouldbetocollaboratewiththecommunity todeveloppilot andevaluate amultilevelcommunityresilience‐basedprevention strategy in Minneapolis‐StPaul basedontheDOVEmodelAnotherwouldbetousetheDOVEmodelasabasisforassessingothercommunitiestargetedbyviolentextremists inthe UnitedStatesandabroadsoastorefinethemodelandapproachesthatcanreliablyassess communitiesatriskandhelptoinformandprioritizepreventionstrategies


2) 3) 4)


INTRODUCTION

OnMarch62011DennisMcDonoughDeputy NationalSecurityAdvisortoPresidentObamaspokeattheAllDullesAreaMuslimSociety inSterling VirginiaandmadethefollowingstatementldquoWeknowas thePresidentsaidthat thebestdefenseagainstterrorist ideologies isstrongand resilient individualsand communitiesrdquo(McDonough2011) McDonoughwasvoicingwhat theObamaAdministrationhadalready articulatedinits2010NationalSecurityStrategyin whichthewordldquoresiliencerdquoappearedmultipletimes(TheWhiteHouse2010)SeveralEuropeancountrieshavealsoacknowledgedthekeyroleofcivil society incounteringviolent extremismthrough forexampleamelioratingthe underlyingeconomicsocialandpoliticaldriversofviolentradicalization andterrorist recruitment(Archik2011 Briggs2006)

Emphasizingresilience highlightsthepositive attributesofcommunitiesandpersonsthathaveoftenbeenhighly stigmatizedinpublicdiscourses andcouldhelpto opendoorstocommunity‐governmentcollaborationButwhatexactly is resilience Canbuilding itreallypreventviolent extremismAndifsohowcanwedevelopprogramsand policiesto supportcommunities underthreat

TheObama administrationrsquosDecember2011 Strategic Implementation Plan for Empowering Local Partners to Prevent Violent Extremism in the United States offeredpreliminaryanswerstothesequestionsForexamplein asectionfocusedontheimportanceofenhancing federalengagementwithandsupportoflocalcommunitiestargetedby violentextremistsonesub‐objective(12)highlightedthe need to1) Fostercommunity‐ledpartnershipsandpreventativeprogramming to buildresilience againstviolent

extremist radicalization byexpandingcommunity‐based solutionsLeverageexistingmodelsofcommunityproblem‐solvingandpublicsafetyEnhanceFederalGovernmentcollaborationwithlocalgovernments andlawenforcementand Providecommunities withinformation andtrainingaccesstoresourcesandgrantsandconnectionswiththephilanthropic andprivate sectors(WhiteHouse2011 p10)

Inorderfortheseeffortstosucceedwhatare alsoneeded are models andinterventions that arewell supportedbytheoryandempirical evidence andthat arefeasibleacceptableandappropriateto communitiesand their membersTo thisendtheauthorsconductedethnographicresearch intheSomali‐Americancommunityin Minneapolis‐StPaulinorderto 1) characterizehowsocialexperiences impactinvolvement in violent extremismfordiasporayouthand youngadults2)understandhowresilience mightpreventviolent extremismincommunitiesunder threat and 3)informthedevelopment ofpreventionstrategiesthatincorporatebothsecurityandpsychosocialdimensionsandarebasedontheoryevidenceandcommunitycollaboration

Betweenlate2007 and Autumn2008atleast 17Somali‐American adolescentboysandyoungmenlivingintheMinneapolis‐StPaularea secretlylefttheirhomesand flew to Somaliatojointraining campsrunbytheAlShabaaborganization(Elliot2009 Weine etal2010)TheseactivitiesproducedthefirstUScitizensuicidebomberShirwaAhmedwhoonOctober292008killedatleast30peopleincludingUNaidworkers inHargeisa‐BosasoSomalia(Elliot2009) These adolescentboys andyoung menleft intwowaveswith thesecond wavebeing alittleyoungerandmoreacademicthanthefirstThissecondwaveincludedBurhanHassana 17‐year‐oldA‐studentandsenioratRooseveltHighSchoolaswellasotherhighschoolanduniversitystudentsthusonceagaindispelling theassumptionthat onlyunsuccessfulor mentallyillpersonsbecome involvedin terrorism



Tounderstandhowsomepersonsgetinvolvedinviolent extremismexpertanalyseshavedevelopedtheoriesof ldquopathwaysrdquo withpush andpullfactorsinfluencingindividualtrajectories(Atran2010Horgan2008a2008bamp2009McCauleyandMoskalenko2008Moghaddam2005Sageman2008)Takingthisperspectivefactors thatmayhavepushedtheseSomali‐American adolescentboysandyoung mentoward violent radicalization werewidespreadand include exposuretowarin theirhomecountryandforced migrationpriortocomingtotheUnitedStates poverty broken familiesduetotherefugee experience (especially theabsenceoffathers)orracialorreligiousdiscriminationFactorsthatmayhavepulledthemtowardviolentradicalization weremorediscrete intimeand spaceand includeexposureto violent extremismon theInternet theEthiopian invasion ofSomaliaandriseofAlShabaab culturally‐inscribedcopingmechanismssuchastheSomaliwarrior tradition oraffiliation withcharismatic malerecruiterswhocouldspeaktoadolescentboys andyoungmenabouttheseissueswithauthoritygiventhelack offathersor powerfulmeninsomeof theirlivesAnemergingdiscourseonhomegrownterrorism hasgonebeyondaldquopathwayrdquoapproachtoconsidermultiplelevelsof risk factorsincludingthoseatthecommunityandfamilylevelsaspartof abroaderldquoecologicalrdquoview(Briggs2006Secretaryof StatefortheHomeDepartment 2011Weineetal 2009Weine2011)Thisstudyaddressedtheabovefactorsbutfromanecologicalperspective

Inthisresearchthere wasnopresumptionthatwhatever knowledgewasbuiltregardingSomali‐AmericansinMinneapolis‐StPaulwouldnecessarilyapplytootherSomali‐American communitiesortootherMuslimdiaspora communitiestargeted byviolentextremistsAlthoughIslamis one worldreligiontherearemanydifferentMuslim religiousbeliefs andpracticesandtherearedistinct immigrant and refugeecommunities ofMuslimsin the US(Ramadan2009)That beingsaidtherecouldbeuseful continuities acrosscommunities andgroupsbuttheseareinneedof thoughtfulreflectionutilizingcross‐culturalandsite‐basedapproachesthatcouldhelptoidentify possiblesimilarities anddifferences betweencommunities



BACKGROUND

Thirty years ofwarin Somaliahasledtoanestimated1 millionSomalisbeing forciblydisplacedlargenumbersofwhomwereresettledinEuropeanUnioncountriesAustraliaCanadaandtheUnitedStates(KusowampBjork2007 Horst2006FarahMuchieampGundel2007) Prior researchconducted in these resettlementcountrieshasfocusedonunderstandingand addressing thepsychosocialneeds ofSomalisinthediaspora

Forexampleresearch hasshown thatSomalisin theUKandDenmarkstruggled withissues ofidentityandbelongingand that secondhandnarrativesofidentity fromfamilyandcommunitymembersplayedanimportantroleinovercoming theseissues (Valentine 2009) Sportondescribedhowproblemswithsocialexclusionand discrimination againstSomalisintheUKcouldhavecontributedtosomeyoungSomalisparticipating intheJuly11Londonbombings(2006)In astudycomparingVietnameseIranianandSomaliyouthandfamiliesin theUnitedStatesSomalimothersweretheonlygrouptostateapreference forstilllivingin their homeland(McBrien2011) Post‐resettlement stressors acculturativestress and especiallyperceiveddiscriminationhavebeen found tobeassociatedwithgreaterPTSD(Ellis2008)ExperiencingdiscriminationwascommonandassociatedwithworsementalhealthforSomaliboysintheUnitedStateswhereas participationinAmericanculturewasassociatedwithbettermental health(Ellis2010)

Severalreportshave focusedon theSomalifamilywhichisnot only anuclearbutanextendedfamily Theculturalsayingldquounityispowerrdquo underlies thestrong sense offamilyloyaltyintheSomalicommunityParents tend toconceiveoftheirparenting asbeingldquoguardiansrdquooftheirchildrenandemphasizeprovidingeducationandtraining morethan emotionalsupport(Heitritter 1999)InresettlementcountriesSomalifamilieshave experienceddifficulties associatedwiththeprevalenceofsingle‐parent families isolationfeelingsofdisloyaltymissingfamilymemberschildrenrsquosdisrespectfor generationalboundaries andtheover‐intrusion ofauthoritiesorproviders (Heitritter1999)Atthesame timeseveralprotectivefactorshave beenidentifiedincluding familyattachmentand stabilitystrongsocialskillspro‐socialrelationshipsreligionacademicachievementaccesstocommunityresources(BRCYS2009)and senseof belonging inschool(Ellisetal2007)

WhenSomaliadolescentsseekhelp theytendtofirstapproach friendsfamilyteachersand religiousleaders(so calledldquogatewayprovidersrdquo)buttheyhave astrong tendencytohide theirproblemsbecause theydoldquonot want toburdenparentswiththeirownworriesrdquo(Ellis 2011p804)Somali youthandfamilies seemanybarrierstoseekingcare includingtheir distrustofauthoritythe stigma associatedwithmentalillnessandlinguisticandculturalbarriersInSomaliaasinmanyotherAfricancountriesthereislittleprecedent forparentsbeing highlyinvolvedwithteachersorschoolofficialswhichcansetthemupforchallengesin USresettlement (BRYCS2009)

There arebelievedtobe60000SomalisinMinnesotathelargestpopulationoutsideof EastAfricaManyliveintheCedarRiversideneighborhoodinalow‐incomehousingdevelopmentknownastheTowersMostMinnesotaSomalisarrivedviasecondary migration choosingtomovetoMinnesotaafterlivingforatime intheir initialrefugeeplacementlocalewhichmeansthatthey arenot eligibleforfederaldollarsforhousing education jobdevelopmentand socialservices(Weineetal2011 WeineLevin HakizimanaDanweigh2011)In 2008amongSomali‐Americans in Minneapolis‐StPaultheunemploymentrate was17themedian income$14367andthepovertylevel42(Kasperetal 2009 City ofMinneapolis2009)



Somali‐AmericanyouthinMinneapolisareoftenreferredtoasldquoGeneration 15 Mostwere borninawar‐torncountryraisedinrefugeecampsinKenya andthensettled inimpoverishedandghettoizedUScommunitieswheretheywatched thewar in SomaliaonYouTube Thoughthey weretooyoungtodirectly experience the warmosthavelostfamilymembersand heardtalkaboutthe warfromothers

Theemergingdiscourse in academiaonSomali‐Americans hastypicallyfocusedontheir vulnerabilities(Weineetal2010)Vulnerabilitiescitedincludepriorexposuretopersonaltraumalivinginpovertybeingraisedinbroken families andorwithsinglemothersexposuretoanexcessofwarimagesand experiencing discrimination A largeepidemiologicalsurveyconductedinMinneapolis‐StPaulin2004foundthat37ofSomaliwomenand25ofSomalimenhadbeentortured andthattorturesurvivorsreported significantly moresymptomsofPTSD andmorephysical andpsychologicalproblems(Jaransonetal2004)Anotherstudyin Minneapolis‐StPaulfoundthatnearly halfofSomalimothers were torturesurvivors morethan a quarterhadnoformaleducationand 70 weresingleparents(Robertsonet al 2006)

