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Building Your Soil
A Guide to Building Sustainable Garden Soil in the
Northwest Territories
Ecology North
2017
Building Your Soil: A Guide to Building Sustainable Garden Soil in the
Northwest Territories
Written by: Dylan Cook
Ecology North, 2017
5013 51 Street
Yellowknife, NT X1A 1S5
http://ecologynorth.ca/
This project was funded by The Department of Industry, Tourism and Investment,
Government of the Northwest Territories.
The information presented in this document is meant to encourage
sustainable community and backyard gardening in communities of the
Northwest Territories. It is meant to be a guide and a reference document,
to be used along with the Soil Recipes Booklet to create garden soil from
locally sourced materials.
This is by no means a comprehensive guide. For more information on
building soil, soil health and management, and gardening, contact Ecology
North, or refer to the end of this report for some helpful suggested reading
and a list of resources that were used in compiling this information.
Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 Addressing the Problem .................................................................................................................. 2
Soils in the NWT .............................................................................................................................. 3
Building Your Soil ......................................................................................................... 4
Environmental Factors – Air, Water, Temperature, and pH ........................................... 5 Air .................................................................................................................................................... 5
Water .............................................................................................................................................. 5
Temperature ................................................................................................................................... 5
pH .................................................................................................................................................... 6
The Living Soil .............................................................................................................. 7 What Do Microbes Need? ............................................................................................................... 7
What Lives in Healthy Soil? ............................................................................................................. 8
Microbes and Nutrients .................................................................................................................. 9
Natural Controls .............................................................................................................................. 9
The Mineral Component ............................................................................................ 10 Testing Your Texture ..................................................................................................................... 10
Getting the Right Mix .................................................................................................................... 12
The Organic Component ............................................................................................. 13 The Compost ................................................................................................................................. 14
Sourcing Organics in the NWT .................................................................................... 15 Woodchips, Bark, Twigs, and Sawdust ...................................................................................... 15
Deciduous Forest Litter ............................................................................................................. 16
Coniferous Forest Litter ............................................................................................................. 16
Fish Waste ................................................................................................................................. 17
Hair ........................................................................................................................................... 17
Household Compost .................................................................................................................. 18
Garden/Yard Waste .................................................................................................................. 18
Seaweed and Aquatic Plants ..................................................................................................... 19
Wood Ash .................................................................................................................................. 19
Peat ........................................................................................................................................... 21
Importance of Peatlands ........................................................................................................... 22
Putting It All Together ................................................................................................ 23 Nutrients ....................................................................................................................................... 24
Testing Your Soil ............................................................................................................................ 24
Fertilizing ....................................................................................................................................... 25
Summary ................................................................................................................... 26
Suggested Reading ..................................................................................................... 27
Resources Used .......................................................................................................... 28
Picture Credits ........................................................................................................... 32
1
Building Your Soil
A Guide to Building Sustainable Garden Soil in the
Northwest Territories
Introduction
Most communities in the NWT require some amendment to their soil in order to grow
productive crops. Remote communities trying to grow food in community and backyard
gardens are faced with the problem of having very limited access to good quality soil.
This is especially the case in the Tlicho communities in the Canadian Shield geologic
region, where soil is particularly thin and low in essential nutrients. Importing large
quantities of soil for gardening is an
expensive and inefficient solution.
Building on the existing soil in a way
that promotes soil fertility and soil life
can allow us to grow good food and
reduce dependencies on outside
resources. Some communities have
even started creating soil in larger
batches to share within the
community. We want to encourage
this, and to work toward finding easy,
sustainable alternatives to importing
soil into our gardens.
(1) Community garden in Gameti, NT.
Northern gardening is a challenge that often
takes a community effort. Making healthy
soil can also be done as a community.
The information presented
in this report is meant to
serve as a guide for building
your own soil in the NWT.
2
Sustainable Soil Practices
Sourcing materials locally has a number of benefits.
• Nutrients in the food you grow come from the materials you put in your soil,
and keeping that cycle close to home is good practice from a sustainability
perspective.
• Microbial communities can be very specifically adapted to small geographic
areas, especially in the North where changes in latitude result in substantial
variation in climate conditions.
• If all material comes from nearby, it helps to ensure the microbiology of the
soil is well suited to the micro‐environmental conditions of your garden.
• While many areas of the NWT have very little soil, the raw materials needed
are all here. By tapping into local resources, we can build healthy soil for the
northern garden. If the materials are harvested responsibly, we can do this
sustainably.
Addressing the Problem:
Transporting soil from the south is
often the main approach used to
address poor soil conditions in the
North. However, while simple, this
solution has several problems
associated with it. Transporting
small bags of garden soil north can
be very expensive. Some remote
communities have to wait until
winter to bring in large amounts of
soil on winter roads. Transporting
unsterilized soil may also introduce
foreign pests and diseases to the
North. At the very least, this could
mean we will have a living soil
community that is not suited to the specific environmental situation that we move it
into – not ideally suited to live in a northern garden. It could also mean introducing
bacterial and fungal diseases, insect pests, chemical contaminants, and causing more
problems for food producers in the North.
At best, transporting garden soil is an expensive, energy‐intensive fix.
At worst, it could be detrimental to local ecosystems.
At any rate, it is not very sustainable.
(2) Weledeh School Garden, Yellowknife.
Growing good food starts with the soil.
3
Boreal Cordillera
Taiga Cordillera
Tundra Cordillera Southern Arctic
Taiga
Plains
Taiga
Shield
Yellowknife
Hay River
Fort Smith
Inuvik
(3) Ecoregions of the
NWT:
The largest ecological
regions in the NWT are the
Taiga Plains and Taiga
Shield. Within these regions
soil types vary considerably.
Soil formation has been
heavily affected across the
NWT by rivers, lakes, and
past glaciation.
Soils in the NWT:
Soils in the NWT are generally poor quality soil for growing food crops. Many of the
plants that grow naturally here are adapted to harsh winters, short growing seasons,
and thin, acidic soil. Soil development is a slow process and in the NWT this process has
been slowed further by the cold northern climate. Most soil deposits have only been
developing since the retreat of the glaciers at the end of the last ice age (about 10 000
years ago). Despite this, there are actually a fair variety of soil types on the regional
scale in the NWT.
