Building More Livable Communities: Corridor Design ... · are the predominant cause of climate...
Transcript of Building More Livable Communities: Corridor Design ... · are the predominant cause of climate...
ENVIRONMENTChapter
3
Image source (this page): Dover Kohl and Associates.
Chapter Table of ContentsENVIRONMENT: Introduction....................................................................................................3–1
Energy and Air Quality...........................................................................................................3–3 Calculating Individual Carbon Footprint Reductions...........................................3–5 Calculating Community Carbon Footprint Reductions.........................................3–7 Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions.........................................................................3–9 Energy Efficiency................................................................................................................3–11 LEED and Green Buildings.............................................................................................3–13 Net Zero Buildings............................................................................................................3–15 Passive Haus.......................................................................................................................3–17 Community Lighting........................................................................................................3–19 Energy Efficiency of Existing Buildings....................................................................3–21 Enabling Zoning and Codes.........................................................................................3–23 Distributed Energy...........................................................................................................3–25 Green Utility Power..........................................................................................................3–27 Calculating Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction............................................3–29 Car-Alternative Choices.................................................................................................3–31 Green Fleets.......................................................................................................................3–33
Water Quality..........................................................................................................................3–35 Planning and Design for Stormwater Management............................................3–37 Daylighting Streams.......................................................................................................3–39 Green Roofs........................................................................................................................3–41 Native Landscaping........................................................................................................3–43 Pervious Pavement.........................................................................................................3–45 Rain Gardens and Bioswales........................................................................................3–47 Rainwater Harvesting.....................................................................................................3–49
Land Contamination............................................................................................................3–51 Brownfield Redevelopment.........................................................................................3–53 Blight Removal..................................................................................................................3–55
3-1 Corridor Design Portfolio
Average temperatures have been rising around the globe since
industrialization became dependent on petroleum and coal for its principal
energy source and emitted large amounts of smokestack pollutants. This
change is referred to as global warming. The overwhelming consensus of
scientists around the world is that global warming is contributing to
climate change.
“Climate models predict that the global climate will shift in a number of
ways over the next century in response to continued emissions of
greenhouse gases (GHGs).” We are likely to see global average sea levels
rise, rainfall patterns change, and experience more intense and frequent
extreme precipitation and drought events. Indeed, we are and have been
witness to these trends already. “Most climate scientists now agree that
increases in global concentrations of GHGs, largely attributable to humans,
are the predominant cause of climate change. Human activities, such as
driving cars, producing and consuming energy, and clearing forests” are
contributing GHG emissions into the atmosphere at a faster rate than the
earth’s land and water masses can absorb them.
“Climate change may have potentially catastrophic effects on both the
natural and human environments as it disrupts ecosystems and threatens
buildings, infrastructure, and human health. Expected shifts in climate may
reduce crop yields, increase the risk of invasive species, exacerbate drought
conditions,” intensify flooding, “and threaten endangered species.” (A
Performance-Based Approach to Addressing Greenhouse Gas Emissions through
Transportation Planning. December 2013. U.S. Department of Transportation. Federal
Highway Administration. FHWA-HEP-14-020.)
How do communities respond in the face of such daunting challenges, not
including local environmental issues such as stormwater management,
land contamination, and air quality that they face on a daily basis?
As communities look to the future and think about sustainability, there are
evolving technologies and innovative ideas emerging to ensure a healthy
and secure future. Remembering that all natural systems are
interconnected, communities are discovering for example that energy
efficiency techniques can be coupled with stormwater management
strategies to enhance objectives under both concepts and make gains
toward sustainability quicker. (The graphic on the opposite page shows
how these systems and concepts are all interconnected.)
Preserving the natural environment is essential for maintaining
community sustainability. Healthy ecosystems balance economic and
conservation needs by assuring adequate resources are available to meet
future needs. Communities that act as environmental stewards preserve
natural resources and open space; monitor energy use and seek alternate
sources; maintain biodiversity; enhance
water and air quality; and attempt to
mitigate for the effects of climate
change. (Sustainable Communities online. 2013.)
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ENVIRONMENT – ENERGY & AIR QUALITY
GLOSSARY
Biodiversity – Biological diversity or biodiversity is the range or variety
of plants, animals, and other living things in an area. It joins air, water,
and land as the living component that makes up earth.
Climate Change – Any significant change in the measures of climate
lasting for an extended period of time, including major changes in
temperature, precipitation, or wind patterns, among other effects, that
occur over several decades or longer. (U.S. EPA.)
Global Warming – Recent and ongoing rise in global average
temperature near the Earth's surface. It is caused mostly by increasing
concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Global
warming is causing climate patterns to change. However, global
warming itself represents only one aspect of climate change. (U.S. EPA.)
Greenhouse Gases – Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere, primarily
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases. Human
activities are responsible for almost all of the increase in greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere over the last 150 years. The largest source is
from burning fossil fuels for electricity, heat, and transportation.
(U.S. EPA.)
Stormwater – Rain and snow melt that runs off surfaces such as
rooftops, paved streets, highways, and parking lots that can pick up
pollution and flow directly into a local water body or, it may go into a
storm drain and continue through storm pipes until it is released
untreated into a local waterway. Large impervious surfaces in urban
areas increase the quantity of peak flows of runoff, causing flooding
and other detrimental hydrologic impacts.
Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT) – The count of miles traveled in a vehicle
in a certain period of time. This measurement is valuable not only in
transportation analysis but also in assessing air quality.
Graphic source: Land Policy Institute, Michigan State University.
3-3 Corridor Design Portfolio
Modern human activity heavily relies on the combustion of fossil fuels like oil,
coal, and natural gas. When fossil fuels burn they emit greenhouse gases like
carbon dioxide, a major contributor to global warming. The effect of any given
population can be measured by its carbon footprint, which is described as the
total amount of greenhouse gas created by that population. Cities and nations
around the globe are prioritizing the reduction of their carbon footprint, and
consequently their negative impact on the environment.
Community greenhouse gas emissions come from a few primary sources;
buildings, transportation, and waste. Sources can be direct (i.e. burning fuel in a
car or a stove) or indirect (i.e. burning fuel to produce a product that is later
purchased by consumers). Emitted greenhouse gases are mitigated by trees and
vegetation, which break down carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.
Many communities have successfully lowered their carbon footprint on the
consumption end through the adoption of policies and programs that reduce net
energy use at household and community-wide levels. A companion approach
focuses on the production end by investing in sources of energy that create fewer
greenhouse gases.
Some other approaches to reduce a community’s carbon footprint may include
and are presented as techniques:
Establishing native growth protection areas.
Preserving and enhancing the community’s tree canopy.
Converting vehicle fleets to hybrids.
Installing green roofs.
Replacing street lights and internal building lights with LEDs and all
appliances with ENERGY STAR approval.
Increasing weatherization of buildings to reduce the use of air
conditioning and heating.
Constructing future buildings to higher energy-efficient standards.
Purchasing higher percentages of electricity from renewable sources.
Uniform street tree planning operations to increase the tree canopy.
Unlike fossil fuel-based energy production, renewable energy production
methods use resources which are continually replenished, such as sunlight,
wind, and geothermal heat. The absence of directly burning fossil fuels
makes the net output of greenhouse gas from these methods much lower
than traditional techniques. The viability of renewable energy projects is
highly dependent on local weather, geography, and other conditions. (Text
adapted from the Image Flint: Master Plan for a Sustainable Flint. 2013. City of Flint.)
On the opposite page is an illustration of the changes made to a home in a
residential district that has implemented a variety of energy saving
treatments and green practices to serve as a model for other homeowners
and small businesses.
Image source (opposite page): Michigan Energy Options. Overlay illustration by Na Li, Land
Policy Institute, Michigan State University.