Otherresearchconductedin the Somali‐AmericancommunityinMinneapolis‐St Paulhasdescribedunsafe neighborhoods(Hirsi2009a)andproblemswithcivicengagement(Dickson2011) Thelatterreported thatldquothedeepestproblemamongSomalicommunities in Minnesota mightbelsquothehollowing outoftheir civicspiritrsquordquo(Dickinson p114)Nderu(2005) describedapatternofldquoperipheral supportrdquoofSomalichildrenbytheirparents whichincludedfathers notbeing asinvolved asmothersandcalledforbetter effortstobridge theculturalgapbetweenfamiliesand schools Ailitolppa‐Nitamo(2004)reportedonthechallengesfacedbyparents whowereilliterateuneducatedandunemployedwhichledthemtobemoreisolatedfrommainstreamsociety Robillos(2001p18) reportedon theparticularneedsofmaleadolescentswho ldquoespecially expressedthedesireforaplacetosocializeplaysportsorhavefunafterschoolrdquoSomalimothersexpressedconcernabouttheiryouthgettingintoconflictwithothersafterschoolreportingthatldquotaunting andfightsoccurlsquowhentheycomehomeThatrsquoswhentheyteasethemrsquordquo(McBrien2010p82)However these mothersdidnrsquotnecessarilyunderstandEnglishwellenoughtoknowwhattheconflictswereabout

Inadditiontothefamily andcommunityvulnerabilities orrisk factorsdescribedabovestudieshavedescribedthestrengthsoftheSomali‐Americancommunity These includeastrongsense ofcommunity identitytheestablishmentofSomaliSchoolsor dugsisresistance toAmerican racismandsupportfor childrenand their education(Kapteigns and Arman2008)

Finallythis researchbuiltupon priorandongoingresearchwithrefugeeand immigrant familiesfromotherAfricancountrieswhichhasindicatedthe importanceof examining factors suchasthetransnationalfamilyfamilysolidarityparent‐childcommunicationparentalmonitoring andsupervisionparentalschoolinvolvementand racialethnicsocialization(Berns‐McGown2008StevensonampArrington2009Weine2008Weine andSiddiqui2009Weine etal2008Weineetal2009Weine etal2011) Theseareareas inwhichparents often face great difficulties andoftenlacksupportfromthe communityatlargeandfromcommunity‐basedservices Inthat sensethefocus onfamiliesisnecessarily connected withthefocusoncommunitiesbecausefamiliesneedthesupportofcommunitiesinordertobestrongandprotectiveoftheirchildren(Ungar 2008)


Resilience is neither entirely individual nor entirely social but an interactive combination (Luthar and Zigler 1991) Tounderstand resilience it isnecessary tolookbeyondindividualcharacteristics andalsoexamine familycommunitysocietalstateandglobal characteristics

Youth can be resilient to some risks but not to others (Luthar and Zigler 1991)

When youth face risks from socio‐economic and sociocultural adversities their family is often the strongest buffer against the associated risks (Weine and Siddiqui 2009)

For diaspora communities perceptions of the characteristics of resilience are shaped as much by the home country and refugee camp internment as by American values and institutions (Weine et al 2011) Indiasporacommunitieshigher resiliencedoesnrsquotnecessarilymean greater alignment with American societyanditsvalues


KEY CONCEPTS

Thissection describesthekeyconceptsthatinformedthisstudyonbuildingcommunityresilience to counterviolentextremismThese includeresilienceprotective resourcesopportunitystructuresandpreventiveinterventionsTheseconceptsare brieflydefinedandelaboratedwithsomerelevant research

ResilienceResilienceisatermborrowedfrom engineeringwhere it refers toldquothecapacityofamaterialorsystemtoreturn to equilibriumafter a displacementrdquo (BodinampWiman 2004)Communitypsychologistsuseresilience torefertoa process shapedbyresourcesndashsuchas economicdevelopmentsocialcapitalinformationandcommunicationandcommunitycompetencendashthat mayleadto adaptation aftera disturbanceoradversity(Norris StevensPfefferbaumBWycheampPfefferbaumRL2008)

Thoughresiliencehasbeen increasinglycited byterrorism experts andpolicymakers asan essentialconsiderationwhendevelopingprogramstocounterviolent extremismresearch onresiliencehasnotyetbeensystematicallyappliedto thiscontextOverthe past tenyearstherehasbeenan explosionof interest in resilience in theclinical community andfamilysciencesconcerningabroadrangeof adversities Whatdoesthisemergingknowledgeofresiliencetellusthatispotentiallyrelevantto countering violent extremism

Protective ResourcesProtective resourcesare social and psychosocialfactorsthatcanstopdelayordiminishnegativeoutcomes(Weine etal2011)Protectiveresourcesencompass notonlyresilience(egbouncingback)butalsoresistance(eg preventing)Protectiveresources canreside infamiliescommunitiesandinstitutions Thusfamilyprotectiveresourcesarefamilycapacitiesthatpromotepositive youthpsychosocialwellbeingCommunity protectiveresourcesworkeitherbybuildingfamilyprotective resourcesor byworkingdirectly upontheyouthtopromotepsychosocialwellbeingArangeofdifferentkindsofactorsinacommunitycanprovideprotectiveresourcessuchasteachersclergy coachesandelders

Opportunity StructuresStudiesof migrationhavedescribedthekeyroleofldquoopportunitystructuresrdquoinrelation tosuchoutcomesasinvolvement interrorismandsexualriskamongmigrants(ClarkeampNewman2006Hirschetal



2010)Theoriesofopportunitystructureholdthatldquotheprobabilityofsocialrelationsdependsonopportunitiesforcontactrdquo(Blau199429)Thisconceptfocusesnot justonindividualcharacteristics but onopportunities forbehaviorthat areprovidedbyagivensocialcontextItalsofollowsthatanopportunitystructurersquosinfluence onyouthandyoungadultscan becountered byldquoopportunity‐reducingcapacitiesrdquo whichmayalsobethoughtofasatypeofprotectiveresourcethatcontributes toresilience

Preventive InterventionsPreventive interventionsaimtoenhanceprotectiveresourcesat populationcommunityandfamilylevelssoastostoplessenor delaypossiblenegativeindividualmentalhealthandbehavioral outcomesPreventive interventionsoftenusemultilevelstrategiesthatsimultaneouslyaddressfamilysocialandstructuralissues(Schenschul etal2009 OrsquoConnellet al2009)

Thesekeyconceptsprovided the basisfor the researchquestionsthatwerestartingpoints fortheethnographicstudy



METHOD

Inthepast severaldecadesscholarsworkinginthepsychosocialarenahavebecomemoreinterested inapplyingethnographicmethods1 Ethnographicmethodsincludedatacollectionthroughinterviewswhereparticipantsare encouragedtospeakopenlyandfreelyandthroughparticipantobservationDatacollectionandanalysis areguided byaniterativeprocess wherebyinitialdatacollectionleadstorefinement ofquestionsandnew theoreticalinterpretationsleading tofurther datacollectionandinterpretationandculminating in newempirically‐basedmodels orfindings

Thesemethodsinparticularhave helpedthepublichealthandpsychosocialfieldstobetterunderstandanarrayof important issuessuch aslocalpatternsofdistresstheroleofculturelocalprocessesofchangethe insiderrsquosperspectiveandthecultureofserviceorganizationsForexampleethnographicmethodshavebeen appliedin the realmsofsurvivorsrsquotestimoniesof politicalviolencerefugeementalhealthmentalhealthreforminpost‐conflictcountries andHIVAIDSpreventionandlabormigration(Weine2006Weine AganiCintron2003 Weine etal2008 WeineBahromovMirzoev2008Weine2009Weineunderreview)

Theroleof thisethnographicstudywastogenerate amodelfor preventingviolentextremismthrough buildingcommunityresilience thatwasinformedbylocalvoices andanunderstandingofthe contextinMinneapolis‐StPaulinorderto supportthedevelopmentofpolicyandprograms

Sample and RecruitmentWeinterviewed57personswholivedorworkedinMinneapolis‐StPaulandwhowereeither1)Somali‐Americanyoungadultmales(ages 16to30)(n=18)2)Somali‐Americanparentsoradultfamilymembers(n=19)or3)serviceproviderswhoworkwiththeSomalicommunity(n=20)InthisreportthetermldquoSomali‐Americanrdquois not beingused onlytorefertoUScitizensPotentialsubjectswereinitiallyidentifiedbymembersofourresearch teamwhowere eithermembersoforfamiliarwiththeSomali‐Americancommunityand relevantgroupsandorganizationsPotentialsubjectswerechosenbothbecausetheresearchersthoughtthattheymayhavevaluableperspectivesontheresearchquestionsandtotry torepresentsomediversityofexperience within theSomali‐American communityBeforeparticipating in anyresearch activities participants were askedtogive informedconsent inaccordancewiththeresearchproceduresapprovedbytheUniversity ofIllinoisat ChicagoInstitutionalReviewBoard

InterviewsTheprincipalinvestigatorprovidedtraininginethnographicinterviewingtotheresearchteamwhichincludedrelevantreadingsandhands‐onexperience topractice skillsandtechniquesTrainingfocusedon1)approachestodevelopingsustainingandending relationswithsubjects2)proceduresforthe protection ofhumansubjects3)waysofdealingwithemergenciesandethicalproblemsincluding threats tothesafetyof researchers4)practiceinconducting minimally structuredinterviews(eg asking open‐endedquestionslearninghowandwhento probelearning tolisten)5)anintroductiontoAtlastianalysissoftwareand 6)intensiveintroductionstothetopicsofviolent extremismrefugeeyouthandfamilieslanguageandcultureDuringdatacollectionongoingsupervisionwasprovidedthroughtelephoneand face‐to‐face meetings

1 Thepsychosocialarenaencompasses mentalhealthhealth and socialserviceproviders and organizations who areengagedinunderstandingand helping individualsfamiliesandcommunities withproblems of a psychologicaldimensionthat occurin thecontext of complexsocial situations Thisincludes such issues as mentaland physicalillness violencesubstance abuse HIVAIDS andmigration‐related problems



Datacollectionconsistedofone‐timeminimallystructuredinterviewslastingbetweenoneandtwohoursTheinterviewerswere threeSomali‐Americanswholived andworkedin theSomalicommunity inMinneapolis‐StPaulandtwoAmericanpsychiatristsDuringthese interviews participantswere encouraged totalkopenlyabout topicsandissuesthatfitwithintheoverallconcernsoftheresearchAtthebeginningofthe interviewstheresearchersstatedthe overallprojectaimsParticipants were then askedtospeakaboutwhatevertheywished intheorder thattheywishedRecognizingthat different peoplecanspeaktodifferentissuesdependingontheir ageandsituationthe interviewersleft ituptotheparticipantstodeterminehow muchdetailtheywantedtogo intoandgenerallyrespondedwithpromptstoencouragethemtosay more(asculturallySomalistendnottobeveryforthcomingininterviews)Theinterviewershadalistoftopicsforthepersontospeaktoandiftheydidnotspeak tothesetopicstheywere askedaboutthemThesetopicswere1)familyandcommunityprotectiveprocesses withrespecttoviolent extremism 2)communityknowledgeand attitudestowardsviolentextremism 3)theindividualfamilyandcommunityprocessesunderlyingrisks ofviolent extremism 4)thepotentialroleoflackofsocialintegration inviolent extremismand5)communityknowledge attitudesandbehaviorstowards lawenforcementThe majority of interviews weredigitallyrecorded andthentranscribed intoEnglishInthosecasesinwhichthe persondidnotpermitrecordingdetailed fieldnotes were taken bytheinterviewer