Generally, the best soil for agriculture is located in southern areas of the Taiga Plains
ecoregion, where permafrost is discontinuous and more well‐developed soil types like
greysols and luvisols are more common. In the Mackenzie Valley, up through the
northern Taiga Plains region, common soil types include brunisols (well‐drained, poorly
developed soils), greysols (soil periodically saturated during formation), fibrisols
(relatively undecomposed organic material), and mesisols (partly decomposed organic
material), all subject to permafrost to some extent. Sand, gravel and fine glacial till are
common and there are also large deposits of organic soil, mostly associated with river
floodplains. Areas with acidic clayey soils tend to be low in many essential nutrients, but
many areas in the Mackenzie River basin are rich in both calcium and phosphorus, which
are both incredibly important for plants.
Taiga Shield soils are mostly brunisols formed on sandy glacial till deposits, and bedrock
is often close to the surface. North of Yellowknife all soil types are subject to permafrost.
Common soil types include organic soils and clay‐based soils formed in association with
peatlands and lakes. In most areas of the NWT, permafrost and soil acidity make it very
difficult to grow classic vegetable and fruit garden crops.
4
Building Your Soil
Building your garden soil is like baking a cake; you just need the right
ingredients together in the right proportions.
Getting the right mix is the first crucial step.
The following pages contain information on the factors that should be
considered when building your soil:
• Environmental Factors
• The Living Component
• The Mineral Component
• The Organic Component
There is also a list of some materials
available locally in many areas of the
NWT that can be incorporated into
local garden soil recipes.
*Example soil recipes can be found in our Soil Recipes booklet.
Soil is made up of four
main components:
Mineral Material,
Organic Material,
Air and
Water.
(4) In many areas where soil is very thin and rocky,
raised beds may be the best option.
Building soil from scratch is a process
that takes thousands of years of erosion
of base materials and lots of biological
activity – the rise and fall of mountains
and forests, so to speak. Soils in the
NWT are generally underdeveloped, and
are still going through this process. Since
we do not have time to wait, we need to
build our soil some other way if we are
going to feed ourselves sustainably.
5
Environmental Factors – Air, Water, Temperature, and pH
The physical environment of your soil greatly affects the activity of soil microorganisms.
It also affects the decomposition of organic material, as well as nutrient uptake and
growth of plants. Keeping your soil loose and aerated, keeping it moist, feeding it
organic material, and protecting it from the cold in the winter by insulating your garden
with mulch and snow – these are all good ways to manage the physical factors affecting
your soil.
(5) Plant roots need loose, moist, aerated soil.
Air:
Soil needs to have lots of airspaces. Many helpful microbes in the soil need oxygen to
survive and your plant roots need air as well. Soil with good texture and lots of organic
matter will naturally have lots space for air, unless it is heavily compacted. Avoid walking
unnecessarily on the garden to avoid compacting the soil.
Water:
Plants need a lot of water in the soil. It is necessary for growth and energy production,
and also for taking in nutrients through their roots. Microbes in the soil also need water,
so even before the soil is put into the garden it needs to be kept moist. However,
overwatering can flush nutrients, especially nitrogen, out of the soil.
Temperature:
Soil temperature in the North can be difficult to manage due the cold winters, however
you can grow food here. Many insect pests aren’t able to survive the winter in the NWT,
which is good for the northern gardener. Also, the long day length partly makes up for
short growing seasons. Soil microbes go dormant in the winter and then become active
when the soil warms up in the spring. Soil heats up when the organic matter starts to
decompose. If you make soil in large batches, you can maintain higher temperatures
within large piles or windrows than in small backyard composter batches, and the soil
will be more likely to continue “working” through the winter.
6
pH:
pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity in your soil. It is a scale from 0 (very acidic) to
14 (very alkaline or basic), with 7 being neutral (neither acidic or basic). pH essentially
tells you what the chemical environment is like in your soil, and this affects a variety of
things in the soil and in the plants. Bacteria and fungi are the living components of the
soil that break down complex chemical compounds in organic matter into elements that
plants can use. These organisms all have a range of pH in which they can function
properly. Not surprisingly, the range at which these organisms can thrive, about 5.5 – 7,
tends to line up with the pH range ideal for plant growth.
Testing pH:
pH can vary with moisture, temperature, and biological activity over the course of a
season. It can also change through the years as you build up the organic component of
your soil. It is good to know whether you have very acidic or basic soil. A laboratory test
or do‐it‐yourself test kit will tell you the pH of your soil with accuracy. There are also a
variety of tests you can do very quickly to give you an idea of the approximate pH of
your soil.
Red cabbage test: Boiled red cabbage juice has a neutral pH and will change colour if its
pH changes. Add a few spoonfuls of soil to a cup of red cabbage juice;
• If it does not change colour, the soil is likely near neutral.
• If it turns bright pink, the soil is likely very basic.
• If it turns blue or green, the soil is likely very acidic.
Fizz test: Take two cups of soil from your garden in separate containers. In the first
container, add distilled water to make the soil muddy, and then add some baking soda.
Then pour some vinegar into the dry sample. Very acidic soil (less than pH 5.0) will fizz if
you sprinkle baking soda on it, because baking soda is very basic. Very basic soil (greater
than pH 7.5) will fizz if you pour some vinegar on it, because vinegar is very acidic.
Adjusting Soil pH:
Soil that is rich in organic matter will slowly shift toward a neutral pH over time. The short
term solution to very high or very low pH is just to add materials that raise or lower pH:
⇑ Wood ash will raise soil pH if soil is acidic.
⇓ Sulphur will lower soil pH if soil is basic.
Adding too much of these materials can drastically change your pH and can be very
stressful on the life in your soil. Use sparingly if at all – start with small amounts of wood
ash or sulphur and monitor your soil pH carefully throughout the process.
14 0 7 Ideal Soil pH 5.5‐7.0
7
The Living Soil
Healthy soil is required for growing good, healthy, nutrient rich food. A healthy soil is
very much alive, and needs all the things that living things need: air, water, warmth, and
food. The organisms living in your garden, the bacteria, the fungi, the tiny nematode
worms, these are what nurture and support your plants. These are the microscopic
creatures responsible for giving your plants access to the nutrients in the soil, for
aerating the soil so your plant roots can breathe, for repelling pests and staving off
diseases. These are the creatures that build soil. Building healthy garden soil is as much
about creating good habitat for a billion microbes as it is about adding the correct
amount of nutrients and water. Maintaining the soil you make should focus on
maintaining your living soil.