Graphic source (this page): State of Maryland, Climate Change Maryland. Multiple Benefits of
the Greenhouse Gas Reduction Plan. 2013.
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3-5 Corridor Design Portfolio
A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases (GHG) that are
produced either directly or indirectly from our activity. It can be calculated at
any scale: person, household, business, or community, and for any timeframe:
such as a year, or over the length of a trip.
There are many online carbon footprint calculators available and most of them
consider fuel consumption for travel, energy use (e.g., electric, gas, oil), food
consumption, and waste emissions to calculate a value in tons or pounds of CO2
emitted. An average household of four people emits an average of 83,000
pounds of CO2 per year (Household Carbon Footprint Calculator. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.).
Once a carbon footprint is established and an individual has reduced their
emissions as much as possible, they can choose to further offset their emissions
through carbon offsetting programs. These programs are offered by
organizations that support carbon reduction projects such as tree planting or
efficiency programs.
“Because the commercial carbon trade is an emerging market, it's difficult to
judge the quality of offset providers and projects. Trees don't always live a full
life, sequestration projects (for the long-term containment of emissions)
sometimes fail and offset companies occasionally deceive their customers. And
voluntary offsets can easily become an excuse to overindulge and not feel guilty
about it. Carbon offsets do, however, raise awareness about lowering the GHG
world total” (How Carbon Offsets Work. HowStuffWorks.).
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The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Household Carbon Footprint
Calculator calculates a household’s current carbon dioxide emissions,
offers suggestions for ways to reduce them, and estimates the savings of
those suggestions.
Source: Household Carbon Footprint Calculator. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Once a person has reduced his/her carbon footprint to the extent
possible, carbon offset programs offer an opportunity to further
reduce it by supporting programs that reduce greenhouse gases.
Source: Carbon Offsets. Carbon Jar.
This chart breaks down typical household carbon dioxide emissions in metric ton
by category. Transportation and housing create the bulk of emissions.
Source: “Tips on Reducing Your Carbon Footprint at Home.” February 28, 2014. Manas Datta.
Renewable Energy World.com.
RESOURCES
1) Household Carbon Footprint Calculator. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
2) What’s My Carbon Footprint? The Nature Conservancy.
3) How to Reduce Your Carbon Footprint. Carbonfund.org Foundation.
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A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases (GHG) that are
produced either directly or indirectly from our activity. In the same way
that a person can calculate his or her individual carbon footprint, so too can
a community.
Understanding a community’s carbon footprint is important not only for
meeting greenhouse gas emissions reduction goals, it can also be an important
consideration in fiscal decisions (see Governance – Balanced Budget, p. 2-37).
The ICLEI USA recently developed the U.S. Community Protocol (Community
Protocol) for Accounting and Reporting Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions to help
local governments account for and report on GHG emissions. It sets the national
standard and establishes requirements and recommended best practices or
developing community-wide GHG emissions inventories. The Community
Protocol is broken down into three steps:
1. Inventorying GHG emissions, at a minimum, including:
a. Electric use,
b. Fuel consumption in residential and commercial stationary
combustion equipment,
c. On-road passenger and freight vehicle travel,
d. Energy use in drinking water and wastewater treatment and
distribution systems, and
e. Solid waste generation.
2. Gather data and quantify the emissions.
3. Develop a report.
Next steps would be to set goals for government activities, examine policies and
programs to encourage reductions among residents and businesses, and lastly
explore partnerships that can help accomplish both.
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The Community Profile identifies likely sources of greenhouse gases emissions by
source within communities. Other categories that cannot be seen in this table
include wastewater and water, agricultural livestock, and upstream impacts of
community-wide activities.
Source: U.S. Community Protocol for Accounting and Reporting of Greenhouse Gas Emissions.
Version 1.1. July 2013. ICLEI-Local Government for Sustainability USA. P. 14.
The City of Hazel Park recently developed a Climate Action Plan.
Part of the plan involved inventorying existing conditions.
Source: The City of Hazel Park Energy Action Plan. September 2012. City of
Hazel Park.
The ICLEI’s Community-wide GHG Emissions Inventory is an excel spreadsheet
that walks a community through each emission source, quantifying emissions,
and calculating the footprint.
Source: Scoping and Reporting Tool. U.S. Community Protocol for Accounting and Reporting of
Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Scoping and Reporting Tool. October 2012. ICLEI-Local Government for
Sustainability USA.
RESOURCES
1) Climate Action Planning Resources. Michigan Suburbs Alliance.
2) U.S. Community Protocol for Accounting and Reporting of Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Version 1.1. July 2013. ICLEI-Local Government for Sustainability
USA. 3) “Quantifying Carbon Footprint Reduction Opportunities for U.S. Households and Communities.” 2011. Christopher M. Jones and Daniel M. Kammen.
Environmental Science & Technology. Vol 45. No. 9. Pp 4088-4095.
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Greenhouse gas emissions come from a variety of sources: electricity,
transportation, industry and commercial, residential, and agricultural uses.
While reducing emissions in one sector can have a big impact, research shows
that reductions in all sectors will be needed to curb the effects of greenhouse
gasses on global warming, and hence on climate change.
Although contributions to greenhouse gas emissions from buildings represent
ten percent of total emissions, it is this sector that individuals may feel they
have a more direct impact. Reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from
commercial and residential activities can be achieved by reducing energy use
through energy efficiency in homes and commercial buildings, making water and
wastewater systems more energy efficient, reducing solid waste sent to landfills
and capturing and using methane produced in current landfills, and reducing
leakage from refrigeration equipment. (Commercial & Residential. Sources of Greenhouse
Gas Emissions. Climate Change. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.)
Opportunities for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from the electricity
sector include:
Increased efficiency of power plans and fuel switching,
Renewable energy,
Increased energy efficiency,
Nuclear energy, and
Carbon capture sequestration and storage.
(Electricity. Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Climate Change: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency.)
For information on how to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the
transportation sector see Car-Alternative Choices, p. 3-31.
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Total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions by economic sector in 2012.
Source: Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Total energy demand in the residential sector in 2012.
Source: 2011 Buildings Energy Data Book, Section 2.1.5. March
2012. U.S. Department of Energy.
Lansing Board and Water and Light’s (LBW&L) first natural gas-fired power plant
and first cogeneration plant, the REO Town plant, generates up to 300,000
pounds of steam per hour and 100 megawatts of electricity. The plant is among
the most clean and efficient in the U.S. The $182 million project includes a new
headquarters for LBW&L and restoration of an historic railroad depot.
Source: Mid-Michigan Program for Greater Sustainability.
RESOURCES
1) Center for Clean Air Policy (CCAP).
2) Smart Growth Program. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
3) “Chapter 4: Energy Supply.” Climate Change 2007: Working Group III: Mitigation of Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
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Energy efficiency simply means there is a goal to reduce the amount of energy
required to do something. Energy efficiency can be optimized by using green
building designs, vehicles, and appliances, and investing in alternative fuels and
renewable energy to not only reduce carbon emissions, but in extreme cases can
reduce energy costs by up to 50%.
Energy efficiency can be achieved through simple changes, such as purchasing
products with the ENERGY STAR label and by using Low-emitting diode (LED)
light bulbs. In 1992, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S.
Department of Energy created the ENERGY STAR program, a voluntary program
to reduce air pollution and protect the environment. Products that display the
ENERGY STAR label use 20–30% less energy than required by federal standards
and may include: computers, appliances, electronics, lighting fixtures, heating
and cooling systems, and even homes and buildings. Since the implementation
of this program, energy savings have steadily increased and greenhouse gas
emissions have steadily decreased.
The LED light bulbs are another simple measure toward energy efficiency. The
LEDs produce visible light when an electric current passes through. The LEDs are
efficient by emitting light in one specific direction and being able to absorb the
generated heat into a heat sink. The LEDs are also more durable than other light
bulbs, with a life span of 20 years. Individual LED bulbs cost more than other
light bulbs up front however, with the longer lifespan and higher energy
efficiency they have a much higher return on investment.