Data AnalysisThisstudy utilizedagroundedtheoryapproachtoqualitativedataanalysis(Charmaz2006Patton2002StraussampCorbin 1998)The groundedtheoryapproachis designedfor the developmentoftheorywithin thecontextofintensive fieldresearchwithqualitative data Specifically thisresearchusedan iterative analysisstrategythatcodedpatterns inqualitative data todescribecategories typologiesandprocessesleadingtothecreationofmodelsTheresearchers utilized Atlasticomputersoftwarewhichisdesigned formanaginglarge amountsofqualitativedata and applyinggroundedtheory methods (Muhr2004)Transcriptsofthe interviews translatedintoEnglishwere entered intoAtlasti

Theresearchersalsodecidedtoenterintothe Atlastidatabaseopen sourcematerialsfromthemediaorgovernmentconcerningSomali‐Americans inMinneapolisTheseincludedinformationonSomali‐Americans violent radicalizationandviolentextremismaswellasdirectquotationsfromfamilyandcommunitymembers2

Theanalysisbeganwithareading oftheentiredatasetof interviewtranscripts bytheresearchteammembersTheinitialreading yieldedasetofcategories thatcorrespondedwiththeinitialconceptualframeworkExamplecategorieswereindividualriskfactorsfor violentextremismfamilyriskfactorsforviolent extremismcommunityrisk factors for violent extremismfamilyprotectiveresourcesagainstviolent extremismcommunityprotectiveresourcesagainstviolentextremismandlawenforcementandculturalissuesThecompleteset ofcategoriesthencontributedtodevelopingacodingschemewithatotalof146codesThereadersalsokepttrackofotherdemographiccontextual andexperiential itemsthatwereimportantin understandingSomali‐Americanswhichin addition tobeingcoded were recorded throughwritingmemos Someexamplesincludedtheimpactofpovertycommunityviolence involvementwithInternetthe transitionfromchildhoodtoadulthoodandgenderrolesinSomalifamilies Thesetooinformedthecoding

2 Thesequotationswere labeledand categorizeddifferentlyinthe database so thatwe could determinewhethera particular quotation camefromanintervieweeoranalternatesource



Theresearchersfirstestablishedintercoderreliability witha selected subsetofthecodelist bycalculating percent agreementbetween reviewersresolvingdifferencesbymakingconsensuschanges inthecodingapproachandrecheckingpercent agreement untilall codersachievedatleast80agreement Nextalltranscripts werecodedbythreecodersusingtheinitialcoding scheme agreeduponbytheentireresearchteamThe codersmetregularlyto discussemergingissuesin thecodingapproachandtorefinecodingstrategiesbyconsensus Thenthroughpattern codingandcreatingmemostheanalysisformedtypologies(egof different typesoffamily protectiveresources)anddelineatedprocessesthatbecamecomponents ofthemodelsdevelopedinthisstudyThe findingswerereviewed bytheentireteamtoenablecheckingforcontrary evidenceand tolaythegroundworkforreporting



RESULTS

Basedonempiricaldataand informedbytheorythisstudybuiltamodelDiminishingOpportunities for ViolentExtremism(DOVE)which canhelptoinformstrategiesforbuildingcommunityresilience toviolent extremisminthe Somali‐Americancommunityin Minneapolis‐StPaulOveralltheresearchdemonstratedthatmultipleriskfactorscombinedtocreate anopportunitystructureforviolentextremismandthatbuildingresilienceinvolvesstrengthening protectiveresourcesoropportunity‐reducingcapacities

TheDOVE modelconsistsofthreelevelsofopportunityrelated to1) youthrsquosunaccountabletimes and unobserved spaces2)theperceivedsociallegitimacyofviolentextremismand 3)contact withrecruitersorassociatesItindicatestheneedforstrengtheningopportunity‐reducingcapacitiesat eachofthethreelevelsthroughcollaboration andcapacitybuilding involvingfamily andyouthcommunity andgovernment

Inthefollowingsectionseachofthethemesthatcomprisethe DOVE modelareidentifiedbrieflydescribedandillustratedwitha selectedquotationfromtheethnographicstudyTheselectedquotationscomefromaparticularyouthparentorcommunityserviceproviderbuteachthemewassupportedbydatafrommultipleparticipants Firstthis reportsharesfindings relatedtoriskfactors andthenprotective resourcesthatsupportresiliencetoviolentextremism

RISK FACTORS

Thefindings indicated thatnoone riskfactorexplained involvementinviolentextremismRatheritwas theinteractionofmultiplerisk factorsatmultiplelevelsthataccountedforinvolvement inviolentextremismFigure1andTable1depictthat riskfactorscombinedtocreateanopportunity structureforviolent extremismwith threelevels ofopportunity1)youthrsquos unaccountabletimesandunobservedspaces2)theperceivedsocial legitimacyofviolentextremismand 3)contact withrecruitersor associates



Youthrsquosunaccountabletimesand unobserved spacesrefertothe timeswhenadolescentboysarenotanswerabletoparentsorotheradultsandareinspaceswheretheyareoutoftheirsightTheperceivedsociallegitimacyofviolentextremismreferstoperceptionsof theappropriatenessandnecessityofviolent extremistideologyandactionsContactwithrecruitersorassociatesreferstoadolescentboysandyoung meninteractingdirectlywitheitherrecruiters orcompanionswhofacilitatetheir increasedinvolvementinviolent extremism

Figure1illustrates thatpotentialinvolvement inviolent extremismdependedonthepresenceofallthreeopportunitiesDecreasingproportionsofadolescentboysandyoungmenwereexposedtothemiddleandloweropportunitiesTable1 belowfurtherdepictsthe risk factorsrelatedtoopportunitiesforentryintoviolentextremismthatwere providedbythesocialcontext anditsnorms


14

Lack of Support for Youth

Secondary Migration

Being an Underserved US Refugee Community

Unsafe Neighborhoods

Social Exclusion


Manyoftheriskfactorswereregardedaspersistentwhereasa subsetofthemwereregardedastransient(andcapitalizedin Table 1)Transientriskfactors werethosethatbecamemoresignificant followingtheEthiopianinvasion ofSomaliathatbegan in2006 Thesetransientriskfactorsincluded1) Perception ofaThreat toSomalia2)Terrorist Organizationsrsquo Recruitment3)CommunitySupportforAlShabaab4)LackofAwareness ofViolent Radicalizationand RecruitmentThesetransient riskfactorsdiminished inresponsebothtoAlShabaablosingsupportinthe Somalidiaspora(123) andtoUS lawenforcementactions(34)Howeverat thetimeof writingcommunitymembersstill regardedAlShabaabaspresentintheircommunitythoughmoredormant

Thefollowingsections identifyand describe eachofthe riskfactors associated withthethreelevelsof opportunityandgiveoneillustrativequotation fromayouthparent orcommunityserviceprovider for eachrisk factor

LEVEL 1 YOUTHrsquoS UNACCOUNTABLE TIMES AND UNOBSERVED SPACES

Global State and Societal Risk Factors MostSomali‐AmericansinMinnesotaarrived viasecondarymigrationchoosing

tomovethereafterlivingfora timein their initialUSresettlementsitewhichin effectmeantthat they were noteligibleforfederaldollars forhousing education jobdevelopmentand socialservices AparentstatedldquoIlivedinMichiganforaboutayear ayear andahalf Foreconomicreasons wecouldnrsquotreallyliveouttherebecausewewerelivingoff offoodstampsAndthenwemovedtoMinnesotaandwelivedthere eversincerdquoSecondary migrationresultedin a lackofadequateservicesforSomali‐Americans

Somali‐Americansreported thattheircommunitydidnotget enoughservicesandinvestmentfromtheUSGovernmentAcommunityservice providersaid ldquoWhenthey comeherealltheparentsaretaughtaboutishowthegovernment worksand howtheycangetSSI[SupplementalSecurityIncome]andmoneybutreallyI donrsquotseepeopletaking initiative toactuallybuildprogramsthathelpparentsunderstandteenagers andhowtheir livesare different because thentheparentswonrsquothavetoexpectustodoeverything thewaywe didbackhomerdquo

Community Risk Factors Somali‐Americans reported thatgovernmentorganizations and groupsdid

notprovideadequate fiscalorsocialresourcesorsocialspacesforyouthAcommunityserviceprovidersaidldquoYougetoutofschoolat 300andyouhavealmost4 or5 hoursofnothingtodoThecommunitycenterwehavecanonlyservemaybe200peopleduringtheday SowhathappenstotherestoftheyouththatareouthereTheyhavenothingtodoTheyrsquorejuststandingaroundrdquo

Somali‐Americansspokeofthe devastating impactofgang‐and drug‐relatedviolence in theirneighborhoods Acommunityserviceprovider saidldquoThegangshaveshownthattheywillkillwithoutanykindofrhymeorreasonAndtheywillkillespeciallyif they thinkyoursquoreasnitchrdquo

Somali‐Americansreported feelingdisadvantaged duetotheirfacingmultiplesocialadversities relatedtoextremepovertyovercrowded housingandbeingrefugeesethnicminorities andMuslimAyouthsaidldquoIwaswearingHijabandtheythoughtmaybeIwasbald‐headedor thatIhadlice ItoldthemthatIworeHijabfor myreligionforareason andI rememberthisonegirlshetookmyHijabtoseeifIhadhairanditturns outthatIhavemorehairthan herSotomyunderstandingpeoplediscriminatetoward religionand discriminate againstthe color ofmyskinSince911morepeopleare


Unmonitored Spaces in Community Forums

Family Seperation or Loss

Weak Parental Support

Absolute Trust in Everyone Who Attends Mosque

Mistrust of Law Enforcement

Overemphasis on Government Power

Lack of Awareness of Violent Radicalization and Recruitment


starting tobeawareofMuslims andIslamandtheymaythinkwe areterrorists even thoughweare notrdquo

Somali‐AmericansdescribedMinneapolis‐St PaulasthelargestSomalicommunityinthe USwithalargemosqueandcommunitycenterswhere activitiescouldbeconductedoutofthelightknowinglyorunknowinglyAparentsaidldquoButasfarasIknowwhenIusedtoattendthemosqueIdonrsquotthinksomebodycanpickupthemicrophoneandsayhey dothisdothatApproachingthe kidbyhimselftalkingtohiminthecornersomewhere thatrsquossomethingIcouldseehappening butIdonrsquotthinkitwas doneinpublicrdquo

Family and Youth Risk Factors Somali‐Americansreportedmanyfamilieswithmissingmembersincluding

manyfamiliesledbysinglemotherswhichmadefordifficultiesraisingadolescentboysand youngmenAparentsaidldquoThereasonIthinkmostofthemwentback[toSomalia]isthey aremissing a fatherfigureathomeMostwereraisedbysinglemothers andthechildren didnrsquot knowright fromwrongrdquoInsingle parent familieswhentheparenthastowork there isevenlessopportunityfor parenting

Somali‐Americans reported thattraditionallyparents were emotionallydistant fromtheirchildrenAcommunity service providersaidldquoThisisAmericaitrsquosnot the sameas justmilking agoatTherersquosalotmoreTherersquos peerpressuretherersquos tryingtofitintoagroupatschooltryingtoimpresshellipAndparentsdonrsquotunderstandrdquoParentingwasfurther compromisedbyparentalemotional difficulties duetotraumalossandresettlementdifficulties