What Do Microbes Need?
Water – All soil organisms need water, keep your soil moist.
This means paying attention to your soil, feeling it with
your hands and adding water as needed, whether it is
sitting in a pile or spread out in the garden.
Organic material – Microbes need to eat. Feed them by adding organic material
(like compost) to the top 10‐15cm of your garden once or
twice a year. Organic material also helps create air spaces,
hold water, and resist compaction. Very important. A little bit
of ground oatmeal, bran, dried fish, or molasses can also be
added to soil to boost fungal and bacterial growth.
Warmth – If left to their own devices, plants naturally create a layer of mulch
that insulates the soil and helps to retain water. Adding a layer of
mulch to your garden in the fall will help it to retain moisture and
avoid washing out in the spring. This also promotes microbes in the
soil.
Mounding soil in a large heap allows the microbes to heat up the soil
and work more efficiently to break down organic material. The pile
should be turned or mixed every 2 – 4 weeks in the summer to prevent
it from overheating.
Minimal disturbance – Avoid compacting the soil, and also avoid excessive tilling.
Roots, soil animals, and decaying organic matter naturally
create great soil structure, and tilling up the garden only
slows down this process. If you have a pile, don’t turn it
too frequently; let the microbes heat up the soil and do
their work.
8
Bacteria and Archaea:
Bacteria and archaea are very simple, single‐celled organisms that live in all but the
deadest of soils. They are extremely diverse in form and function. Some live in the top
10‐15cm of soil. These are aerobic species, which means they need air to survive.
Some do not need air and these are called anaerobes. They can live further down in
the soil. Some bacteria fix nitrogen, which means they take nitrogen from the
atmosphere and convert it to a soluble form that plants can then use. Many consume
organic matter and when they die, contribute to it. While some species can be
detrimental to crops, the vast majority are crucial to maintaining healthy plants.
Fungi:
Fungi in soil are a strange and fascinating group of organisms that include lichens,
moulds, and networks of fibres in the soil. Fungi are very important to soil for several
reasons. In healthy soil they create vast networks of hyphae (“root” strands) through
the soil, weaving through organic matter, breaking minerals free from rocks, and
connecting the roots of plants. Fungi are responsible for releasing minerals like
phosphorus from rock that would otherwise be inaccessible to plants. They provide
structural support for the soil, compete with disease causing organisms, and help to
break down decaying organic matter. Fungi are needed to break down tough woody
materials that other soil microbes have difficulty digesting. The fungi that form
networks between the plant roots provide those plants with minerals, nitrogen, and
water. The plants connected through the network can essentially share nutrients and
communicate, warning each other of threats like pests and disease so that other
plants can prepare defences. Maintaining these networks can help keep your plants
healthy, which is why it is important not to over‐till your garden.
Protists, Microscopic Animals, and Insects:
These are the larger, more mechanical components of the soil community. Insects, like
ants and beetle larvae, and other animals like sow bugs, worms and nematodes break
down organic material by basically chewing it up, which greatly speeds up the
decomposition process. They also help to aerate the soil as they dig their way through
the soil and leaf litter creating air spaces. Protists are single‐celled microbes that act
more like miniature animals than bacteria, archaea or fungi. They feed on bacteria and
help to digest the nutrients that the bacteria gather from organic matter and make it
available for uptake by plants.
What Lives in Healthy Soil?
9
(7) Soil life is so important to the health of plants in the garden. Many of the
best practices for building soil, like including lots of organic matter, keeping it
moist and aerated, mulching, and avoiding soil compaction, are all great ways
to cultivate a healthy microbial ecosystem that can support your plants.
Microbes and Nutrients:
Bacteria, archaea, and fungi are useful in breaking down the
minerals and nutrients out of the organic material, out of the
mineral soil and rock, and locking these nutrients up inside
their bodies. This is called nutrient immobilization. When
protists and other animals eat the bacteria, archaea,
and fungi, they release these stored nutrients
back into the root zone for plants to use. This is
called nutrient mineralization. Both of these
processes are important for healthy garden soil.
It is important to build soil that supports a
diversity of organisms, so that the processes that
feed your plants and maintain their health are all
in place.
Natural Controls:
Some bacteria, fungi, insects and protists can cause diseases in plants or are notorious
garden pests. The most effective natural control of these hazards is not in the plants
themselves but in the living soil, and the organisms that eat and compete with the pests.
These are the organisms that also support the health of your plants and allow them to
resist succumbing to these threats. Sustaining a diverse community of soil organisms is a
great way to ensure that the natural controls of pests and disease are present in your
garden.
(6) Microorganisms and soil life interact in the
soil and make nutrients available to plants.
N
P
K
10
The Mineral Component
Soil is mostly made up of minerals. This is what makes up most of the structure of the
soil. Ideally, the mineral component of a well‐developed soil should make up about 90%
of the solid portion of your soil. The rest should be made up of organic material.
Structure and texture of soil is very important – plants prefer about half of soil to be air
and water. Smaller groupings of soil particles are preferable to large hard clumps or
clods, because nutrients and water are more accessible to plant roots in loose, fine‐
grained soil.
Testing Your Texture:
Mineral soil is classified by its texture by comparing the amount of soil grains of
different sizes. NWT soils range from nearly pure sand to sandy loam to clay to pure
organic soils. The best way to learn what type of soil you have is to go out and feel it
between your fingers. There are two simple tests you can do with just your hands to tell
what type of soil you have: the grain test and the squeeze test.
• Clays are very fine grains (less than 0.002mm – invisible to the naked eye).
o Grain Test: If you pick up pure clay and rub it between your fingers,
you should not be able to feel any individual grains, and it may stain
your skin as well. It also tends to be sticky when wet.
o Squeeze Test: Pick up a moist handful and squeeze it between your
fingers. If it squeezes out between your fingers in ribbons that do not
crumble, there is likely a lot of clay in your soil.
• Silt is a slightly larger grain (0.002‐0.05mm).
o Grain Test: You should be able to feel the grains and the grittiness of
silt when you run it between your fingers. If you know what sand feels
like in your fingers that helps because silt is less gritty than sand. The
squeeze test is a better test of the silt content of your soil.
o Squeeze Test: Just like clay, silt will come out from between your
fingers in ribbons, but the ribbons will crumble away and won’t hold
their shape.