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There are many ways to reduce energy production and consumption such as
investing in energy conservation, energy efficiency, and renewable energy are
shown here as steps to improve energy use.
Source: Energy Efficiency. Clean Air Council.
A comparison of output and lifespan of a traditional
incandescent, CFL, and LE light bulb.
Source: LED Light Energy Efficiency. June 19, 2014.
Thanks to the ENERGY STAR program, $30 billion has been saved and more than
227 million metric tons of emissions have been prevented.
Source: ENERGY STAR Overview of 2013 Achievements. March 1, 2014. ENERGY STAR.
RESOURCES
1) Energy Efficiency. U.S. Department of Energy.
2) About ENERGY STAR.
3) Learn About LEDs. ENERGY STAR.
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Green buildings take environmental responsibility into account by addressing
resource efficiency, waste reduction, and environmental conservation in every
stage of development, from design to demolition. The U.S. Green Building
Council (USGBC) was created in 1993 to promote sustainability in building
design. The USGBC developed the Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design (LEED) certification process to evaluate and provide credentials for green
building projects. The certification process requires project teams to define their
project type and choose a rating system, which provide specific credits to guide
the project. Project types include: Building Design and Construction, Interior
Design and Construction, Building Operations and Maintenance, Neighborhood
Development, and Homes. The credit categories are part of each project type
and range from sustainable sites and water efficiency, to indoor environmental
quality and innovation. There are four levels of LEED certification based on point
values awarded for the implementation of specific sustainable practices.
LEED certification recognizes best-in-class building design and practices and
provides proof to the public of a commitment to sustainability. Not only do LEED
certified and green buildings reduce human impact on the environment, they
also set an example for the future of a community. Green buildings demonstrate
how progress can occur without compromising current, future, or ever.
However, it will cost extra money to become LEED certified, with exact fees
amounts depending on size and details of the project.
According to a 2010 Green Economy Post, “in order to get $1.50 in energy
savings, the building owner had to invest $400,000 on green/LEED related items;
in other words, put down a $4.00 per square foot premium . . . it would take a
little over 2.5 years to receive your investment back.” Making green
improvements and achieving LEED certification can lead to energy savings
around 24-50% (USGBC) and an increase in property value.
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Green buildings focus on resource efficiency, waste reduction, and
environmental conservation, and see significant savings as a result.
Source: LEED Certification. Go Green Mechanisms, PVT. LDT.
The Christman Company building, located in Lansing, is the world’s first triple
platinum LEED project.
Source: The Christman Company Portfolio.
The LEED credit categories are to be met or exceeded by the project teams for
all project types.
Source: “How LEED Certification Can Be Even So Much Better for Green Building.” May 3,
2014. Bisagni Environmental Enterprise.
RESOURCES
1) LEED. U.S. Green Building Council.
2) Green Building. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
3) LEED. Natural Resources Defense Council.
4) “Return for Investment for Green/LEED Projects.” 2010. Ed LeBard. The Green Economy Post.
5) LEED Certification Fees. USGBC.
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Net zero buildings whether a commercial building or a home are perfect
examples of self-sufficiency as they produce and harvest energy on-site to
address all energy needs. The energy is generated through a combination of
renewable energy sources including wind and solar power, and by emphasizing
efficiency as part of the interior design through the use of ENERGY STAR
appliances, efficient and passive lighting, heating and cooling systems, etc. Most
net zero buildings have a connection to the grid as a back-up in the event of an
energy shortage or for energy storage in the case of an energy surplus.
The benefits associated with net zero buildings are many, starting with
efficiency. Efficiency is incorporated into the design, construction, and operation
of net zero buildings resulting in a decrease in overall energy consumption.
Other benefits include reductions in carbon emissions and reliance on fossil
fuels. By relying on renewable resources such as solar and wind energy, net zero
buildings shift the focus away from natural gas and coal reliance, which in turn
reduce carbon emissions. Finally, net zero buildings reduce energy costs because
the energy needed to function is generated on-site, which over time results in a
$0 energy bill.
The return on investment for net zero buildings typically ranges from six months
to 10 years.
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This graph displays how Net Zero Buildings work to reduce energy consumption
while simultaneously increasing the use of renewable energy sources over time.
Source: “Net Zero Energy Benefits, Strategies and Costs of Achieving the Next Generation of
Buildings.” March 11, 2014. K. Kuettel. Environmental Building Strategies.
Michigan’s first Net Zero Energy home, located in Ann Arbor.
Source: “America's Oldest and Michigan's First Net Zero Energy.” October 23, 2010.
J. Kart. TreeHugger.com.
The Adam Joseph Lewis Center for Environmental Studies at Oberlin College,
located in Ohio is not only net zero, but also has a ‘living machine’ which recycles
wastewater for reuse.
Source: “Oberlin College: Setting a Sustainable Example in Ohio.” July 8, 2008. E. Lee. Inhabitat.
RESOURCES
1) Net Zero Energy Buildings. Whole Building Design Guide.
2) 2014 Map of Zero Net Energy Verified Buildings. New Buildings Institute.
3) Net Zero Buildings Magazine.
3-17 Corridor Design Portfolio
Passive Haus (Passive House) is a building standard developed in the 1990s in
Germany which focuses on cost-effective thermal comfort and energy
efficient design. According to the Passive House Institute, “passive houses
are praised for the high level of comfort they offer. Internal surface
temperatures vary little from indoor air temperatures, even in the face of
extreme outdoor temperatures.”
The principles of passive house design are:
Super insulation – reduces heat transfer through walls;
Airtightness – outside air exchange is controlled through ventilation to
minimize heat loss;
Minimal thermal bridging – higher thermal resistant insulation prevents
heat loss;
Optimization of passive solar gain – triple-pain passive windows prevent
heat penetration in summer and allow heat exchange in the winter; and
Ventilation with heat recovery – maintain air quality.
All of these features contribute to the major benefit of passive house design:
extremely low energy use. Passive house design also provides comfortable
indoor temperatures paired with high quality indoor air quality. Passive house
design provides a superior living condition without consuming more energy and
has been given the slogan, “doing more, with less.” Passive house design is
especially sustainable because it can be utilized in all climates around the world
(Passive House Alliance).
The cost of passive house design is 7–10% more than a standard home but
ultimately results in energy savings up to 70%.
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This image shows how ventilation is optimized in Passive House design: super
insulation, airtightness, minimal thermal bridging, passive solar gain, and
heat recovery.
Source: PassiveHaus. ArchiHaus, UK.
The Jung Haus is a certified passive house, located in Oakland
County, Michigan.
Source: Michigan PassiveHaus. July 15, 2013. FineHomeBuilding.
This graph displays how Passive House design compares to others in terms of
annual energy use.
Source: “What's Our Excuse?” June 24, 2010. D. Bertolet. Seattle Met.
RESOURCES
1) Passive House Institute.
2) What is a Passive House? U.S. Passive House Alliance.
3) Lansing Michigan Passive House Alliance. Green Home Institute.
4) Financial Benefits of Investing in a Passive House. GO Logic.
3-19 Corridor Design Portfolio
Lighting is an important element of a community. It affects walkability, traffic
speeds and flow, people’s willingness to go to downtowns, and public safety
(traffic vs. personal safety, etc.). It can also be expensive and adds to our carbon
footprint. Placement of lighting and use of green technologies can help in many
of these areas.