Somali‐American parentsregarded their mosquesas themosttrustworthyinstitutions aroundfor helpingand protectingtheirchildrenAparentsaid ldquoSameculturesamelanguagesamereligionOurreligiondoesnrsquotallowyoutodeceiveTheplaceItrustedwasthemosquerdquoAnother parentsaid ldquoWhenwe fledfromourcountrytheonlyhopewasthat wehavethemosquetotrustThatistheonlywaywecankeepourreligion ourcommunityandourculturerdquo Thistrustcreatedanopportunityfor recruiters toactwithfewerconstraintsthantheymayhavefacedinothersettings

Somali‐Americansshared memories ofmistrustfuldangerousandcorruptlawenforcementfromSomaliaandasaconsequencereportedthattheytendedtobeunfamliarwithandfearfulandmistrusting oflawenforcement inthe UnitedStatesAparentsaidldquoWecannotwork withthepoliceYoucannottrustthembecause youdontknowwhoisbadandwhoisgoodhellipYoudonttalktothemandtellthemanythingSothatisitndashtheres no relationshipthererdquoSomerespondentsexpressed moremistrusttowards federalagentsthan towardslocallawenforcement

Somali‐Americansexpressedthat thegovernmentshouldbeabletosolvetheirsocialproblemsandthatfamilies hadlittleto nocapacity todoso AparentsaidldquoThe governmentispowerfulandknows morethanwedointheSomali communitysohowcanthe government helpushowcanthe government stopthisWeneed thegovernmenttostepinandstopthisrdquoAnothersaidldquoThegovernmenthasalleyesParentsonlyhavetwordquo

Somali‐Americanparentshadbeenunawareof therisks for youthinvolvementin violent extremism andhadbeenmoreawareoftherisksforcrimedrugsandgangsAparentsaidldquoI donrsquotthink [theparents]knewIftheyknew theywouldhavestoppedtalkedwiththeirchildrenanddowhateverisnecessarytopreventthatIt wassomethingthatwasdoneinthedarkunderthe tablerdquo


Lack of Accurate Information on Violent Radicalization and Recruitment

Little Parental Involvement in Education

Lack of Opportunities

Lack of Warning Signs


Somali‐Americansreportedthattheymostlygottheirnews bywordofmouthfromlocalSomaliwebsitesorfromSomalinewsagenciesA parentsaidldquoWehave anoraltraditionrdquoSeveral beliefs werepresentin thecommunityregarding whatcausedradicalizationandrecruitment Communitymembersbelievedthat radicalizationandrecruitmentcouldbeexplainedbysomeclearlyidentifiable youthorfamilyvulnerabilityTheycommonly citedabsentfathersand singlemothersuneducatedparentsyouthcriminalitylowintelligenceoracrisisrelatedtobecominganadultmanTheybelievedthatthese factorsrenderedtheyouthvulnerabletoldquobrainwashingrdquo

Talkingwith teachers wasdifficultformany Somali‐American parentsand theycited multiplereasonsincludingdifferingculturalmeaningslittlepriorexperiencedoingsolanguage barriersworkbarriersandfeelingintimidatedAyouthsaidldquoTheydonrsquotknowtheschoolstheydonrsquotknow thesystemsetforusbecause therersquosasystemsetforusasteenagersbecausetheykeepthinkingwersquore alwaysgoingtodosomethingcrazySotheyalwayshavesomethingbuiltforusSotheparentsdonrsquotknowthatrdquo

Somali‐Americansreportedthat therewere notenough qualityeducationalandcareeropportunitiesavailabletothemwhichtheyinpart attributedtodiscriminationAyouthsaidYourealizethateveryoneelse intheclasshasbeenattending schoolsincethe kindergartenbutyouhavenoideawhatsgoingonin theclassthefirstthingyou willfeelis isolatedYoudontbelonginthatparticularenvironmentandeveryoneelse isrightforthe classbutyouarenotand prettysoonyoustartlookingfor another environment andtheotherenvironmentoutsidetheclassroomistheotherkidswhohavealsorealizedthattheydontbelongthereandnowtheyare standingon the streetsotheyendup beingstreet kidsrdquo

Somali‐Americans andothersreportednoclearovertwaystoidentifywhethersomeonehasbeenradicalizedtoviolenceorrecruitedorisplanningtomobilizeAyouthreferringtosomeonewhojoinedAlShabaabsaidldquoBeforehewasregularguymayAllahblesshimbutlatelyhewasveryreligiousguyrdquoAsthisis notunlikeordinaryreligiousconversionscommonlyseen inSomaliyoung adultmentherewasnoovertindicationof aconnectionto Al Shabaab

LEVEL 2 PERCEIVED SOCIAL LEGITMACY OF VIOLENT EXTREMISM

Global State and Societal Risk Factors Viewing Somalia as a Failed State Somali‐Americansreportedthat Somaliahadnofunctioningcentral government andthattheinternationalcommunityhadno politicalormilitarysolutionsleadingsome tofeelfrustratedhelplessandopentoviolentextremismAyouthsaidldquoSometimesIsayIhate SomaliabutIreallydonrsquotthatrsquos where IrsquomfromButsometimesIsay itbecause Isee alot ofpeoplegettingkilled nothinggets resolvedrdquo

Violent Extremism on the Internet Somali‐Americansreportedthat therewasaproliferation ofextremist teachingson theinterneteasilyaccessibletoyouth AparentsaidldquoThe childrenarenotsafeathomebecausehelliptheygotoYouTubeandthey[violentextremists]havetheirownwebsitesMostofthesechildrenwereexposedbythisguyfrom Yemen[Anwaral‐Awlaki]rdquo

Perception of a New Threat to Somalia ForSomali‐AmericanstheEthiopian invasion ofSomaliain2006‐9was ashotthat rangoutthroughouttheSomaliDiaspora alongwithanurgentcallfor action A



youthsaid ldquoThatrsquosallwekepthearing‐the Ethiopians arecoming inwith HIVandAIDStheyrsquoreraping littlegirlstheyrsquoremercilesslykillingmenandwomenrdquo

Objections to US Government Foreign Policy Somali‐Americansreported strongdisagreementwiththeUSsanctioningoftheEthiopianandKenyangovernment invasionsofSomaliaAcommunityserviceprovidersaidrdquoThegovernmentcouldhaveexplained itsforeign policyactivities TheUSinvolvement withEthiopiawascounterproductiverdquo

Community Risk Factors Community Support for Al Shabaab Somali‐AmericansreportedthatAlShabaabenjoyedfairly widespreadcommunitysupportfor severalyearsespeciallyafterthe 2006EthiopianinvasionAcommunity serviceprovidersaidldquoBefore they weregood andgained thetrustof everyonebecausethey weredefendersofthefreedombutnowIdonrsquotthinkpeoplesee that wayfor themeverybodysees them blood‐thirstymonstersrdquo

Hearing Bad News about Somalia Somali‐Americansexpressedconcerns that themainstreamUS mediapaintedanegativepicture ofSomalisandMuslimsintheir reportingontheMinneapolisstoryofthemobilizedyouthleadingsome youthtofeelmisunderstoodandopentoexplanationsthatportrayedtheUSgovernmentor Americansocietyas theenemyA youth said ldquoYouarealwayshearingbadthingsaboutSomaliaSomalisSo thataffectspeoplerdquo

Being a Divided Community Somali‐Americansdescribedtheir communityasdividedbyclans and subclansideologyreligiouspractriceandpoliticalaffiliationAcommunityserviceprovidersaidldquoSomalicommunityorganizations havenotangibleleaderandthereisdivisionamongSomaliCommunityorganizationsbecause tribesdivide themrdquoPart of the appealofAlShabaabmayhavebeenits transcendenceofclan andsub‐clan affiliations

Remittance Sending Somali‐Americansregularlysend moneytofamilymembersinSomaliaand inothercountriesofrefugeand this keepsthem tied inwith lifeinSomalia AparentsaidldquoSoIhelpthemsendsome moneyhelpthemtocomeheresothatwecangetfamiliessomychildrencanhavesomeolderkindofbrothersthathecanplaywithandstufflikethatrdquoForyouthandparentsthiscannormalizetheextremistrsquoscalltosendmoney toSomalia

Having a Nomadic Heritage Somali‐Americanslike allSomalisareahighly mobilepopulationevenin resettlement AparentsaidldquoThentheycame heresome ofthemhadneverbeeninacity andtheycamefromsmallvillagesandhadlived asnomadsTheyneverhaveseen a lightand theygethere andtheyjust wantedtosavetheirchildrenandtheirculturerdquoForyouthand parentsthiscannormalizethe extremistrsquoscalltomovebacktoSomalia

Interaction with Migration Brokers WhenSomalissoughttomovefromrefugeecampsto theUnitedStates they oftensoughttheservicesofSomalistohelpthem arrange themoveandwhenin theUnitedStates toprovideassistancewithadjustmentOneparent saidldquoSotheyhelpedussettlehereandwewerejusttwentypeopleatthetimein1992Soweusedtohelp peoplecomehereandtranslate[for]themandlookforthem housebeforeoneorganizationwasever setup hererdquoForyouthandparentsthiscannormalizetherecruiterrsquos effortstoassist theminmoving backtoSomalia

Social Exclusion Seeabove



Family and Youth Risk Factors Little Family Talk about War Somali‐Americanparentsdidnot liketotalkaboutthewarinSomaliawiththeirchildrenbecausethey wantedthem tostart anewand betterlife A parentsaidldquoItrsquosunlikelya parentwouldtalkevenaboutthe warwiththeirkidsUsuallyadultswouldcometoahomeandvisitwiththeparentsandthey[thechildren]wouldhearthemtalkingor eventhefatherandmothertalkingaboutit[athome]ButtheycouldhearthatalotButitrsquosnotdirectedatthemrdquoDespitethissilenceinfamiliesyouthwere aware ofthewarand whenrecruitersorassociates talkedwiththemaboutviolentextremismtheydid notgenerally discussthis withfamily members

Identity Issues among Members of Generation 15Those Somali‐American youthborninSomaliaorin acountryofrefugewho thencame totheUnitedStates inchildhoodoradolescencereported moredifficulties adjusting feeling notquiteAmericanand not quiteSomaliAparentsaidldquoTheywanttobelongbutwhodotheybelongtordquoThesestrugglesover identity couldbeexploitedbyrecruiters intheireffortstoencourageyouthtoseetheirparentsasnon‐Muslimanddirect their filialloyaltytowardsAl Shabaab

Being Passionate about Somalia Somali‐Americanyouthreportedcaring deeplyaboutSomaliaandwantingto helpmakeitbetterin theirlifetimesAyouthsaidldquoWewerethegenerationthat wasgoing to helpSomalia becomeabettercountryrdquoThis attitudepredisposedsomeyouthtosolutionsproposedbyviolent extremiststorestoreSomalia

Being Uninformed about Islam Somali‐AmericansreportedthatyouthdidnotknowenoughaboutIslamtoquestionorresistextremistviewsandsomeparentsdidnotknowenoughtotalkto theirchildrenabouttheseissuesAcommunityserviceprovidersaidldquoLifeiswritteninthebookhelliphowyoushouldvaluethingsrespectothers andappreciate others If peoplefolloweditthenIbelieve there wouldnrsquotbeabigproblemasthereisnowrdquo

Being Uninformed about Somalia Somali‐Americans reportedyouth knowing verylittleaboutSomalia orlivingconditionsduringwartimeAparent saidldquoThose boyswentthereto fightfortheir countryand theywerenottoldtherealstoryrdquo

Social Identity Challenges Somali‐Americanyouthreportedhaving difficulties findingalocalgroupor socialnichewheretheycouldfitin andfeelgoodaboutthemselves AparentsaidldquoTherersquos peerpressuretherersquostrying tofit into a groupatschooltrying toimpresshellipteenagers want everyonetolikethemandiftheydonrsquotthenIhaveaproblemAndparentsdonrsquotunderstandrdquoNotfittingintoasocialgroupcouldcontribute toyouthrsquosattractiontowardsarecruiteror a groupofassociates