• Sand grains are easily visible to the naked eye (0.05‐2mm) – anything that
could be called a grain that is larger than 2mm in diameter is classified as
gravel. Gravelly soil either experiences a lot of disturbance or is under
developed.
o Grain Test: Very gritty and individual grains can be separated easily.
o Squeeze Test: Sand will crumble out from between your fingers
without forming ribbons.
If your soil contains a lot of organic material already, it can be difficult to judge your
soil texture based on these simple tests. A settling test can be done fairly simply as
well and it can give you a more accurate breakdown of the different parts of your soil.
11
The Settling Test (from Nauta 2012)
You’ll need:
• A flat‐bottomed jar,
with a lid
• Water
• Dish soap
• Soil
1. First, you’ll need some soil from
your garden, dig down about
15cm, and scoop up enough to fill
the jar to about 1/3 full.
2. Remove any sticks or rocks and break
up clods.
3. Add some dish soap and fill the rest of
the jar with water, leaving a few
centimetres of open space at the top.
4. Cover and shake well for at least 10
minutes.
5. Set it down carefully some place where
it can sit undisturbed for the next 24
hours. In that time all the different parts
of the soil should settle out in layers –
first the sand, then silt, then clay, and
lastly the organic matter.
6. Now you should be able to see what
your soil is made of, and the relative
proportions of sand, silt, clay and
organic matter it contains. You can
even measure them on the side of
the jar to calculate percentages and
classify your soil using this triangle
chart.
(8) Using the soil texture triangle ‐ If you want to
classify your soil using the triangle, take the
percentages of solid material taken up by sand, silt
and clay, and multiply them by 1.19 (sand), 0.87 (silt),
and 0.94 (clay), respectively. This will give you the
relative weight of the different parts of your soil, and
you can use these in the triangle.
Organic Matter
Clay
Silt
Sand
12
Getting the Right Mix:
A well‐balanced soil has a fairly even mix of sand, silt
and clay. Loam is a mix of sand, clay and silt – plants
love loam. It is helpful to know what you are starting
out with but don’t get too hung up on whether or
not you have sandy loam or loamy sand. If your
mineral soil is mostly clay or mostly sand, it is going
to take more effort and more time to build it into a
healthy, productive soil, and that is good to know.
The important thing is that you have a
good amount of base material on
which to build. Your main goal from
this point on should be to get some life
into your soil, and that is where the
organic component comes into play.
When collecting sand, clay and silt for your soil, try to find areas where there is already
some dark organic material already mixed in, as it will save you some of the hassle of
creating that yourself. Even in regions with very little soil, stream banks and the shores
of shallow lakes are good places to look.
Clay in the Dirt:
Many areas of the NWT have soils that
are low in clay. Clays are important for
retaining mineral nutrients in the soil, but
if what you have is sand, use sand. A
good mix of clay and sand is best but use
what is available to you. Humus is organic
material that has been broken down to
the point where it is very resistant to
degrading further. It also happens to be
good for retaining water and trapping
nutrients. If your soil is low in clay you
may want to add more materials that
contain humus to your mix, like peat.
Sustainable Soil Practices
Take care when working around water.
• Digging or dredging in stream
channels or lake bottoms will
negatively affect the immediate
aquatic ecosystem, and effects can
easily spread to downstream
ecosystems.
• Avoid taking too much material
from any one place, and if you are
collecting material near a stream or
lake try to avoid spilling sediment
into the water.
(9) Finding the right mix means knowing what type of
material you are starting with, and knowing what you
want it to look like in the end.
13
The Organic Component
Qualities of Soil Components:
Material Water
Infiltration
Drainage Water and
Nutrient
Retention
Aeration Compaction
Resistance
Sand High High Low High High
Clay Low Low High Low Low
Organic
Matter
High High High High High
Despite making up a fairly small portion of the finished soil, organic matter is
perhaps the most important part. Organic matter is really where the life of your soil
comes from. Anything that was once alive, or came from something alive is organic
matter. This is how most of the nutrients that your plants need get into the soil. It is also
an important part of the structure of a good soil. It binds grains of soil together creating
loose but cohesive soil, full of spaces for water, air, and soil microbes. If your mineral
component is sandy, organic matter will help to hold water and nutrients, and keep
them from draining and leaching out of the garden. If your mineral component is clayey,
adding organic matter will help to loosen the soil and promote aeration, water
infiltration, and drainage.
It really does it all.
“Ideal” Soil Composition:
Mineral Organic Water Air
40‐45% 5‐10% 25% 25%
These are guidelines for a healthy, productive soil and they work well as general goals for
the soil composition.
However, when you are just starting out and building your soil from scratch, you may
consider exceeding the recommended 5‐10% organic matter, in order to ensure there is
adequate food for your plants.
14
The Compost:
Making the organic component of
your soil is the same as mixing up
good compost. Then you can add
this into the mineral component of
your soil. You will need to balance the
carbon sources (“browns”) with the
nitrogen sources (“greens”) in order to
have a good starting ratio that the microbes
in your soil can work with.
Carbon and Nitrogen:
The ratio most sources recommend is 20‐40 parts carbon to 1 part nitrogen (20‐40:1). The
simplest way to keep your compost within this range is: whenever you add “greens”, add
some “browns” as well. The table below gives the approximate carbon/nitrogen ratios of
selected compost ingredients to help you create a mix with the materials available to you.
Material C:N
Newspaper 400‐900:1
Woodchips 200‐1300:1*
Sawdust 200‐750:1*
Pine Needles 66:1*
Birch Leaves 50:1*
Spruce Needles 26‐48:1*
Wood Ash 25:1
Peat 22:1
Green Yard/Garden Waste 20‐25:1*
Seaweed 19‐24:1*
Alder Leaves 16‐80:1*
Household Food Compost 15‐35:1*
Manure 10‐50:1
Fish By‐Products 5‐9:1*
Animal Hair 3‐10:1*
Tip!
Let these organic materials
sit and compost for a
growing season, before
adding them to the mineral
component of your soil. This
will help to ensure that
more of the nutrients from
the organic materials
actually make it into your
plants.
Table adapted from RDN Environmental Services 2001,
with reference to several other sources listed at the end of
this report. *C:N range derived from multiple sources.