“Appropriately-scaled and attractive lighting is a critical component of creating
walkable streets. . . Increasing illumination low to the ground in public parking
lots, at building entries, public plazas and transit stops create a secure and
comfortable place for pedestrians. A combination of pedestrian-scaled street
light fixtures and intersection street light fixtures ensure a well-lit street area and
establishes a unifying element along the street. Placement of fixtures should be
coordinated with the organization of sidewalks, landscaping, street trees,
building entries, curb cuts, signage, etc. Light fixtures that are downcast or low
cut-off fixtures prevent glare and light pollution. In order to conserve energy and
reduce long-term costs, energy-efficient lamps should be used for all public realm
lighting.” (The Capitol Corridor Plan. 2014.)
Many homeowners, businesses, and communities are upgrading older lighting
systems to LEDs (light-emitting diodes) which can be more efficient, durable,
and long-lasting. However the cost of upgrading to LEDs on a large scale can
be substantial.
Daylighting is an efficient building technique designed to allow natural sunlight
into buildings. Through creative uses of glass and steel, buildings can use
sunlight to reduce the amount of energy needed to artificially light and heat
spaces. If used effectively, daylighting can be a cost-efficient and healthy way to
light buildings and promote a healthy indoor environment.
3-20 Corridor Design Portfolio
Lighting placement and design can reduce effects of light pollution and preserve the
night sky. Meridian Township has Dark Sky components in their lighting ordinance
and Emmet County‘s The Headlands is one of only six Dark Sky Parks in the country.
Source: “New Dark Sky Park in Michigan Preserves the Night Sky for Stargazers.” May 18, 2011. Andrew
Michler. Los Angeles Institute of Architecture and Design.
Keeping the height of light fixtures low (less than 15 feet) promotes a pedestrian
scale in the public realm and minimizes light spill to adjoining properties. Closely
spacing light fixtures in urban areas (less than 30 feet) provides appropriate
levels of illumination; however, in Neighborhood General and Edge, close spacing
may not be desirable or necessary. (The Capitol Corridor Plan. 2014.) This table shows
which style of lighting is best suited for each character zone.
Source: Dover-Kohl and Associates, under contract to the Tri-County Regional Planning
Commission, reproduced by permission, p. 4.47.
In 1923, architect Albert Kahn designed the Cadillac Place in Detroit (Formerly
General Motors Headquarters), a building with four large 15-story office towers,
all having maximum exposure to natural light. Kahn’s design maximized space
and opened the majority of the large complex to sunlight.
Source: Cadillac Place (GM Building), New Center. Panoramino.
RESOURCES
1) International Dark-Sky Association.
2) Article VII: Outdoor Lighting Ordinance. Meridian Charter Township.
3) LED Street Lighting: A Handbook for Small Communities. Anne Kimber, Jonathan Roberts, Joel Logan, Mike Lambert. Iowa Association of Municipal
Utilities.
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One way of achieving energy efficiency without starting from scratch, can be to
improve upon what already exists; simple upgrades can be made toward energy
efficiency through retrofitting existing buildings.
According to research from Boston University, “existing commercial buildings
currently account for 24% of US carbon emissions” with heating, ventilation, and
air conditioning (HVAC) representing most energy inefficiencies. In order to
improve existing buildings, inefficiencies must be identified and evaluated,
which can be done through an energy audit. Home and commercial energy
audits assess the current energy use and efficiency of HVAC, lighting, insulation,
windows, and appliances. Based on the results of the audit, recommendations
can be made to improve the energy efficiency of the building. Audits also
provide a benchmark for building performance to compare to after
improvements have been made.
The following is a list of some improvements that can be made to increase
energy efficiency of existing buildings:
Install energy efficient light bulbs;
Install low-flow sink faucets, shower heads, toilets;
Choose eco-friendly paints, adhesives, coatings, etc.;
Replace windows with double- or triple-paned windows;
Replace appliances with ENERGY STAR label appliances; and
Update HVAC systems.
Once energy efficiency improvements have been made, the return on
investment is typically fully realized within three years.
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This chart shows a comparison of how energy is consumed in residential and
commercial buildings in the U.S.
Source: “Sustaining our Future by Rebuilding Our Past.” October 28, 2009. Liam. Integrated
Environmental Solutions.
Source: Programs and Services. Michigan Energy Options.
Michigan Energy Options (MEO) in East Lansing is an example of an
energy-efficient, existing building and operates as an energy
demonstration center. MEO also provides services such as residential
and commercial energy audits.
This image depicts how dual- and triple-paned windows work efficiently to let
light in, while preventing heat gain in the summer and heat loss in the winter.
Source: Energy Efficient Windows. The Window Source.
Source: XXXXXXXX
RESOURCES
1) “Building a Brighter, More Efficient Tomorrow with Energy Saving, Cost Saving Home Improvements.” May 27, 2014. Michigan Department of Licensing
and Regulatory Affairs.
2) Michigan Energy De monstration Centers. MEDC.
3-23 Corridor Design Portfolio
As technology continues to advance, we are being allowed to realize greater
efficiencies and cost savings. One example of this is by implementing distributed
energy systems, which restructure the energy grid into a self-regulating system
where electricity can flow in all directions. Distributed energy systems can
include renewable energy sources, such as wind; and alternative energy sources,
such as solar, waste-to-energy, cogeneration or combined heat and power (CHP)
and smart grids. Benefits of distributed energy systems include higher efficiency,
a cleaner environment through investment in green energy, and increased
reliability and faster response time.
Many green building or energy efficient retrofitting may also require changes in
building codes and zoning. Examples include commercial or residential solar and
wind technologies to existing buildings.
In order to capitalize on these opportunities, communities often need to update
zoning and building codes and land use policies to enable and encourage such
advancements. Most building codes are outdated and do not reflect new
available opportunities for efficiency. For example, emergency exits signs are
required to be lit at all times but policy does not take into consideration that
motion sensors could help save energy and signal the light when needed. Also,
in the relatively small percentage of Michigan’s jurisdictions with planning and
zoning authority and that have specific sections devoted to renewable or
distributed energy sources, the content of the applicable sections is not
necessarily consistent from jurisdiction to jurisdiction and may lead to
interjurisdictional disputes.
The electricity grid will need to be updated to incorporate renewable energy
found in remote locations and to support widely distributed storage devices.
Finally, energy efficiency will need to be intertwined into design principles for
new construction and city planning to make distributed energy systems and use
affordable, realistic and effective.
3-24 Corridor Design Portfolio
This graphic depicts a traditional grid compared to a smart grid with distributed
energy, which allows for energy to flow in many more directions.
Source: Smart Grid Future Capabilities. January 1, 2014. Smart Grid.
In 2011, the city of Troy began permitting active and passive
solar energy systems in all zoning classifications. Pictured here is
a home in Troy with solar panels.
Source: Planning and Zoning for Solar Energy. 2011. 8-8. American Planning
Association.
Gratiot County implemented a county-wide zoning policy to support wind
energy programs and installed three wind farms and several hundred turbines in
2011 to power 54,000 homes each year.
Source: “Michigan County Embraces Giant Wind Farms, Bucking a Trend.” March 22, 2011. Weatherford, L.
RESOURCES
1) Ordinances/Bylaws. Municipal Clean Energy Toolkit. ICLEI USA.
2) Department of Energy: Building Energy Codes.
3) “Our Choice.” Al Gore.
3-25 Corridor Design Portfolio
Distributed energy simply means electricity is generated from many small sources, rather
than a few large ones. Distributed energy sources include cogeneration, solar energy, wind
energy, vehicle-to-grid systems, location-to-grid sources (residential or commercial) and
waste-to-energy systems.
Solar energy can be implemented privately, by installing solar panels and shingles on homes,
or it can be implemented in a shared style called community solar. This method allows
individual investors to receive solar power generated from a community solar garden in
proportion to their investment. There are a variety of community solar models that provide
different opportunities for individuals to invest in solar energy projects locally-owned either
by utility companies, enterprises or nonprofit organizations. Solar energy overall has benefits
of reducing dependency on fossil fuels and, therefore, reducing harmful emissions.