Indirect and Direct Traumas Somali‐Americansreportedyouth havingbeenindirectlyexposed totraumaticevents thattheirfamily andcommunity experiencedduringthecivilwarandalsotocommunity violence in theUnited States Ayouthsaid ldquoI believe itindirectly affectsmeand myfamilyeven thoughnotdirectlybutindirectlyBecausethisstillhappenswhereIliveIseeitrdquoTraumarsquosemotionalandcognitiveconsequencescouldpossiblycontribute toyouthrsquosattractiontowardsthejustifyingnarrativesof violent extremism



LEVEL 3 PRESENCE OF RECRUITERS OR ASSOCIATES

Global State and Societal Risk Factors Terrorist Organizationrsquos RecruitmentSomali‐Americansreported that AlShabaabmadedeliberateeffortstobuildandutilizenetworksinthediasporausingsocialmediaandformerfighterstorecruityouthfromthediaspora AyouthsaidldquoTheyrsquollsaylsquoHeydoyouloveyourcountry Doyouwanttodosomethingforyourpeopletheyrsquore dyingrsquordquo

Violent Extremism on the Internet Seeabove

Community Risk Factors Sources of Radical Ideology Somali‐Americansreported thatin the community therewere someteacherswhoexposedyouthtoSalafiideologywhichwasdifferent fromtheSufiIslamtraditionallypracticed in Somaliaandoftenperceivedasa foreignideologyldquoThemosqueisnotproblem Itrsquospeopleusingthemosquefortwisted ideologyhellipbutweendedupservingcrazyideologyrdquoSomecommunitymembersregardedthisasanunderlyingpreparationfor violent extremismbecauseAlShabaabself‐identifies asSalafievenif theybelievedthat mosquesandImamswere notdirectlyinvolvedinterroristrecruitment

PROTECTIVE RESOURCES

Efforts toincrease resilience shouldfocusonstrengtheningprotectiveresources oropportunity‐reducingcapacitiesFurthermorefamily andyouthcommunityandgovernmentcanhelptostrengthenopportunity‐reducing capacities ateachlevelofopportunityThisisshowninFigure2andTable2Basedonthe risk factorsdescribed aboveprioritiesshouldincludediminishing 1)youthrsquosunaccountabletimesandunobservedspaces 2)theperceivedsocial legitimacy ofviolentextremism and3)thepotentialforcontactwithterroristrecruitersor associates



Figure2illustratesthatbuildingcommunityresilience to violent extremism shouldbeapproached throughcommunitycollaborationandcapacitybuildingShared goalscouldbeto1)collaborativelystrengthen families 2) develop communitysupportforfamilies and youth3)adoptnewgovernmentalstrategiesforcommunitysupportandprotection


22


Thistableandthefollowingsection depicttheprotective resourcesthatcanreducetheopportunities forentryintoviolent extremismthatwereprovidedbythesocialcontextanditsnormsThetablewasorganizedby sectorso astoemphasizethedifferingprotective resourcesassociatedwithfamilyandyouthcommunityand governmentSomeprotectiveresourcesalreadyexisted within theSomali‐American communityinMinneapolis‐StPaulOnefamilyprotective resource awareness of risks and safeguards for youthappearsto havebeen enhancedduetoincreasedparentingactivitiesinreaction tonewsof themissingyouthandalsoduetolawenforcementactivities Onecommunityprotectiveresource cooperation with law enforcementappears to havebeenenhancedduetonew communityoutreachprogramsdevelopedbytheFBItheMinneapolis‐StPaulPoliceDepartmentthe USAttorneyrsquosOfficeinMinnesotaandtheDepartmentofHomelandSecurity Othercapacities couldbeenhancedordevelopedthroughnewinitiativesasindicatedbelow

Thefollowingsections identifyand describe eachofthe protectiveresourcesassociatedwiththesame threesectorsdepicted inTable2andforeachresourcegiveone illustrative quotation froma youth parentorcommunityservice provider

FAMILY AND YOUTH PROTECTIVE RESOURCES

Diminish Youthrsquos Unaccountable Times and Unobserved Spaces Awareness of Risks and Safeguards SomeSomali‐Americanparentsreportednowhaving information aboutthepotentialrisksofviolentradicalizationand recruitment andtheproperstepsforhandling these concernsA parent toldtheirchildrenldquoIfyouseesomebodyoutsidetrying totellyousomethingwhethertheperson beSomaliblackwhiteotherthaninschooldont listentothemandcometomeandtellmewhattheyaretellingyouDont justbelievewhatpeoplearetellingyou unlessyouareinschoolandits yourteachersteachingyousomethingrdquo

Parental Monitoring and Supervision SomeSomali‐Americanparentsreportednowmoreactivelyand consistently lookingaftertheir teenagechildrenAparentsaid Ishowthemweare friendsItrytohavedirectcontactsallthetimeI donrsquotactthatonlyIamaparentbutalsothatIamtheirfriend AthomeatschoolandoutsideLet megive you anexampleWhenmykidswant tohangaroundsportsactivitiesItrytooffer a timetogo withthemandknow theirfriendswhatthey likeandstaymostofthetime unlessthey areinclass

Family Confidants SomeSomali‐Americans reported thatchildren went totheirparentsor siblingstotalkabouthard‐to‐discussissues ortohelpsolvedifficultproblemsAparentsaidldquoWeekendswetaketimetogetherNowtheyarewith meinthemosqueTheytake me forweekend classesIpickthemupanddrive themtomosqueandthenItakethembacktohomeIntheeveningI eithercomebackhere ortosomeotherprogramSoItry tostaywiththemTohavea conversationSointhatway theytellmeeverythingrdquo

Family Social Support SomeSomaliparents reported thatthey regularlytriedtoprovidetheirchildrenwithcomfortandassistanceAyouthsaid ldquoMyauntis alsomymentorandshehelpsmeoutShegetsmetutorsSheboughtmealaptoptowriteessaysbecauseImapplyingtocollegesShehelpsmewritetheessaysandthebest waytowriteAnd alsomymother‐my numberonerole modelandmentorasyoumightsayShesbeentherethroughouteverythingrdquo



Family Involvement in Education SomeSomaliparentsreportedvaluingeducationandtalkingwiththeirchildrenabouttheimportanceofschoolAparentsaid ldquoYouhavetoguidekidsYouhavetoguidethemtoschoolIftheygraduatetheywillhaveadifferentperspectiveonlifeHewillthink differently Hewillknowwhatisgoodandwhat isbadrdquo

Access to Services and Helpers SomeSomali‐Americanparentsreportedbeing abletoget supportfromhelpersincludingteachershealth ormentalhealthcareproviderssocialservice providers andlawenforcementAyouthsaidldquoMyteachershewasreallygoodOnetimemyfriend translated fromhertomeandItoldherIwantedtolearnEnglishsobadsothatIwouldntneed any translator andshesaidshedstayafterschoolandshed teachmeEnglishwordsevery day AndIsaidokayand Istayedwithhereveryday afterschoolandIlearnedsomebasicEnglishShegaveme threeor fourvocabulariesevery dayandthatreallyhelpedmetolearnEnglishanditwasreallygoodrdquo

Parental and Youth Help‐Seeking SomeSomali‐Americanparents and youthsaidthatiftheyhadaproblemtheywereabletoreach outforhelptocommunityelderslawenforcementsocialserviceproviders orhealthcareworkersAyouthsaidldquoSomeeldershave encouraged metopursuemygraduateeducation getmymasterrsquosdegreeIamtakingmyGREnowAlwaysIrsquomlookingforadviceIwanttobesuccessfulsoIdonrsquotfail Ialwayslikeadvicerdquo

Parental Involvement in Mosques and Religious Education SomeSomali‐American parentswerenow moreactivelyinvolved inknowing whattheirchildrenwere doinginthemosques andinreligiousschoolAparentsaidldquoIthinkifpeopleespeciallyparentswerealotclosertogether and knewwhotheirkidsrsquoteacherswerebothin publicschoolandreligiousschoolthatitwouldbeawholedifferentballgameIfyoudontknowwhereyourkidgoesafterschooloryoujustknowyourkidgoestothemosquethatisnotenoughinformationPeopleneedtogointomoredetailinto theirkidslivesmorenowthaneverrdquo

Diminish the Perceived Social Legitimacy of Violent Extremism Focus on Youthrsquos Future in the US Somali‐Americanparents andcommunityproviders emphasized withyouththattheirpurposeforbeingintheUnitedStatesis toseekeducationopportunitiesacareer andanewlife A youthsaidldquoNowisthetimetothinkabout theirfutureandnot goingback towarsandstufflikethatIfyouhaveachancetobuildupyourlifeyouhavetotakeadvantageofthatNotgobacktoSomaliardquo

Parental Support for Youth Socialization SomeSomali‐American parents talkedwiththeirchildrenaboutraceandreligionsoasto makethemproudandabletodealwithdailychallengestotheiridentityAcommunityserviceprovidersaidldquoInorder todifferentiategoodthingsandbadthingsyouhavetohaveanideaforbothsidesGoodMuslimsandbadMuslimsIfthey donrsquotknowwhotheyaretheideologyofextremismandthe ideologytheir fathergrewupthentheywill neverunderstandIf Idonrsquot explain that tothemthensomebodyelsewill giveadifferentspeechrdquo

Rejecting Tribalism and War SomeSomaliyouthreportedredefininganewmodernSomaliidentitythatwasopposedtotribalismviolenceandwarAyouthsaidldquoSomalisneedto discardtribalisminordertomoveforwardrdquo

Parental Talk with Youth Regarding Threats SomeSomali‐Americanparents activelyspokewiththeiryouthregardingthe threatof violentextremismintheircommunityAparentsaidtotheirteenagechildafterhearingaboutapossiblerecruitmentcontact ldquoThisisaloadofcrapThesepeopleare fightingfor



tribalreasonsandtheyrsquorenotfightingfor the nationalsecurityofSomaliaandyoushouldnrsquotbother yourselfwithitFocusonschoolrdquo

Youth Civic Engagement SomeSomali‐Americanyouthhave becomeactiveinaddressingissuesofpublicconcernsuchaschildprotectionyouthdevelopmentcrimeprevention andelectoralpoliticsAyouthsaid ldquoTheyactuallytrainustobecomeleaders Andtheygive uslessonsAndwegofrom onecommunity toothersandwehave campaigns againstviolenceandsothewholedealispovertyandjusticewe havetodo allthesethingstogoagainst povertyrdquo

Youth Political Dialogue SomeSomali‐Americanyouthhave foundwaystojoininpolitical dialoguesconcerning SomaliaMinneapolis‐StPaulandorMuslims AyouthsaidldquoIgotinvolvedinhighschoolAcoupleofmyfriends andIcreatedtheStudent Association oncampusWegotaprayer roomforusDifferentawareness wecollected moneyeveryweekAwarenessaboutIslam oncampus withthatit teachesustoseetheleadership qualitiesyouhaveandwiththattheresalotof resourcesinvolvedrdquo

Diminish the Potential for Contacts with Recruiters and Associates Parents Informing Law Enforcement SomeSomali‐Americanparents havebecomemoreactiveintermsoftellinglawenforcement if theyhaveconcerns abouttheiryouthortheir friends Aparent saidYouknowyouseepapersdowntherethat saylsquoIfyoureinterestedinthismeetingcometherersquoandeverymomwhoheardtherewasa shootinggoingonshewouldgo thereTheywouldtalktothepoliceofficersface‐to‐faceTheytalk abouthowtheycanhelpthecommunityandhowtohelpchangethings