15
(10) A spruce forest floor is covered with needles
and cones that help keep moisture from escaping
and promote fungal growth. This can be a great
source of carbon and minerals for your garden;
just take care not to take too much.
(11) Deciduous forests are an excellent renewable
source of organic material for soil because deciduous
trees lose their leaves each year in the fall.
Sourcing Organics in the NWT
The following section contains information on a variety of organic materials that can be
included into compost for your soil, including some suggestions of ways to collect these
materials sustainably.
Woodchips, Bark, Twigs, and Sawdust:
Woodchips, twigs, bark, and sawdust are all readily available carbon sources in the NWT.
There is a wide range of nutrient content in woodchips, but they all have relatively low
levels of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, and are slower to break down than other
carbon sources. Avoid using woodchips or sawdust from treated wood/lumber, as
harmful chemicals could leach out into the soil.
Dry leaves make the best mulch and carbon
source for soil. Sawdust, woodchips, and
even shredded paper can also serve as a
carbon source, but these are not good
sources of other nutrients.
Putting shredded paper and cardboard in
the soil is a great way to recycle these
materials and keep them out of the landfill.
Keep it Wet:
The moisture content of your compost is
also important to manage. Wet materials
like fruit and vegetable waste should be
balanced with dry materials like dry leaves
or shredded paper. Compost works best at
about 50% moisture.
16
Birch, poplar, willow and alder are deciduous tree and shrub
species, meaning they loose their leaves in the fall. Leaves vary
in nutrient content depending on the species. Alder leaves can
be very high in nitrogen. Alder also fixes nitrogen in the soil, so
soil gathered near alder stands would likely make a good base
material for garden soil. Deciduous forest litter is a good carbon
source that will also serve as a source of nitrogen and calcium.
Deciduous leaves are moderately acidic (pH 5.1‐5.6).
White spruce, black spruce, jack pine and
tamarack are conifer trees that are common
throughout most of the NWT. Spruce needles
vary in nitrogen content; white spruce have
higher nitrogen compared to black spruce. A
coniferous forest floor typically has a C:N of
around 32:1, and a pH in the range of 4.0‐4.8.
Deciduous Forest Litter:
Coniferous Forest Litter:
(13) Black spruce needles and cones.
Sustainable Soil Practices
Collecting in Forests:
When collecting litter from the forest floor, keep in mind that the leaves
and needles are doing a job there. The litter in the forest holds in
moisture and facilitates fungi and soil animals that keep the soil healthy
and the trees healthy. Especially in coniferous forests, this layer of litter
can take a long time to build up. Avoid stripping the forest floor down to
bare ground, and keep both your garden and the forest healthy.
Leaf Mould:
One effective method of making a good soil amendment is piling
deciduous leaves and keeping them moist through the summer.
This will create a leaf mould that is high in bacterial life that can
add complexity, porosity and moisture retention to the soil.
(12) Paper birch leaves.
17
Fish Waste:
Fish guts, tails, and heads are a fantastic source of nitrogen in compost and also provide
fairly high levels of phosphorus, potassium, calcium and trace amounts of other minerals.
The best way to give your plants the benefit of these nutrients is to compost the fish
waste prior to mixing it into your garden. In Alaska, fisheries waste is mixed with peat to
create large quantities of high quality compost. Burying the fish remains under at least
30cm of peat helps to discourage animals from pillaging your compost pile. It also helps
with the smell. When fish decompose, part of what you can smell is the volatilization of
nitrogen, leaving the fish material as ammonia gas. Surrounding the fish remains with
moist humic material like peat or organic soil helps to stop the nitrogen from entering
into the atmosphere where your plants cannot access it. If you mix it directly into your
soil, you may lose some of the nutrients and run the risk of attracting animal, but the
material will still be an excellent amendment to your
garden soil.
Hair:
Human hair and pet hair are excellent nitrogen
sources, and provided they have not been overly
treated with chemicals, can make a great addition to
your garden soil. Caribou fur and the fur of other fur‐
bearing animals can also be used. Animal hair and fur
is high in nitrogen and calcium. As a mulch, it can also
be an effective moisture barrier and pest deterrent.
Sustainable Soil Practices
Collecting from Animals:
Traditional practices around giving back to
the land, and returning what you do not
use are important to uphold. Fish remains
should be treated respectfully whether
they are returned to the water or used in
garden soil. Ask a local elder if there is any
question about whether incorporating fish
remains, or other animal‐based materials
like caribou hair, into garden soil is
appropriate.
(14) Fish guts are
high in nitrogen
and many other
nutrients that
plants need.
(15) Hair stripped from animal hides
during the tanning process makes a
great addition to garden soil.
18
Household Compost:
A wide range of food scraps can be included in household compost. Vegetable waste has
a C:N around 15:1, fruit waste is closer to 35:1 or higher. Coffee grounds are at 20:1.
“Woodier” bits likely have a higher carbon content; corn cobs are in the range of 50‐
100:1. The more broken up the material is, the more available the nutrients will be to
your plants.
(16) In Yellowknife, a Centralized Composting system is in place to turn household food
waste into rich finished compost that makes an excellent fertilizer and structural
amendment to garden soil. You can also do this on a smaller scale in your backyard or in
your community.
Garden/Yard Waste:
Grass clippings, garden trimmings and weeds are all great sources of nitrogen. Green
grass clippings have a C:N of about 20:1; vegetable scraps can be as low as 10:1 (low is
good!). Weeds should not be included in soil if they have already gone to seed. Putting
weeds in your compost heap is essentially planting them in your garden. Most weed
seeds are sterilized at between 710C and 82
0C, some can remain viable at temperatures
approaching 1000C; compost in your garden soil or backyard composter typically does
not get that hot.
19
Seaweed and Aquatic Plants:
Seaweed and freshwater plants are an
excellent source of nitrogen, potassium, and
calcium for your soil. It also has a near neutral
pH meaning you do not have to worry that
adding too much will lower your soil pH.
Collecting it once it has washed up on shore is
best – raking it directly out of the water
damages aquatic habitat. Marine seaweed
can be high in salt, which can be damaging to
plants at high concentrations in the soil. It
should be used sparingly and rinsed with
fresh water before being added to the soil.
Wood Ash:
Wood ash is a potential carbon source and potent liming agent for your garden. Wood
ash is also a good source of potassium. It should not be considered unless the pH of your
soil is very acidic (less than pH 5.0) – high pH can be just as harmful to plants as low pH.