Community solar has additional benefits when compared to private generation. Community
solar is available to those that could not otherwise invest in solar energy, including renters,
those with inadequate roofs due to size and orientation, those subject to strict building
codes, etc. Community solar is an affordable way for individuals to pool resources and invest
in renewable energy.
Some utilities allow solar (community or individual) or anaerobic digester customers to sell
surplus energy back to the utilities under a contract and at a fixed price. This helps them
meet their state-mandated 2015 renewable portfolio standard.
Waste-to-energy is a process where non-recyclable materials are converted into usable heat,
electricity, or fuel, usually through a process that uses an anaerobic digester. Waste biomass
materials (i.e., animal manure, food waste and natural waste materials) can also be used. The
benefits of waste-to-energy systems include reducing waste production and dependency on
fossil fuels, carbon emissions, methane generation at landfills, and sludge and other solid
waste from wastewater treatment plants.
Waste-to-energy systems have an inherent advantage over most renewable sources in that
they are not considered intermittent like wind and solar. Potential problems with
intermittent distributed energy sources would need to be addressed. For example,
intermittent sources may not be able to meet demand if there isn’t wind or sun, lack of
battery technologies that can store energy onsite until it is needed, line losses and
inadequate system infrastructure. In addition, upgrading or extending interconnections to
remote locations can result in significant environmental impacts and land-use conflicts.
3-26 Corridor Design Portfolio
Distributed energy is generated from smaller sources with two-way flow when
excess energy is sent to the grid, whereas central energy generation is one-way
dispersion from larger plants.
Source: Hands-On Activity: Windmill of Your Mind – Distributed Energy Goes to School.
TeachEngineering Digital Library.
The MSU’s anaerobic digester converts food wastes from the cafeterias,
food production waste from Meijer’s, and animal wastes from farming
operations and sells electricity generated to Consumers Energy.
Source: Facilities. Anaerobic Digestion Research and Education. Michigan State
University.
Michigan’s first Community Solar Project is a 224-panel solar array located in
Traverse City on the property of Cherryland Electric Cooperative and launched in
the spring of 2013. There is an inherent demand for solar: the project sold out all
the panels to the community within the first year and has plans to install more.
Source: “Community Solar Coming of Age in Michigan.” May 27, 2014. A. Balaskovitz. Midwest
Energy News.
RESOURCES
1) Solar Gardens Community Power.
2) A Guide to Community Solar. 2010. U.S. Department of Energy. Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy.
3) Energy Recovery from Waste. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
3-27 Corridor Design Portfolio
Green utility power programs provide clean energy by investing in renewable
energy sources, including geothermal, solar, wind, biomass, hydro, cogenerati
and waste-to-energy facilities.
Cogeneration, or combined heat and power (CHP), is the use of a heat engine
simultaneously generate heat and electricity. This heat engine recaptures exce
thermal energy, which is a byproduct of electricity generation typically wasted
traditional power generation systems. The CHP is completed on-site, in one
location, reducing distribution losses and allowing for system efficiencies
around 80%.
Wind occurs as a result of air pressure differences from uneven solar heating,
which can be harnessed to transform kinetic energy into mechanical energy. I
the past, windmills were used to harvest wind to pump water for instance, an
today wind turbines are being used to harvest wind to generate electricity. W
turbines operate at least 100 feet high, typically with three rotating blades. As
wind turns the blades, a shaft begins rotating that is connected to an electricity
generator. Wind is a clean, renewable resource which produces no harmful
pollutants; however, turbines can be noisy and destructive for winged wildlife.
Green utility power programs generate renewable energy certificates (RECs) as
they generate renewable energy. According to the U.S. EPA, RECs “represent the
property rights to the environmental, social, and other nonpower qualities of
renewable electricity generation.” The RECs can be purchased to not only track
renewable energy generation but to also incentivize further green utility
power development.
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This diagram shows how both heat and electricity can be efficiently generated
from CHP or cogeneration systems.
Source: Combined Heat and Power: A Clean Energy Solution. August 1, 2012. U.S. Department of
Energy.
This diagram illustrates how renewable energy certificates
(RECs) work in comparison to conventional energy
generation.
Source: Renewable Energy Certificates. January 1, 2014. 3Degrees, Inc.
This image provides an explanation on how a wind turbine works.
Source: How Does it Work? Turning Wind into Electricity. Wind Energy. Storm Lake.
RESOURCES
1) CPH. American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy.
2) American Wind Energy Association.
3) Energy 101 – Wind Turbines 2014 Update.
4) REC tracking and auditing: Green-e.
1)
3-29 Corridor Design Portfolio
Reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is an important goal. See Reducing
Greenhouse Gas Emissions, p. 3-9 and Car Alternative Choices, p. 3-31. But how
can a community know if it is making an impact? There are a range of methods
and resources to both quantify and qualify transportation related treatments
and their impact on greenhouse gas emissions.
Studies show that decreasing vehicular speeds can lead to increased road
capacity. Transportation capacity can be thought of much like rice being poured
through a funnel. When the rice is poured quickly, it backs up; but when poured
slower, it flows through the funnel evenly. This finding is significant not only
from a capacity standpoint, but also when considering impacts on greenhouse
gas emissions and road diets. Recent qualitative analysis shows that there is an
optimal range for setting speeds on various types of roads to reduce emissions.
Quantitative analysis based on traffic flow theory can be used to compare
emissions reductions for before and after treatment such as road diets. This
method uses vehicle miles traveled (VMT) as a substitute function for delay.
Simply combine the reduced VMT with the emissions factor and miles per gallon
to get a comparison of before and after treatments. The Michigan Department
of Transportation, through the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ)
project, has developed worksheets for various treatments to calculate emission
reductions and cost-benefit analyses.
The U.S. Department of Energy and the Argonne National Laboratory developed
a carbon and petroleum footprint calculator, GREET Fleet, to help communities
assess their medium-heavy duty equipment for petroleum displacement and
GHG emissions.
3-30 Corridor Design Portfolio
This graph shows greenhouse gas emissions in relation to speed. Emissions on
arterials are lowest within the 20–35 mph range. This can be important
information for a community when considering road diets and speed changes.
Source: “Traffic Congestion and Greenhouse Gases.” Fall 2009. Matthew Barth and Kanok
Boriboonsomsin. Access Magazine. Number 35.
Average emission reduction and fuel savings per day per vehicle for
gasoline passenger cars as a result of a carpool program.
Source: Sample Calculation of Emission Reductions and Fuel Savings from a Carpool
Program. September 2008. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of
Transportation and Air Quality.
This graph shows how vehicular capacity increases as speed decreases, a
counter-intuitive concept, in a typical signalized main street corridor for through
vehicles. This is because there is less traffic build up and hence delay as occurs on
higher speed roadways. It is also why travelers divert to slower speed roads when
traffic jams occur because traffic still keeps moving, though at slower speeds.
Source: Traffic Engineering, Second Ed. Roger P. Roess, Elena S. Prassass, William R. McShane.
Prentice Hall.
RESOURCES
1) Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ). Michigan Department of Transportation.
2) INVEST. U.S. Department of Transportation. Federal Highway Administration.
3) National Vehicle & Fuel Emissions Laboratory (NVFEL). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
4) MOVES (Motor Vehicle Emission Simulator). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
3-31 Corridor Design Portfolio
The transportation sector is one of the largest sources of U.S. greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions, which contribute to global warming. In 2012, transportation
represented approximately 28% of total U.S. GHG emissions. “The majority of
greenhouse gas emissions from transportation are Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
emissions resulting from the combustion of petroleum-based products, like
gasoline, in internal combustion engines. The largest sources of transportation-
related greenhouse gas emissions include passenger cars and light-duty trucks,
including sport utility vehicles, pickup trucks and minivans. These sources
account for more than half of the emissions from the sector. The remainder of
greenhouse gas emissions comes from other modes of transportation, including
freight trucks, commercial aircraft, ships, boats and trains, as well as pipelines
and lubricants. Greenhouse gas emissions from transportation have increased by
about 18% since 1990. This historical increase is largely due to increased demand
for travel and the limited gains in fuel efficiency across the U.S. vehicle fleet. The
number of vehicle miles traveled by passenger cars and light-duty trucks
increased 35% from 1990 to 2012.”(Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Climate
Change. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.)