Parental Messaging in Community Regarding Youth Protection Somali‐Americanparentsreportedthattheycouldplayalargerrole in talking tocommunityserviceproviderssuchasImamsteachersandcoachesabouttheirconcerns regarding youthprotection Onecommunityservice providersaidWediscussthatissuewheneverwemeetCoupleyearsagowenever discussedthat Whenever wegatherwhereverwegatherweremember raisingkids tellinggoodstorieshavinggoodrelationwithkidsandavoidingbadthingsWetripleoureffortstoreachthecommunityand explain that ideologyIthinkalot ofpeopleareawaremorethanbeforerdquo

COMMUNITY PROTECTIVE RESOURCES

Diminish Youthrsquos Unaccountable Times and Unobseved Spaces Trusted Accurate Information Sources Somali‐American youthparentsandcommunityserviceproviders reportedthattheysoughtmoreaccurateup‐to‐date understandablepersonalizedknowledgeaboutviolentradicalization andrecruitment andwhatto doA parentsaidldquoSomalielderscantakearoletoeducatetheSomalicommunityEldersshouldorganizemeetingsinthecommunity and explaintheconsequencesifwedonrsquotbuildcommunicationwithourkidsand explainourcultureandtruereligionNobodycantakeourkidsadvantageif allcommunityare wellalerted abouttheradicalizationrdquo

Increased Activities in Supervised Community Spaces Somali‐Americansreportedthat youthneededmoreplacestobeafterschoolwheretheycanengageinyouthactivitieswhileunderthesupervisionofresponsibleadultsAyouthsaidldquoThesekids need a sportsplacewheretheycan entertain themselvesAllthesestreetkidsneedtohavea neighborhoodsportsfacilityalsotheyouthneedtohavementorsrdquo

Mentoring of YouthSomeSomali‐AmericanyouthandparentsservedasmentorstoyoungerSomalisbutmanymoreareneededAyouthsaidldquoSoItellthemIrsquomlikeabigsisteryoucancometalktomeIrsquomlikeamentorIhelpwithcollegeItellthemthingsIhear aboutthatareinteresting Theyrsquoredoing



better and I seetheprogressWe writedown goalsthings we wanttoaccomplish everymonthaswesee ifwemade ituptothatrdquo

Increased Civilian Liasions to Law Enforcement Somali‐Americansreportedthatlocalandfederallaw enforcementorganizationshadestablishedformalandinformalcommunityliaisons AcommunityserviceprovidersaidldquoOneofficer whoisaliaisontothecommunityandoneciviliancome andbringus kidswhohaveissues A staffmemberspeakswiththefamilyand seesthekidAndwehelp themwiththepolicerdquo

Interactions with Community Police Communitymembersrecognizedthatlocallawenforcementhad improvedthefrequency andquality ofcommunitypolice officersrsquorelationshipwithcommunitymembersAcommunityserviceprovidersaidldquoThepoliceandSomalicommunitycometogetherbut asfar astrustthatissomethingIcannotsayorseeButwejusttalkabouthowwecanworktogetherrdquoTrustincreasedwiththeintroductionofSomali communityliaisonsandSomalipoliceofficers

Social Entrepreneurship Individualcommunitymemberswithlanguageeducationandtechnicalskillshaveattemptedtodeveloptheirskillsandgethiredbygovernmentalornon‐governmentalorganizations involved in countering violent extremismastheyhadfor other communitysocialandhealthissuesAcommunity serviceprovidersaidldquoIalsohave asmallpart‐time businessverysmallIdevelopbusinessplansforsmallbusinessesand alsotrainnonprofitsIdidmy graduateschoolinpublicadministrationSoItrained theminhowto developtheirorganizationdevelopa strategicplanboardtrainingthosekindsofthingshowtogetgrantsandstuffresourcestheyneedItrsquosvery part‐timeButitrsquossomethingIhopetogivemore timesometimeinthe futureAnd alsoItakesomeclassesrelatedtothisbecauseIwant tofocusontraininganddevelopmentsoIrsquomdoingonlineclasses onhumanresources

Interfaith Dialogue Somali‐Americansandotherswere concernedthatSomalireligiousleaderswere sometimes isolated and old‐fashionedandthatparticipationin dialoguewithclericsfromotherfaithscouldbehelpfultothemAcommunityservice providersaidldquoYoucouldblametheImamsforbeing obliviousorcluelessoroutoftouchrdquo

Social Support Networks SomeSomalisreportedthatthey werewell‐connectedwithothers inthe communitywhocould offersocialemotionalinformationaland tangiblesupport AparentsaidldquoWhatmakestheSomalicommunitystrongiseven thoughitdoesnrsquotseemthatwaymostofthetimebecausewersquorecloselyknit wenetworkwitheachotherandat theend ofthe dayIthinkwehaveagoodheartandwehelpeach otherrdquo

Diminish the Perceived Social Legitimacy of Violent Extremism Islamic Education and Imam Network Somali‐Americanswerethankful thatmostSomaliyouthhavebeeninvolvedinsome kindof formalreligious education buttheythoughtitcouldbestrongerand thatImamscouldbetterworkwithone another tostrengthen Islamic education includingthrough emphasizingtheIslamicprinciples ofpeaceandharmoniouscoexistenceAyouthsaidldquoIthinktheImamsare goodtheyjustneed toreachoutmorethatsallTheyare trainedperfectlyfinebuttheyneedtospeakouttothekidsandnot be quietandtheyneedto helpmorerdquo

Community Support for Youth Socialization TheSomali‐Americancommunity reportedthatthere wereseveralgroupsandorganizationsthat werecommittedtohelpingyouthwithsocialdevelopment andintegration Acommunityserviceproviderreported ldquoThatrsquoswhatacommunityisforYoursquoresupposedtomentortheyouthyoursquoresupposedtowork withthe youthYoursquoresupposedtoseethem



throughtheirdifficultiesItrsquos supposedtobea centerahub thattakes careofthembasicallyProvide afterschoolhelpeverything thatparentscanrsquotproviderdquo

Understanding of Islam as a Peaceful Religion Somaliyouthandadultshavebeenputinapositionofhaving toexplaintoothersthatIslamisapeacefulreligion andneed betterpreparationtodosoAparentsaidldquoIfyoudonrsquotdefendyourreligionandsay this is wrongandthisiswhyitrsquoswrongthentherearealotof peoplewhoaregoingto takeadvantageofthesituationandbetrayIslamasaveryviolentand totalitarian religionrdquo

Youth Opportunities for Peace Activism Someyouthreportedhaving foundopportunitiestobeinvolved in civicactivitiesbutotherswishedtherewere more opportunitiesAyouthsaidldquoTheyhaveayouthcouncilandIrsquominterestedintryingto findoutwhy everythingisgoingwrongLikewhythingsthat arehappeningaround herehavebeenwhy thereareshootings andwhycanrsquotweliveapeacefullife hererdquo

Messaging to Challenge Legitimacy of Violent Extremism SomeSomalishavebeenactivelyspeaking outagainst therationaleforreturningtoSomaliatofightfor AlShabaabAparentsaid ldquoTheirparents probablyyelledatthem Irsquomsure andexplainedtothemwithreasoningthatyes weunderstandyour intentionYesyouwant toprotect fromEthiopiabutthisis notthe wayit isWhatcanyoudoAreyou goingtoregisterin the SomaliarmyNoitwas notawar againstEthiopiaItwasadifferentwarSoyou shouldnrsquotparticipateuntilyouknow whyrdquo

Youth Civic Engagement Youth Political Dialogue Seeabove

Diminish the Potential for Contacts with Recruiters and Associates Cooperation with Law Enforcement Communitymembersandgroupsreportedthatthey werestrivingtobuildworking relationshipswithlawenforcementsoastofightterrorismandothercrimesAparentstatedldquoThecommunityshouldnotbescaredworkingwith authorities Theyarehere tosafeguardAndwearealsosafeguardingourlives Therefore weshouldworktogetherIwishtheywouldbemoreinvolved in community Comeinto community Andkeeplinesof communication openrdquo

Monitoring by Community Members Somecommunity membersreported informallyhavingbeenmoreactivelyobservingyouthinsocialspaces forsignsofradicalizationtoviolenceandrecruitmentA community serviceprovidersaidldquoWhereever thesekids gothe communitymustdoalotoffollow‐upandbecomeaggressiveinvestigatorsthecommunityshouldknow whatthese kidsbeen taughtrdquo

Messaging to Warn off Recruiters InpublicspacesinMinneapolis‐StPaultherewerefewmessagesto warnoffrecruiters accordingto communitymembersthoughprivatelymany parentshaveexpressedsuchsentiments AparentsaidldquoIthinkalltheImamsandcommunityleaders theybecamevery clearandassertivethat this iscivilwar thisiscalled fitna inIslamorcalamityItrsquosverydangerouswhenyou seepeoplekillingeachotherforno reasonSoitrsquosreallyprohibitedinIslamanditrsquosnotacceptableIseemoreeducatingcampaignsandconversations rightnow butthe communityshouldcontinuedoingthatrdquo

Bloggers and Websites against Violent Extremism Somali‐Americansreportedthatwebsites andbloggerswhoopposeAlShabaabandviolent extremismexistedbutwerenothighlyactiveAcommunityserviceprovidersaidldquoOfcourseanythingwith resourceswouldhelp thecommunityBecausetheywill saylistenletrsquoswatchthemoretheylearn thebetterhellipwhohas thetimetorecordanduploadIcommit



fourhourseveryFridayandwe nevergetpaidSoifwetryto addthatandmorerecordingthenwe forgetaboutourotherjobsBut ifwehelpwersquorewillingtodothatWehavecamerasthecommunitywe candothatrdquo

Critical Voices in the Community IntheSomali‐American communitythereweremanyoutspokenindividuals whopublicallychallengedleaders institutionsandthestatusquobuttheywerenotnecessarily trained and supported todosoAcommunityserviceprovidersaidldquoIthinkitrsquos morecommunity responsibilitykindofbecausethe government hasno roletoteachyoutherightIslamorwhatthecorrectIslamisSoI thinkitrsquosmore community responsibilityand theresponsibility oftheImamsandtheIslamicscholarsrdquo

GOVERNMENT PROTECTIVE RESOURCES

Diminish Youthrsquos Unaccountable Times and Unobserved Spaces Community Policing Somali‐Americansreportedthatnewcommunitypolicingactivities hadimproved therelationshipbetweenthecommunityandlocallawenforcement AparentstatedldquoThecommunityneedsSomalipoliceofficersso theyunderstandthecultureandthelanguageand everythingrdquo

Support for Parenting and Parent Education Somali‐Americans recognized a majorneed forthecommunityandorganizationstohelpsupportparentsandimprove parenting especiallyregarding the risksforviolentextremismposedtoyouthAparentstatedldquoWeshouldalsocreateprogramsforparents‐culturalawarenessprogramsTheyrsquorevery oblivioustowhatrsquos goingoninAmericaEducatethemHavetheyouthtellthemstuffthatgoes oninschoolsProblemsthatthey faceBringbackthecommunitycollectivismthatwehadinSomaliardquo

Support for After‐school Programs and Mentoring Somali‐Americansreportedthatafter‐schoolandmentoring programswereveryhelpfulandmorewere neededto meettheneedsofyouth AyouthsaidldquoIthinkthethingisthatwedonthavecommunity activitiesorafterschoolprogramsthatencouragethekidstostayyouknowlike‐letssayyoucomefromschoolso allyoucandoisgohomeorgototheMosqueSoitsdifferentSoif youhavecommunityactivities likesportssoccerbasketballsomething thatmakes yougothererdquo