If your organic mix is composed largely of acidic materials like peat and boreal forest
litter, you may consider adding some wood ash. As a lime it is about 25‐50% as effective
as crushed limestone, but is reportedly fairly potent and mixing it into compost is
preferable to sprinkling it directly onto the soil. Spreading wood ash directly onto the
garden can be damaging to seedlings. Wood ash can also contain trace amounts of
heavy metals and other contaminants, so its use in the garden should be limited. Wood
ash from pellet stoves in the NWT can contain boron at levels far exceeding those
recommended for use in the garden, and so it is not recommended that pellet stove ash
be used without testing it first.
(17) In areas where aquatic plants wash up on the
beach often, these can be a great organic material
to include in your garden soil.
(18) Save your wood ashes over the winter to mix into your soil in the spring.
Wood ash can help to balance out the pH of more acidic materials in your
soil, like forest litter and peat. Be careful not to add too much into your mix.
pH
20
Manure:
Well‐cured or well‐composted
animal manure from livestock makes
an excellent organic fertilizer and
addition to garden soil. It is a good
source of nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium and micronutrients for
your plants. Bison manure,
theoretically would be similar to cow
manure and an effective source of
manure if locally available. Chicken,
bison, sheep, goat, horse, and
reindeer manure all make great
fertilizer for your garden as long as
they are allowed time to cure. This
means it must be piled so it can
reach temperatures of 550C or
higher for at least 15 days before it is
used as a soil amendment. Fresh manure can
contain pathogens like E. coli, and when spread
on the garden these pathogens can be
transferred to fruit and vegetables that come in
contact with the manure.
But, Don’t Compost…
Dogs, and cats do not produce good garden manure. Animals that eat meat can
harbour diseases and parasites that are best kept out of the garden. This includes
human manure (“humanure”), which must be properly composted to kill potential
pathogens and tested before it is safe to use in the garden. Cat litter can contain
harmful chemicals and is also not recommended as a soil amendment.
(19) Chicken manure is often high in
calcium, which is a nutrient that can be
naturally low in acidic NWT soils. Use
where it is available.
Sustainable Soil Practices
Covering the Garden in Winter:
Avoid mounding manure in large piles on top of the
soil in the winter as this can protect insects that
normally die off during the winter from the cold.
This die off is a natural process and allowing it to
occur can help prevent the spread of southern
agricultural pests northward.
21
Sustainable Soil Practices
Collecting in Peatlands:
Overharvesting peat essentially destroys the existing ecosystem, and changes it into
something new. If peat is extensively harvested from a bog or fen, the conditions that
created the peat are destroyed, and production of peat stops. It takes thousands of years
to form peat, and therefore peat is a non‐renewable resource.
However, peat makes an excellent amendment to garden soil, and in some areas, may be
one of few resources available for building soil. While removing peat in any quantity will
affect the ecosystem, harvesting peat in small quantities could be done with minimal
effect on the surrounding hydrology and plant life. Creating small, shallow depressions or
pools can actually increase the variety of habitat on the peatland, and if done carefully on
the scale necessary for backyard or community gardens, this would be much less
detrimental than systematic harvest of peat.
Peatlands are very susceptible to compaction, and thus care is needed when extracting
large quantities with heavy equipment.
Peat:
Peat is the result of
Sphagnum moss and other
plants building up layers of
organic matter under
waterlogged, low oxygen
conditions. It can be found
under the live layer of
growing mosses and sedges
in fens and bogs. It is
excellent at holding
moisture, and improving
the texture of soil. It has a
pH of less than 4.0, often
closer to 3.0 (very acidic).
Peat is generally not a
good source of essential
nutrients, but it can serve
as an excellent source of
carbon for your mix, and it
has the added benefit of
trapping nutrients as they are released from other decomposing organic material;
nutrients like nitrogen that can easily be lost to leaching or evaporation. Collecting peat
for use in garden soil has many potential negative implications for local environments,
especially if carried out on a large scale, and this should come into consideration when
deciding which carbon sources to include in your soil.
(20) Sphagnum moss (left) and peat (right) both come
from peatlands (pictured behind). Sphagnum is the active
growing layer of the peatland, and peat is found under
the active layer.
22
(22) This illustration shows
the difference between a
bog and a fen. Both contain
peat, but a bog is cut off
from water running over the
surrounding rocks, whereas
a fen receives both water
and nutrients from the
surrounding landscape – so
bogs have lower nutrients
and minerals than fens.
Importance of Peatlands:
Peatlands are a common feature of the landscape in the NWT. They are sensitive
wetlands, where saturated organic material has built up over time. Peatlands vary in
appearance – they can be open expanses of mossy hummocks, pools and low shrubs, or
they can be drier and spongy areas sparsely forested with black spruce.
• These areas provide habitat for a wide variety of animals and plants.
• They are also used for hunting and for gathering traditional foods and medicines.
• They help to prevent flooding and filter groundwater.
• They can also act as important seed sources following forest fires.
• Northern peatlands also store an immense amount of carbon, and it is important
that they continue to do so.
At the heart of these important
ecosystems is a plant that supports all
of the rest: Sphagnum moss.
Harvesting peat moss from peatlands
is very disruptive to these ecosystems.
However, if it is harvested carefully,
locally and minimally, it can be a great
ingredient for soil recipes where there
is not much else available.
(21) Peatlands are used by humans as a source
of food and medicine. Many other animals,
including caribou, use peatlands to find food.
23
Putting It All Together
Once you have all the ingredients of the mineral and organic components, it’s time to
bake the cake! You will get the most out of your ingredients if you have time to let them
bake. Mix well with air and water and let it all compost over the course of a growing
season. This will allow more of the nutrients to be released from the organic matter
before you plant your crops in the soil.
Healthy soil has a good mix of mineral and organic components, but it also has proper
moisture, aeration, nutrients and pH. These factors need to be managed to keep the
microorganisms healthy, and they should all be considered when you are mixing up your
soil.
There are many other organic materials that can be incorporated into your soil. Try to
balance the moisture and nutrients in your soil with what you have available.
Scale:
Soil can be made in small quantities in the backyard, or in larger piles or windrows
through the efforts of a community. Larger piles will cure faster than soil made in
a backyard composter, and allow animal attractants like fish remains to be buried
deeper in the pile.