While transportation continues to contribute a large percentage of U.S.
greenhouse gas emissions, there are exciting opportunities for the sector to
deliver significant greenhouse gas reductions. Reducing the number of vehicle
miles traveled is one approach to reducing greenhouse gases from
transportation. Shifting to electric hybrids, diesel, propane and other less-
polluting energy sources is another way. Increasing transportation choices that
are not dependent on personal vehicles includes walking, biking and using
various forms of mass transit. Other approaches include improving fuel
efficiency, and improving operating practices.
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wa
“It is possible to cut GHG emissions from the transportation sector cost-
effectively by up to 65% below 2010 levels by 2050 by improving vehicle
efficiency, shifting to less carbon intensive fuels, changing travel behavior, and
operating more efficiently” including improved highway system efficiency and
more compact development. This table shows the type of transportation along
with impact of implemented strategies.
Source: “Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions from U.S. Transportation.” January 2011. P. 16. David
L. Greene and Steven E. Plotkin. Pew Center on Climate Change.
Source: How Low-Carbon Can You Go: The Green Travel Ranking. Sightline Institute.
Transportation modes differ in their greenhouse gas emissions. This chart
shows that walking, biking, and adding a traveler to an existing mode are
the best strategies for reducing personal travel emissions.
This graphic compares the annual Carbon Dioxide emissions (per passenger
kilometers) required to fuel a bike, bus, and car. It includes all CO2 emissions
from production, distribution, and consumption. The calculated value is based
on average occupancy rates of 1.16 for cars, 10 for buses, and one for bicycles.
Source: Meeting CO2 Targets through Cycling. European Cyclists’ Federation.
RESOURCES
1) “Chapter 5: Transport and its infrastructure.” Climate Change 2007: Working Group III: Mitigation of Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change.
2) Air Quality Monitoring. Travel Forecasting Resource.
3) Transportation’s Role in Reducing U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Volume 1: Synthesis Report. April 2010. Report to Congress. U.S. Department of
Transportation.
3-33 Corridor Design Portfolio
Providing for sustainable transportation options is a big and growing issue.
Because of the large scope of the mobility challenge, even small-scale programs
can have a positive impact on reducing petroleum consumption and emissions
considering that transportation today accounts for 95% of global oil
consumption and nearly 30% of world energy use. “The convergence of rising oil
prices, technological innovation, government incentives, consumer awareness,
and corporate fleet sustainability planning creates new opportunities to embrace
clean transportation solutions” (Clean Energy Coalition.).
Replacing or converting vehicles that consume gasoline and diesel to alternative
fuels such as propane, natural gas, ethanol, waste cooking oil, electric, and
hybrid fuels is one way that businesses, institutions, and local and state
government are implementing sustainability and cost savings at the same time.
All types of vehicles are being tested. Everything from delivery vehicles, school
busses, waste and dump trucks, and standard vehicles are being replaced or
retrofitted with new technology.
As more green fleets come on line, it will be important for communities to
supply the supporting infrastructure, like charging stations for electric vehicles,
to keep them running.
3-34 Corridor Design Portfolio
Ann Arbor has replaced 7,000 vehicles with clean-fueled vehicles since 2000. In
2010 alone, it displaced more than 3 million gallons of gasoline. The city’s goal is
to reduce fuel use by 10% in 10 years through the purchase of fuel efficient and
alternative fuel vehicles. This dump truck was converted from petroleum fuel to
a hydraulic hybrid electric system.
Source: Greater Lansing Area Clean Cities.
In 2011, Auburn Hills was the first municipality in Michigan to adopt a
comprehensive Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Ordinance and developed
a model regulatory sign that is being considered as a national standard.
Source: City of Auburn Hills.
Detroit is modifying its refuse fleet with hybrid technology that optimizes fuel
economy. The incremental cost of $40,000 for the hybrid retrofit has a 4-6 year
payback period depending on fuel cost. Hybrid systems offer fuel cost savings
(up to 25%) over the life of the vehicle and reduces maintenance costs.
Source: “Hybrid Trucks for Municipal Waste.” Optimization of Detroit’s Refuse Collection. Clean Energy Coalition.
RESOURCES
1) Clean Energy Coalition.
2) Plug-In Michigan.
3) Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center. U.S. Department of Energy.
3-35 Corridor Design Portfolio
“Water quality can be thought of as a measure of the suitability of water for
a particular use, based on physical, chemical, and biological characteristics”
(U.S. Geological Survey).
There are two primary components in a water ecosystem: surface water and
ground water, but there are many factors that affect the quality of each
including impervious surface area, point source pollution (e.g., from
factories), nonpoint source pollution (e.g. from transportation and
agriculture-related activities), erosion, and land use. Managing this system
for improved water quality is no small feat, especially as we consider the
challenges ahead of us including: continued pollution, drinking water
safety and security, and the delivery infrastructure that is aging and in
need of replacement. Global warming contributes to drought, flooding,
fiercer storms, fires, and erratic weather patterns and will only exacerbate
these problems.
Most of the techniques related to water quality focus on stormwater
management, arguably where community action can have the greatest
impact. Many of the techniques presented can be adapted to scale for
different needs: smaller (commercial or residential sites) or larger scales
(part of restoration projects).
Today’s philosophy toward stormwater management techniques center on
treating water as closely to the source as possible and managing the
changing flow regimes to allow for as much absorption as possible.
This philosophy may prove to be a major cost savings by diverting water
that would otherwise go through expensive municipal stormwater
systems. On the opposite page is an illustration of the changes made to
a commercial development area implementing a variety of stormwater
management and water quality treatments.
Graphic source (this page): U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Image source (opposite page): Dover-Kohl and Associates, under contract to the Tri-
County Regional Planning Commission, reproduced by permission. Overlay illustration
by Na Li, Land Policy Institute, Michigan State University.
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3-37 Corridor Design Portfolio
“Stormwater runoff is a major cause of water pollution in urban areas. When
rain falls in undeveloped areas, the water is absorbed and filtered by soil and
plants. When rain falls on roofs, streets and parking lots, however, the water
cannot soak into the ground. In most urban areas, stormwater is drained
through engineered collection systems and discharged into nearby
waterbodies. The stormwater carries trash, bacteria, heavy metals and other
pollutants from the urban landscape, degrading the quality of the receiving
waters. Higher flows can also cause erosion and flooding in urban streams,
damaging habitat, property and infrastructure.
Green infrastructure uses vegetation, soils, and natural processes to manage
water and create healthier urban environments. At the scale of a city or county,
green infrastructure refers to the patchwork of natural areas that provides
habitat, flood protection, cleaner air, and cleaner water.” These include natural
areas, greenways, parks and open spaces, use conservation easements for
natural resource and land protection, and green streets. “At the scale of a
neighborhood or site, green infrastructure refers to stormwater management
systems that mimic nature by soaking up and storing water.” These include rain
harvesting techniques, rain gardens, bioswales, community gardens, agricultural
land, bioretention facilities, rooftop gardens and use of permeable pavers (U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Water: Green Infrastructure.).
Many of the techniques available emphasize principles of low-impact design, “an
approach to land development (or re-development) that works with nature to
manage stormwater as close to its source as possible. By implementing LID
principles and practices, water can be managed in a way that reduces the impact
of built areas and promotes the natural movement of water within an ecosystem
or watershed. Applied on a broad scale, LID can maintain or restore a
watershed's hydrologic and ecological functions.” (U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Water: Low Impact Development.).