Support for Youth and Family Social Services Familyandcommunitymembersreportedthatsomeserviceswereavailablebutnotenoughtomeettheneedsof familyand youth Acommunityservice providersaid ldquoWedidnthaveenoughplaces or enoughsocialservicesthatcan mentorthosekidsorwhentheycomeouttojailinsteadofgoingjusttoprobation officertheywantsomeonetoguidethemrdquo

Trusted Accurate Information Sources Seeabove

Diminish the Perceived Social Legitimacy of Violent Extremism Empowering Critical Voices Somali‐Americansrecognizedthat somepeopleintheircommunity wereabletospeakoutagainstviolentextremismbuttheyneededlogisticalsupportknowledgeandskillstodosomoreeffectively AyouthsaidldquoIrsquomnotgoingto waituntilIrsquomdoctorIrsquomgoingtoencouragepeopletomarchwithmeonthis Irsquom goingtobepartofthecommunityandmake adifferencein someonersquoslifebymentoringorget youthinterested raise awarenesshellipthoseare thethings I candordquo

Support for Youth Community Services SomeSomali‐American youthhavehadtheopportunitytoget involved in community servicebutmanymorewouldliketodosoifopportunitiesweremade available



AyouthsaidldquoDuringschoolyearswehadaSomalischoolassociationsoalltheyoungadultsandyouththatweregoingtothe schoolwouldgettogetherthatrsquoswhere wedidcommunityworkhellipWehadabout150to200 students thatwehelda conferenceforhellipThey didalittleskitandaplaythatwasinasensehumorousthattalkedabouthowwhenyoucometothiscountryyoucaneasilybeovertakenhellipItdidnrsquot lastawhilewejustdiditonceIwishwecontinuedtodoitrdquo

Support for Youth Leadership Training SomeSomali‐American youthhavebenefitedfrom training in leadership oncommunitysocialandpolitical issuesbutmany more couldbetrained includinginways tobecommunityadvocatesandvoicesthatopposeviolent extremism Acommunityserviceprovider saidldquoIhavemyselfbeeninvolved withyouthandcommunity and leadershipprogramsAyearortwo yearsagoIwasinvolvedinayouth empowermentprogramwhere theytrainedusonhowtounderstandtheyouthandhowyouthcooperatewithadultsrdquo

Support for Parenting and Parent Education Seeabove

Diminish the Potential for Contacts with Recruiters and Associates Training for Community Leaders and Providers Veryfewcommunityleaders orservice providers haveparticipatedinanytrainingrelated tocounteringviolent extremismthoughmorewouldliketoAcommunity serviceprovidersaidldquoLetshavea trainingfor eventhepeoplewhoareworkinginthe mosqueAndletrsquossayokaywe are livinghere wewantto beinpeace wedontwantanyproblemslikethatLetstellourkidslsquoOhyouguysare UScitizens Americanisa goodplaceitsaniceplacetoliversquordquo

Support for Community Messaging Somalis viewedeldersasthe mostrespectedadvisorsandleadersinthecommunityandsomehave beenspeakingoutaboutviolent radicalization andrecruitmentbut theycouldbedoingmore Ayouthsaid ldquoWe wantedtodosomethingaboutitandwewantedtoshowourcommunity andourelders thatayounggroupofpeoplecancometogether anddosomethingAndsomehowwewerehopingtheywouldtakethetorchandrunwithittooImeanwe werenotan organizationTheyknewitthat wasmadeclearIguessitjustdidnrsquothappenrdquo

Community Policing Bloggers and Websites Against Violent Extremism Seeabove



CONCLUSIONS

Basedonempiricaldatathatcomesfromlisteningtothoseinthecommunityandinformedbyrelevanttheorythis studyidentified themes andbuilta modelDiminishingOpportunities forViolent Extremism(DOVE)Thismodelcanhelpto informpreventionstrategiesforbuildingcommunity resiliencetoviolentextremismintheSomali‐American community inMinneapolis‐StPaulItfoundthatmultiplerisk factors combinedtocreate an opportunitystructure forviolent extremismandthatbuildingresiliencerequiresstrengtheningprotectiveresourcesTheDOVEmodelconsistsof threelevelsofopportunitiesrelatedto1)youthrsquosunaccountabletimesandunobservedspaces 2)theperceivedsocial legitimacy ofviolentextremism and3)contactwithrecruitersor associates Involvement inviolent extremismdependedon thepresence ofallthreeopportunitieswithdecreasingproportionsofadolescentboysandyoungmenexposedtothelattertwoThestudyrsquosfindingsindicate theneedforstrengtheningprotective resources(oropportunity‐reducingcapacities)ateachofthelevelsofopportunitythroughcollaborationandcapacitybuilding involving familyandyouthcommunityandgovernment

Risk and Protection Thisresearchunderlinedtheneed toacknowledgecommunitymembersrsquoconcernsthatviolentextremismwillnot disappearfromUSSomali‐Americancommunitiesanytime soonthoughovertimeit willlikelychangeinformandintensityIt also demonstratedthenecessityofshifting fromanalysesoverlyfocusedonindividual‐levelfactorsleadingto violent radicalizationtomultilevelanalyses thatincludestructuralsocial politicaleconomiccommunityandfamily‐levelriskfactors andprotective resourcesthatmightmitigateinvolvementin violent extremism Basedonthesesomecommunities may bemoreat riskthan othersdue tothepresenceofmoreopportunitiesfortransformativecontactwithrecruitersandviolentextremists intheir everydaylives Thiscallsforfurtherresearch

Resilience Thisstudy alsodemonstratedthe centralityof resilience to counteringviolentextremismbut alsothatresilience iscomplexandnotlimited toindividualresilienceItfunctionsonmultiplelevels includingtheindividualfamilycommunityandinstitutional Itis necessary to ensurethat resilience‐focusedprogramsand policiesare wellsupportedbytheoryempirical evidence andcommunity collaborationFamilyresilience shouldbeincludedasan importantcomponent ofcommunityresilience andthe familyshouldbeacknowledgedasakeysourceofbothriskfactorsand protective resources Whenfocusingonresilienceitis alsoimportanttoappreciate thatgovernmentcommunitiesandfamilies alsofaceadversitiesandlimitationsregarding their potentialactivitieswhichcanimpactresilienceForallofthesereasonsresilience cannotsimply bedialedupBuildingresilience toviolentextremismwillbeatleastascomplicatedaswasbuilding resiliencetogangviolenceHIVAIDSrisksanddomesticviolenceItis achievable butnotstraightforwardoreasy

Prevention ThereisnomagicbulletforpreventionPrimaryprevention inanimmigrantandrefugeecommunity shouldbeconceptualizedasmore thanbetter cooperationwithlaw enforcementPreventioneffortsshouldbetargetedtowards themostvulnerablepeopleandplacesAcapacitybuildingapproachcanbeutilizedtoenhancegovernmentcommunityandfamilycapacitiestoreduceopportunitiesforinvolvementinviolent extremism Prioritiescouldincludediminishing1)youthrsquosunaccountabletimes andunobservedspaces 2)theperceivedsociallegitimacyofviolent extremism and3)the potentialfor contactswithterrorist recruitersor associates

Partnerships Thestudyhighlightedtheimportanceofcollaborative partnershipsbetweengovernmentandcommunity groupsorganizationsandleadersincounteringviolent extremismToidentifyand supportresilience in a community partnershipscanfacilitate learningaboutcommunitymembersrsquohistoryculturesocialstructurevaluesneeds resourcesanddaily experiencesinorder todetermine



preciselywhatresiliencemeansfor themForrefugeeand immigrantcommunitiesitis importanttopay attentionto suchkeycommunityissuesasimmigrationrefugee statusethnicandracialminoritystatusdiscriminationlanguagebarriers housingandfinancialandeducationalopportunitiesBuildingprevention throughpartnershipis along‐term processIt requiresacomprehensiveapproach withkeycontributionsfromlaw enforcementimmigrationagenciespublichealthofficialsandindividualsinvolved in socialserviceseducationandmediaIt alsocalls forbalancedfairandtransparentapproachestopartnershipsnotlimitedbythe biasesofparticulargatekeepers

InterventionsBased onthefindingsfromthisresearch interventionsshouldbetargetedatallthreeopportunitylevelsnotjustoneandsustained overtime One way to determine priority areas for intervention mightincludeidentifyingprotectiveresourceswiththegreatestpotential foraddressingmultipleriskfactorsCollaborationsbetween governmentcommunityandfamiliesandyouthcanthenbebuilttoenhancethesecapacitiesBasedonthecurrentstudypromisinginterventions in theSomali‐American communityinMinneapolis‐StPaulmightinclude1)buildingaweb‐basedresourceincluding informationandtrainingaboutviolent extremismrisksandsafeguardsforpracticalusebyyouthparentsandcommunityserviceproviders2) providingSomaliyouthandyoungadultswithopportunitiesforserviceintheircommunityandhumanitarianandpeaceworkthuscreatingalternativewaysforyouthtochanneltheir passionforSomaliaand3)providinglogistical supportandtrainingtoeldersand criticalvoicesin thecommunityandontheweb

Training ImplicationsProvidingcommunitieswithtrainingisonekeycomponentof enhancingfederalengagementwithandsupportforlocalcommunitiestargetedbyviolent extremistsTrainingscouldbeseen asonekeyway toinitiate strengthenandsustainprotective resourcesagainstviolent extremism andcouldbeinformed bythetheories andscientific evidenceregardingcommunity resilienceincludingtheDOVEmodelSpecifictrainingimplicationsbasedonthis studyrsquosfindings areasfollowsOnecommunity serviceprovidersand parentsexpressed the need for in‐personandorweb‐basedtrainings thatweregearedtowardsstrengtheningprotective resourcesTwocommunity‐basedproviders leaders and expertswouldlikelybemorereceptivetotrainings iftheywere conductedwiththeircollaborativeinputThreecommunitymembersexpressedtheneedfortrainingtobuildawarenessandunderstandingofculturalandcontextualdifferencesconcerning risksresilience andkeyissuesrelated toyouthfamilycommunityandcitizenship

Research Needs Thisstudywas afirststepAdditional researchis neededincommunities underthreattoexaminewhichactsofbuilding community resilience workwith whomunderwhatcircumstances andwhyOnewaytodothiswouldbe collaborativelytodeveloppilotandevaluate amultilevelcommunityresilience‐basedpreventionstrategyinMinneapolis‐StPaulbasedontheDOVEmodelAnotherwouldbetousetheDOVEmodelasabasisforassessingothercommunities targeted by violent extremists in theUnitedStatesand abroadsoas to refine the modelandapproachesthatcanreliably assesscommunitiesatriskand helptoinformandprioritizeinterventionstrategiesOtherresearchneedscouldbeaddressedby1)bringingtogetherpreventionexperts andcounterterrorism expertstoincorporate lessonslearnedfromprevention researchintoinitiatives tocounterviolentextremism2)identifyingreliableshort‐term indicatorsofviolentradicalizationandterroristrecruitment aswellascommunityandfamilyprotectiveresources 3)conductingassessmentsofprospective interventions todemonstratewhethertheyareacceptable appropriateandpracticallyachievable4)performing efficacystudiesofinterventions toexamineiftheyworkasintendedand5)investigatinghowtoadapt andapplyeffectiveinterventionsthathaveworkedunderonesetofcircumstancestonewcircumstances