(23) Aerating and wetting a windrow, Yellowknife Centralized Compost.
24
Nutrients:
Nutrients are the elements that plants take from the environment in order to carry out
all the important functions that allow them to survive. Nitrogen (N) is needed to make
proteins and chlorophyll so the plants can get energy through photosynthesis;
phosphorus (P) helps with the development of roots and stems; potassium (K) is
involved in photosynthesis and water uptake, as well as a number of other cellular
processes. Calcium (Ca) is very
important as a structural
component of plants and
assists with the uptake of
other nutrients. There are
dozens of other nutrients that
are necessary for plants to
grow and be productive.
Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
are taken in through the leaves
from the atmosphere. All of
the rest are taken up
through the roots from the
soil.
Testing Your Soil:
Not all nutrients are needed in equal amounts, and keeping the balance is important.
Most are only needed in very small amounts and plants are not usually lacking them as
long as the soil is rich in organic matter. Others may need to be added to the soil via
fertilizers, and the best way to do this accurately is by testing your soil first.
You can get a full soil test done by sending a sample in to a soil lab, and it will give you
all the information you need to make the necessary adjustments to your nutrients.
There are also very inexpensive methods (like Rapitest Soil Test Kits) that will allow you
to quickly assess the N, P and K (three essential nutrients that are found in the greatest
quatities in soil), as well as the pH of your soil.
N Ca P
K S Mn Zn
Cu B Mg Fe
Cl Na
(24) In a new garden, you may want to add fertilizers like bone
meal to your soil to bring the nutrients up to an acceptable
level, especially in the first few years before the soil life begins
to flourish. Try to minimize your use of fertilizers, even organic
ones; even these have an environmental impact. You should be
able to get all the nutrients you need from local materials.
There are many
nutrients
necessary for
plant growth.
Some are needed
in greater
quantities than
others.
25
Fertilizing:
Fertilizing your soil is not as simple as dumping nutrients into it until your plants grow
better. Here are some things to consider:
Calcium:
NWT soils are often low in calcium,
especially where soil is very acidic.
Wood ash is an excellent source of
calcium but be careful not to add
this if your soil has a high pH. Other
good sources of calcium include:
• Bone meal
• Crushed limestone dust,
• Crushed eggshells,
• Fish bones,
• Animal hair,
• Spruce needles.
Too Much or Too Little?
Plants need a balance of nutrients.
Adding lots of nitrogen will not save
your soil if it is low in calcium.
Adding too much of one nutrient can
impact the balance of another. This
is why it is good to test your soil to
find out exactly what it is you need
more of, and how much.
N‐P‐K:
Most chemical and organic fertilizers list the
relative content of nitrogen, available
phosphate and soluble potash (N‐P‐K). These
N‐P‐K values are useful for knowing what
you are adding to your soil.
Bone meal is a source of phosphorus, and is
not a great source of nitrogen or potassium.
It has N‐P‐K values of around 2‐15‐0. It is
also a good source of calcium but the N‐P‐K
values do not tell you everything that is in
the fertilizer.
A good livestock manure may be around 2‐
0.8‐1, which seems low compared to values
on a bottle of chemical fertilizer, but that is
because the values show what is
immediately available to plants. Much of the
nutrients in manure, as well as in other
organic materials, are released slowly and
will become available to plants over the
course of several growing seasons.
Avoid Chemicals:
N‐P‐K values do not tell you everything that
is in a fertilizer. Many chemical fertilizers
include many filler materials not listed on
the packaging that will not help your garden
in the long run.
In fact, chemical nitrogen fertilizers like
ammonium sulphate and ammonium nitrate
can actually contribute to soil acidification,
and can have negative impacts on microbial
communities in the soil.
Organic Fertilizers:
Some good organic fertilizers to use
include: (good source of)
• Compost (N)
• Manure (N, P, K)
• Wood ash (P, K) *raises pH
• Rock phosphate (P)
• Granite dust (K)
• Bone meal (P)
• Blood meal (N)
26
Summary
What does good soil look like?
• Loose and dark
• Lots of organic matter
• Mix of sand, clay, and silt
• Well mixed, with few large
clumps
• 25% moisture
• pH ~5.5‐7.0
Building local garden soil is really about growing food, and moving toward
sustainable local food systems in the NWT. Community gardens and
backyard gardens can produce healthy food using transparent, healthy
techniques. They can encourage people to become active in the community,
and they can encourage people to take control of their food choices, and
make informed decisions about their nutrition.
Growing good food in the NWT is possible. We can provide affordable,
nutritious alternatives to imported fruits and vegetables, and good soil is
the key to making this a reality.
It all starts with the soil.
Harvest materials responsibly,
experiment and find a mix that works for you.
(25) If you put the effort into making good, healthy soil,
you will see the results of your efforts in your garden and
the good healthy food you will grow.
27
Suggested Reading
10 Steps to Gardening With Nature: Using Sustainable Methods to Replicate Mother
Nature,
Elizabeth Murphy, Gardening With Nature, 2015.
Alaska’s Agricultural Soils: Sampling and Interpretation of Test Results,
Bob Van Veldhuizen, 2016.
Basic Guide to Gardening in the NWT,
The Territorial Farmer’s Association.
Building Soil: A Down‐To‐Earth Approach,
Carole Ann Rollins and Elaine Ingham, Cool Springs Press, 2015.
Building Soils Naturally: Innovative Methods for Organic Gardeners,
Phil Nauta, Acres USA, 2012.
Harrowsmith Northern Gardener,
Jennifer Bennett, Camden House Publishing Ltd, 1982.
Northern Backyard Farming 3: Composting,
Ecology North, 2016.
Northern Backyard Farming 4: Soil health,
Ecology North, 2016.
On‐Farm Composting Handbook,
Robert Rynk (Ed.), Plant and Life Sciences Publishing, 1992.
Resource Guide to Organic Gardening,
The Yellowknife Community Garden Collective, Artisan Press Ltd.
Yukon Gardener’s Manual,
Jeanne Burke and Debbie Abbot, Yukon Agriculture Branch, 2005.
28
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Accessed from: <https://www.cog.ca/documents/RS15.pdf>.