3-38 Corridor Design Portfolio
Drawing of stormwater being absorbed in various plants and soils before a small
amount runs of the property.
Source: Urban Stream Restoration with Innovative Green Stormwater Infrastructure. Cobbs Creek
Stream Corridor Restoration, Philadelphia, PA. Dewberry.
Image of a stormwater retention pond at Fairview Park in Lansing. This pond
is part of a larger stormwater management project in Lansing that involves
the Tollgate Drain.
Source: GoogleMaps.
Image of a bioswale that has been planted with native wildflowers in
Meridian Township.
Source: Towar Rain Garden Drains. Meridian Township & City of East Lansing, Ingham County,
Michigan. SEMCOG.
RESOURCES
1) Green Mid-Michigan.
2) Stormwater. Michigan Department of Environmental Quality.
3) “Chapter 12, Low Impact Development.” 1999. Stormwater Strategies: Community Response to Runoff Pollution. Natural Resource Defense Council.
4) Green Infrastructure. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
5) Green Infrastructure. 2014. Southeast Michigan Council of Governments.
3-39 Corridor Design Portfolio
Prior to industrialization, river systems were used for navigation and food. As
cities became industrialized, cities began using rivers to dispose of sewage,
chemicals and other waste products. Many municipalities and federal agencies
also paved river bottoms and/or straightened rivers to try to manage flooding
and control pollution. Bolstered by the Clean Water Acts and an awareness of
the importance of natural systems, communities have begun daylighting streams
or restoring rivers and streams to their natural state, uncapped and without
concrete bottoms. These changes have remediated these natural water bodies
and helped to restore their ecosystems to their natural state.
The Grand River in Jackson is a Michigan example of a river soiled by waste and
garbage. During Jackson’s birth as an industrial city, the river was largely used as
a dumping station, until the residents complained of a stench in downtown. A
solution was devised to straighten and narrow the river through downtown, to
remove waste quicker and more efficiently. In 1936, a 2,000 foot stretch of the
river in downtown was capped with concrete and covered (top right). Although
the river was capped, the odorous water was still a problem in the downtown
area, and six individuals have drowned in the capped portion. The river stayed
this way until 2000 when the cap was removed. Now, the Grand River in
downtown Jackson is clean and is a natural amenity for the community. Arcadia
Creek in Kalamazoo and the Clinton River in Pontiac are two other Michigan
cities where streams are now being daylighted to provide a natural amenity.
3-40 Corridor Design Portfolio
The Grand River in Jackson as its concrete cap was being removed. The river had
been capped in concrete in downtown from 1937–2000.
Source: 16 Days of Jackson-Day 6 – The Grand River, Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow. 2013. How
Jackson of You.
The Rouge River in Dearborn after it was converted to a
concrete channel to control flooding.
Source: “Fill ‘er Up” in Urban Issues. May 31, 2011. Bootstrap Analysis.
The Grand River in Jackson as it is today-uncapped and in a natural state.
Source: 16 Days of Jackson-Day 6 – The Grand River, Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow. 2013. How
Jackson of You.
RESOURCES
1) “Showing Buried Streams the Daylight.” Science Matters Newsletter. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
2) Daylighting Streams: Breathing Life into Urban Streams and Communities. Reports and Publications. American Rivers.
3) “Stream ‘Daylighting’ Offers Benefits, Challenges.” September 3, 2013. Jay Landers. Civil Engineering Magazine. American Society of Civil Engineering.
4) Stream Daylighting. Center for Community Progress.
3-41 Corridor Design Portfolio
Stormwater runoff is a major environmental planning challenge for many
communities. Large institutional buildings can create significant amounts of
stormwater runoff which can carry pollutants to natural water bodies. Green
roofs are an environmental planning technique that capture stormwater on the
roofs of buildings and significantly reduces the amount of water that runs off of
the roof. They are roofs that are partially or completely covered in vegetation
and also have a waterproof barrier to prevent leakage.
Buildings with green roofs capture rainwater at the point where it first touches
the roof and use that water to nourish the living roof. As a result, contaminated
water does not runoff the roof and into a storm sewer, but stays on the roof an
is absorbed there.
Green roofs have many benefits other than controlling stormwater runoff. The
absorb heat in warm months and act as an insulator in cold months, reducing
the amount of energy needed in all seasons (EPA, 2013). Green roofs also help
reduce air pollution by reducing the amount of energy a building uses for
cooling, as well as absorbing pollutants in the air and soil that blow across the
roof (EPA, 2013).
Green roofs also improve quality of life. In many areas, green roofs are treated
like park spaces, with benches and other similar park amenities. They create
more public open spaces and provide additional spaces for leisure in urban
areas. While green roofs initially cost more than traditional roofs to install, they
have the potential for significant savings over their lifetime, due to decreased
energy costs and a positive impact on the natural environment (USEPA green
roofs.).
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y
3-42 Corridor Design Portfolio
Image of a green roof at a Ford manufacturing facility in Dearborn. This is
the world’s largest green roof measuring 10.4 acres in size. At capacity, the
green roof can hold one inch of rainfall and it absorbs carbon dioxide and
emits oxygen.
So urce: Think Pictures.
A schematic drawing of a green roof. Compared to a black roof, a
three-inch to six-inch green roof covering 10,000 feet has a Net
Present Value of $2.70 per square foot per year, a payback of
6.2 years and an Internal Rate of Return of 5.2% nationally
(UGSA, 2011).
Source: Greening our Rooftops. 2011. Riley, Trish. Subaru.
Green roofs atop Agro-Culture Liquid Fertilizers’ headquarters in St. Johns are
one of many assets of this Gold LEED-certified building.
Source: Holly Madill, Planning & Zoning Center at MSU.
RESOURCES
1) Green Roof Project. Michigan State University.
2) Green Construction. Michigan Department of Environmental Quality.
3) Green Roofs. U.S. General Services Administration.
3-43 Corridor Design Portfolio
Native landscaping is a natural method of providing green space around
buildings, parking lots, and sidewalks and roadways. Native landscaping uses
plants that can be found growing naturally in the area. It is effective because
the plants already flourish naturally in the climate and soil of the area where
they will be installed, reducing the amount of plants that will have to be
replaced, or die.
Many installations of native landscaping use leafy grasses that are hearty plant
species to help reduce the amount of stormwater runoff that occurs around
hard surfaces. These hearty installations will create a green environment where
none exists, have an aesthetic appeal, environmental benefits, and will not
easily die out.
Often, native plants need less water to succeed, because they thrive naturally in
the environment already. Instead of using large amounts of water to keep non-
native plants alive, native plants often require relatively smaller amounts of
water to thrive.
Native landscaping can be a low-cost and effective way to decorate buildings
and spaces around hard surfaces to not only provide an aesthetic benefit, but
environmental benefits as well. However, relative to traditional landscaping
materials, they may not be competitive based on cost alone.
3-44 Corridor Design Portfolio
Native landscaping on the shore of a Michigan lake. Native plants enhance the
aesthetic appeal of an area, but also reduce the amount of harmful runoff enters
a water body.
Source: “Green Living: Natural Shorescaping Workshop Planned for Homeowners, Landscapers.”
October 20, 2011. Alyssa Merten. Mlive.com and The Muskegon Chronicle.
Native plants and grasses outside the Cranbrook Institute of Science
in Bloomfield Hills. Native landscaping near large public buildings
reduces the amount of stormwater runoff from rooftops.
Source: Rain Gardens & Rain Barrels. Freshwater Forum. Cranbrook Institute of
Science. Michigan Museum of Natural History.
Native grasses at the Great Lakes Maritime Academy in Traverse City.