Study Limitations Thisstudyhadmultiplelimitations Firstbecauseitusedpurposivesamplingitisnotnecessarilyrepresentativeof Somali‐AmericansinMinnesotalet alonein theUnitedStatesorglobalSomalidiasporaorofcourseotherMuslimAmericans Secondbecauseoflanguageandculturalissuesitis always possiblethatsome termsandmeanings were misunderstoodbystudyparticipantsortheresearchersThirdduetopersistentdivisionsfearsmistrustandintimidation inthecommunityitispossiblethatparticipantswerenot always forthcomingandhonestintheinterviewsMindfuloftheselimitationsfurtherpolicy‐orientedresearchthatusescommunitycollaboration andrigorous qualitativeandmixed methodologiestounderstandcommunities underthethreatof violentextremismisneeded



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EllisBH HZMacDonaldAKLincolnandHJCabral2008MentalhealthofSomaliadolescentrefugeestheroleoftraumastress andperceiveddiscrimination Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 76184‐193

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Goodstein L2011ldquoPoliceinLosAngelesStepUpEffortstoGainMuslimsrsquoTrustrdquo The New York TimesApril25

HammondLMAwadAIDaganePHansen CHorstK Menkhausetal2011 Cashand CompassionTheRoleof theSomaliDiaspora in ReliefDevelopmentandPeace‐buildingAReportofaStudy CommissionedbyUNDP Somalia

Heitritter DL1999SomaliFamilyStrength Workingin theCommunitiesAReportfromMeaningsofFamilyStrengthVoiced bySomali Immigrants ReachinganInductive UnderstandingFamily Social ScienceDepartmentUniversityof Minnesota

HirschJSHWardlowDJSmithandHPhinney2010 The Secret Love Marriage and HIVNashvilleTennessee Vanderbilt University Press

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HorganJ2009 Walking away from terrorism accounts of disengagement from radical and extremist movements London Routledge

HorstC2006ConnectedLivesSomalisinMinneapolis Family ResponsibilitiesandtheMigration Dreamsof RelativesGeneva

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JaransonJ MJButcherLHalcoacutenDRJohnsonCRobertsonKSavik etal2004SomaliandOromoRefugeesCorrelatesofTortureandTraumaHistory American Journal of Public Health 94591‐598



KapteijnsLandAArman2008 EducatingImmigrantYouthin the UnitedStatesAn Explorationof theSomaliCase Bildhaan An International Journal of Somali Studies 418‐43

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LongstaffPHNJArmstrong K PerrinWMParkerandMAHidek 2010BuildingResilientCommunitiesAPreliminaryFrameworkforAssessmentHomeland SecurityAffairsVolVINo3

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McDonoughD2011Remarksat theAdams CenterSterlingVirginiaMarch8th

MogadishuTimes2011ldquoHistoric ConferenceBetweenSomaliYouthandtheUSGovernmentin Minneapolisrdquo Mogadishu TimesJanuary22

MurhrTandSFriese 2004 Userrsquos Manual for ATLASti 50 2nd Edition BerlinScientificSoftware Development

NderuE2005SomaliFamiliesandParentInvolvement inSchools MinneapolisMNCenterforUrbanandRegionalAffairs(CURA)

NorrisFHSPStevensBPfefferbaumKFWycheandRLPfefferbaum2008CommunityResilienceasaMetaphorTheorySetofCapacities and Strategy for DisasterReadiness American Journal of Psychology 41127‐50

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RamadanT2009 Radical reform Islamic Ethics and LiberationNewYorkNYOxfordUniversityPress



RobertsonCLLHalconK SavikDJohnsonMSpringJButcherJWestermeyerandJJaranson2006SomaliandOromoRefugee WomenTraumaandAssociatedFactors Journal of Advanced Nursing 56577ndash587

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Szapocznik JandJDCoatsworth1999AnEcodevelopmental FrameworkforOrganizingtheInfluences onDrugAbuseADevelopmentalModelofRiskandProtectionInM Glantzamp C Hartel(Eds) Drug abuse Origins amp interventions (pp331ndash366)WashingtonDCAmerican PsychologicalAssociation

TolanPHLDHanishMMMcKayandMHDickey2002EvaluatingProcessinChildandFamilyInterventionsAggression PreventionasanExample Journal of Family Psychology 16220‐236

UngarM2008ResilienceAcross Cultures British Journal of Social Work 38218ndash235

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ValentineGSportonDandNielsenKB2009Identities andBelongingAStudyofSomaliRefugeeand AsylumSeekersLiving inthe UKandDenmark Environment and Planning D Society and Space 27234‐250

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WeineSMJHorganCRobertsonSLoueAMohamedand SNoohr2009 CommunityandFamilyApproachestoCombatingtheRadicalizationofSomali‐AmericanRefugeeYouthandYoungAdultsAPsychosocialPerspective Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict 2181ndash200

WeineSM SFeethamYKulauzovicSBesic ALezicA MujagicJMuzurovicDSpahovicJRollandSScloveand IPavkovic 2008AMultiple‐family GroupAccess Intervention forRefugeeFamilieswith PTSD Journal of Marital and Family Therapy 34149‐64

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TheWhite House2011Strategic Implementation Plan forEmpoweringLocalPartnersto Prevent ViolentExtremisminthe UnitedStatesDecember2011

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About This Report

About START

Citations

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

KEY CONCEPTS

METHOD

RESULTS

RISK FACTORS








CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES


About This Report

TheauthorsofthisreportareStevanWeine Professorof PsychiatryattheUniversityof Illinoisat Chicagoand OsmanAhmedofMinneapolis‐St PaulQuestionsaboutthisreport shouldbedirectedtoStevan Weine atsmweineuicedu

Thisreportispartof a seriessponsoredbytheHumanFactorsBehavioralSciencesDivisionScience and Technology DirectorateUSDepartmentofHomelandSecurityinsupportofthePreventDeterprogramThegoalofthisprogram istosponsorresearchthatwillaidthe intelligenceandlawenforcementcommunities inidentifyingpotentialterroristthreats and supportpolicymakers indevelopingprevention efforts

ThisresearchwassupportedbytheUSDepartment of Homeland Security(DHS)ScienceandTechnologyDirectoratersquosHumanFactorsBehavioralSciences Division(HFD)throughGrant AwardNumber2009ST108LR0003 made totheNationalConsortiumfortheStudyofTerrorismandResponsestoTerrorism(START)Theviewsandconclusionscontainedinthisdocumentarethoseoftheauthorsandshouldnotbeinterpreted asnecessarilyrepresenting theofficialpolicieseitherexpressedorimpliedofthe USDepartmentofHomelandSecuritythe UnitedStatesGovernmentorSTART

About START

TheNationalConsortiumforthe StudyofTerrorismandResponsestoTerrorism(START)issupportedinpart bytheScienceandTechnologyDirectorate ofthe USDepartmentofHomelandSecuritythroughaCenterofExcellenceprogrambased at theUniversityofMarylandSTARTuses state‐of‐the‐arttheoriesmethodsanddatafromthesocialand behavioral sciences to improveunderstanding oftheoriginsdynamicsandsocialandpsychologicalimpactsofterrorism FormoreinformationcontactSTARTatinfostartstartumdedu orvisit wwwstartumdedu

Citations

Tocite this reportpleaseusethisformat

WeineStevanand OsmanAhmedldquoBuildingResilience toViolent ExtremismAmongSomali‐Americansin Minneapolis‐StPaulrdquoFinalReporttoHumanFactorsBehavioralSciencesDivisionScienceand TechnologyDirectorateUSDepartmentofHomelandSecurityCollegePark MDSTART 2012



Contents











EXECUTIVE SUMMARY








2) 3) 4)


INTRODUCTION













BACKGROUND



















KEY CONCEPTS













METHOD



















RESULTS




RISK FACTORS







14


Secondary Migration



Social Exclusion












































































22









































































CONCLUSIONS

















REFERENCES





























































































About This Report

About START

Citations

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

KEY CONCEPTS

METHOD

RESULTS

RISK FACTORS








CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES


Contents











EXECUTIVE SUMMARY








2) 3) 4)


INTRODUCTION













BACKGROUND



















KEY CONCEPTS













METHOD



















RESULTS




RISK FACTORS







14


Secondary Migration



Social Exclusion












































































22









































































CONCLUSIONS

















REFERENCES





























































































About This Report

About START

Citations

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

KEY CONCEPTS

METHOD

RESULTS

RISK FACTORS








CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY








2) 3) 4)


INTRODUCTION













BACKGROUND



















KEY CONCEPTS













METHOD



















RESULTS




RISK FACTORS







14


Secondary Migration



Social Exclusion












































































22









































































CONCLUSIONS

















REFERENCES





























































































About This Report

About START

Citations

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

KEY CONCEPTS

METHOD

RESULTS

RISK FACTORS








CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

2) 3) 4)


INTRODUCTION













BACKGROUND



















KEY CONCEPTS













METHOD



















RESULTS




RISK FACTORS







14


Secondary Migration



Social Exclusion












































































22









































































CONCLUSIONS

















REFERENCES





























































































About This Report

About START

Citations

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

KEY CONCEPTS

METHOD

RESULTS

RISK FACTORS








CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES






BACKGROUND



















KEY CONCEPTS













METHOD



















RESULTS




RISK FACTORS







14


Secondary Migration



Social Exclusion












































































22









































































CONCLUSIONS

















REFERENCES





























































































About This Report

About START

Citations

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

KEY CONCEPTS

METHOD

RESULTS

RISK FACTORS








CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES













KEY CONCEPTS













METHOD



















RESULTS




RISK FACTORS







14


Secondary Migration



Social Exclusion












































































22









































































CONCLUSIONS

















REFERENCES





























































































About This Report

About START

Citations

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

KEY CONCEPTS

METHOD

RESULTS

RISK FACTORS








CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES







METHOD



















RESULTS




RISK FACTORS







14


Secondary Migration



Social Exclusion












































































22









































































CONCLUSIONS

















REFERENCES





























































































About This Report

About START

Citations

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

KEY CONCEPTS

METHOD

RESULTS

RISK FACTORS








CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES












RESULTS




RISK FACTORS







14


Secondary Migration



Social Exclusion












































































22









































































CONCLUSIONS

















REFERENCES





























































































About This Report

About START

Citations

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

KEY CONCEPTS

METHOD

RESULTS

RISK FACTORS








CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES





14


Secondary Migration



Social Exclusion












































































22









































































CONCLUSIONS

















REFERENCES





























































































About This Report

About START

Citations

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

KEY CONCEPTS

METHOD

RESULTS

RISK FACTORS








CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES


Secondary Migration



Social Exclusion












































































22









































































CONCLUSIONS

















REFERENCES





























































































About This Report

About START

Citations

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

KEY CONCEPTS

METHOD

RESULTS

RISK FACTORS








CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES
































































22









































































CONCLUSIONS

















REFERENCES





























































































About This Report

About START

Citations

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

KEY CONCEPTS

METHOD

RESULTS

RISK FACTORS








CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES









































































CONCLUSIONS

















REFERENCES





























































































About This Report

About START

Citations

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

KEY CONCEPTS

METHOD

RESULTS

RISK FACTORS








CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES











REFERENCES





























































































About This Report

About START

Citations

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

KEY CONCEPTS

METHOD

RESULTS

RISK FACTORS








CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES













































































About This Report

About START

Citations

Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

KEY CONCEPTS

METHOD

RESULTS

RISK FACTORS








CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

BuildingResilience to ViolentExtremism AmongSomali ... · economic, social, and political drivers...

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