El‐Begearmi, M. and R. Kersbergen. 2008. Guidelines for using manure on vegetable gardens. University of
Maine Cooperative Extension, Bulletin #2510. Accessed from:
<https://extension.umaine.edu/publications/2510e/>.
Rosen, C.J. and P.M. Bierman. Commercial fruit and vegetable production: Using manure and compost as
nutrient sources for fruit and vegetable crops. University of Minnisota Extension. 10 pp. Accessed
from: <http://www.extension.umn.edu/garden/fruit‐vegetable/using‐manure‐and‐compost/>.
Schönning, C. and T.A. Stenström. 2004. Guidelines on the Safe Use of Urine and Faeces in Ecological
Sanitation Systems. Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control, EcoSanRes Publication Series,
Report 2004‐1. 39 pp. Accessed from:
<http://www.ecosanres.org/pdf_files/ESR_Publications_2004/ESR1web.pdf>.
Peat:
Daigle, J.Y., H. Gautreau‐Daigle, and D. Keys. 2001. Canadian peat harvesting and the environment, 2nd ed.
North American Wetland Conservation Council Committee, Sustaining Wetlands Issue Paper, No.
2001‐1. 41 pp.
Rochefort, L. 2000. Sphagnum – A keystone genus in habitat restoration. The Bryologist 103: pp. 503‐508.
Van Seters, T.E., and J.S. Price. 2001. The impact of peat harvesting and natural regeneration on the water
balance of an abandoned cutover bog, Quebec. Hydrological Processes 15: pp. 233‐248.
Fertilizing:
Gavlak, R.G., and S. Seefeldt. 2016. Field crop fertilizer recommendations for Alaska: Fertilizer nutrient
sources and lime. University of Alaska Fairbanks, Cooperative Extension Service, Crop Production
and Soil Management Series, FGV‐00348. 7 pp.
Nathan, M. Steps in fertilizing garden soil: Vegetables and annual flowers. MU Extension, University of
Missouri. 4 pp. Accessed from:
<http://extension.missouri.edu/explorepdf/agguides/hort/g06950.pdf>.
Rosen, C.J. and P.M. Bierman. 2005. Nutrient management for fruit and vegetable crop production:
Maintaining soil fertility in an organic system. University of Minnisota Extension. 10 pp. Accessed
from: <http://www.extension.umn.edu/garden/yard‐garden/soils/maintaining‐soil‐fertility‐in‐an‐
organic‐fruit‐and‐vegetable‐crops‐system/doc/M1191.pdf>.
32
Picture Credits Title page: Garden graphic: <http://www.canstockphoto.com/illustration/garden.html>
Soil image: <http://www.rangewaysupply.com/loam‐‐sod.html>
(1) Ecology North
(2) Ecology North
(3) Map adapted from: Ecological regions of the Northwest Territories, Department of Environment and
Natural Resources, GNWT, 2010
(4) Ecology North
(5) <http://inhabitat.com/plants‐can‐talk‐to‐each‐other‐by‐clicking‐their‐roots/>
Life in the Soil graphics, pg. 6: <http://www.clipartpanda.com/clipart_images/rain‐drops‐clip‐art‐vector‐
31205136>,<https://clipartfest.com/categories/view/01be50f3f8ed94e99c6854274cdcdbd5fab708
69/compost‐clipart.html>, <https://www.farmtek.com/farm/supplies/prod1;ft_lawn_garden‐
ft_thermometers;pg108115.html>, and <http://hostted.com/bulldozer‐clip‐art/>
What Lives in Soil background graphic pg. 7: <http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/microbiome/intro/>
(6) <http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/microbiome/intro/>, <http://www‐
plb.ucdavis.edu/labs/Rost/Tomato/tomhome.html> and <http://clipart‐
library.com/clipart/21483.htm>
(7) <http://grist.org/food/the‐secret‐to‐richer‐carbon‐capturing‐soil‐treat‐your‐microbes‐well/>
(8) McCauley, A., C. Jones, and J.J. Jaconsen. 2005. Basic Soil Properties. MSU Extension Service, Soil and
Water Management Module 1, 4481‐1. 12 pp.
(9) <http://www.patheos.com/blogs/slowchurch/2011/10/11/becoming‐good‐soil/>
Compost graphic, pg. 9: <https://www.trustvets.com/articles/composting‐101‐covering‐the‐basics‐130>
(10) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picea_mariana>
(11) <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betula_papyrifera>
(12) <https://www.pinterest.com/pin/514465957404884078/>
(13) <https://treecanada.ca/en/resources/canadas‐arboreal‐emblems/newfoundland‐labrador‐black‐
spruce‐picea‐mariana/>
(14) <http://www.chowhound.com/pictures/making‐gefilte‐fish/bucket‐fish‐guts>
(15) <http://paleoplanet69529.yuku.com/topic/40242#.WIo‐pigvas4>
(16)<https://www.fcm.ca/Documents/presentations/2012/webinars/Yellowknife_Centralized_Compostin
g_Pilot_Project_EN.pdf>
(17) Aiken, S.G., M.J. Dallwitz, L.L. Consaul, C.L. McJannet, R.L. Boles, G.W. Argus, J.M. Gillett, P.J. Scott, R.
Elven, M.C. LeBlanc, L.J. Gillespie, A.K. Brysting, H. Solstad, and J.G. Harris. 2007. Flora of the
Canadian arctic archipelago: Descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval.
NRC Research Press, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa. Accessed from:
<http://nature.ca/aaflora/data>.
(18) <http://blog.emergencyoutdoors.com/30‐uses‐for‐wood‐ash/>
(19) <https://hencam.com/henblog/2012/02/compost‐bins‐and‐chicken‐manure/>
Dog poop graphic, pg. 17: <http://www.poop911.com/blog/>
(20) <http://www.flytrapcare.com/phpBB3/sphagnum‐moss‐not‐peat‐t2486.html> and Ecology North
(21) <https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/frozenground/animals.html>
(22) Daigle, J.Y., H. Gautreau‐Daigle, and D. Keys. 2001. Canadian peat harvesting and the environment,
2nd ed. North American Wetland Conservation Council Committee, Sustaining Wetlands Issue Paper,
No. 2001‐1. pp. 5.
(23) Ecology North
(24) <http://pallensmith.com/2016/06/29/bone‐meal‐vs‐blood‐meal‐whats‐difference/>
(25) <http://sacredjourneysracine.com/tag/good‐soil/>