Source: John Warbach, Land Policy Institute, Michigan State University.
RESOURCES
1) Greenacres: Landscaping with Native Plants. Great Lakes. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
2) Water-Smart Landscapes: Start with WaterSense. 2013. USEPA.
3) “Landscaping for Water Quality: Concepts and Garden Designs for Homeowners, 2nd ed.” 2004. Center for Environmental Study.
3-45 Corridor Design Portfolio
Pervious pavers are a road engineering technique that allow rain to permeate
the surface of the pavement and seep through to the ground below. This
technique is especially applicable for installations in parking lots, driveways,
sidewalks and roadways, where large non-permeable surfaces cause massive
amounts of stormwater runoff. Available types include concrete, asphalt, pre-
cast paving blocks, paving bricks and blocks with holes or shapes typically filled
with sand or gravel that allow water to infiltrate the interstitial spaces.
Pervious pavement allows communities to reduce the amount of pollution from
stormwater runoff that is directed into natural water bodies such as lakes,
ponds, rivers, and streams. During rain events, excess rain builds up on non-
permeable surfaces (e.g., roofs, concrete and vehicles) and then flows to the
lowest point, usually a storm sewer drain. As the runoff flows, pollutants and
sediment are carried with the water and dumped into the storm sewer. As the
rainwater leaves the storm sewer system, it drains into a natural water body-
usually streams or rivers. During major rain storms when large amounts of
stormwater runoff are generated, large amounts of pollutants are carried with
it. As a result, streams and rivers can accumulate sediment and pollution at the
stormwater discharge points, which creates significant water quality challenges.
It is important to slow, or better stop the stormwater runoff at the site and
allow it to sink into the ground then to let it flow into lakes and streams.
Permeable pavers and pervious pavement can help prevent flash-flooding and
can greatly reduce the amount of sediment and pollutants that flow into
natural areas.
3-46 Corridor Design Portfolio
This schematic drawing of a pervious pavement system, shows the multiple
filtration layers that rainwater flows through before going into drains.
Source: Permeable Pavement. Virginia DEQ Design Specification No. 7.
A parking lot with permeable concrete at Lansing
Community College in Lansing.
Source: Jeff Keesler, Planning & Zoning Center at MSU.
Image of a pervious paver demonstration showing water leaching through the
pavement. Pervious pavers can divert 3-5 gallons of rainwater per minute, if
properly installed and maintained.
Source: Permeable Paver Demonstration. Wikipedia.
RESOURCES
1) Introductory Sections. Nonpoint Source Best Management Practices Manual. 2014. Michigan Department of Environmental Quality.
2) Michigan Concrete Association.
3) Fendt Concrete Block: Permeable Pavers.
4) “Review of Permeable Pavement Systems.” 2007. Miklas Scholz and Piotr Grabowiecki. Building and Environment. 42 (2007): 3830–3836.
3-47 Corridor Design Portfolio
“Rain gardens and bioswales are landscaping features used to slow, collect,
infiltrate, and filter stormwater. Differences between these systems are subtle
and the terms often are used interchangeably to describe systems that achieve
the end goal of reducing stormwater runoff and improving stormwater quality.”
They may be used in tandem in a larger surface water management system.
Rain gardens are smaller or residential systems. These gardens have a slight
depression to help collect water and are vegetated with plants (often deep
rooted, native plants) that can withstand moisture regimes ranging from flooded
to dry.” They are typically placed in areas where runoff from roofs, driveways,
parking lots, or roads naturally collects.
Bioswales achieve the same goals as rain gardens by slowing and filtering
stormwater, but are designed to manage runoff from a larger impervious areas,
such as a neighborhood, commercial, or industrial developments, parking lots,
or roadways. They also may be used to control the volume and quality of
stormwater during major flooding events from one area to another, often
ending in a rain garden. “Because they need to accommodate greater quantities
of stormwater, they often use engineered soils and are deeper than rain gardens.
They are also linear systems, greater in length than width. They, too, are
vegetated with plants that can withstand both heavy watering and drought.
The effectiveness of both rain gardens and bioswales increases with increased
contact time between soil and stormwater, and increased vegetative cover. This
is all best achieved by using soils that can adequately slow down, infiltrate, and
retain water, as well as support plant life. In areas where nutrients are a concern
to water quality, soils capable of retaining high amounts of phosphorus or
nitrogen should be selected, along with plants that use nutrients very efficiently.”
Source: Rain Gardens and Bioswales. Soil Science of America.
3-48 Corridor Design Portfolio
A rain garden on Plainfield Avenue in Grand Rapids serves dual purposes. It
filters stormwater runoff, calms traffic and also enhances the aesthetic appeal of
the built environment.
Source: Michael Smith, Michigan Department of Transportation.
Completed in 2008, the network of rain gardens along Michigan
Avenue in Lansing contain interpretive signage to educate
passersby about stormwater management related topics.
Source: Michigan Avenue Bioretention Facilities. City of Lansing.
Bioswale in the parking lot of the Southfield Municipal Complex.
Source: City Achievements & Initiatives. City of Southfield.
RESOURCES
1) Rain garden network.
2) Introductory Sections. Nonpoint Source Best Management Practices Manual. 2014. Michigan Department of Environmental Quality.
3) MDOT’s Rain Gardens: A Green Solution to Water Pollution. Stormwater Management. Michigan Department of Transportation.
4) Grassed Swales. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
5) Green Macomb. Bioswales. What is a bioswale?
3-49 Corridor Design Portfolio
Stormwater runoff can cause significant problems for the built environment
including flash-flooding, soil erosion, pollution of natural water bodies, and
overflowing municipal sewer systems. To combat these problems, rain
harvesting techniques reduce the amount of water that runs off of hard surfaces
by collecting excess stormwater in rain barrels or cisterns, or by diverting water
away from the municipal storm sewer system from downspouts that direct
water to vegetated areas.
Rain barrels are generally an individual effort to reduce runoff, but many
municipalities are encouraging their use by holding rain barrel events and
providing low-cost barrels and instructions on how to use them to residents. An
individual using a rain barrel can reduce their water usage for things like
watering plants, while a municipality with many rain barrels can reduce the
amount of funds needed to treat storm water and deal with the effects of flash-
flooding, resulting in cost savings.
Cisterns are similar to rain barrels, but can capture much more water and can be
used to pump water into the house for toilet flushing and other grey water uses,
but not for human consumption. While rain barrels are generally about 50 gallon
tanks, cisterns can be as large as 1,000 gallons, can be buried in the ground, and
can be equipped to pump water back into the house for grey water uses. It is
noted that grey water use in buildings adds significant complexity and cost
above simply using grey water for landscape irrigation.
Disconnecting downspouts is another way to combat excess stormwater runoff,
but it does not capture water for later use. Instead of connecting a downspout
to the storm sewer drain, disconnected downspouts divert that water to
vegetated areas for absorption. A number of places (e.g., Lansing, East Lansing)
already require homeowners to disconnect downspouts through their
community’s existing ordinances.
3-50 Corridor Design Portfolio
A rain barrel in a residential setting. Rain barrels can often collect up to 50
gallons of water from one storm and can provide garden or landscaped plants
with free rainwater.
Source: Great American Rain Barrel – 60 Gallon. Eartheasy.
A rain cistern catches rainwater for use in toilet flushing and
hydrating plants and landscaped areas.
Source: “Harvesting Rainwater.” January 22, 2011. Mary J. Lohnes.
Image of a residential home where the downspout is not connected to the
municipal storm sewer system.
Source: Downspout Initiative: $50 Rebate Program. Forest Hills Connection.
RESOURCES
1) Soak up the Rain. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
2) Do Your Downspouts Lead to the River? The Rouge River Project, Remedial Action Plan and Friends of the Rouge.
3) Michigan Rain Barrels.
3-51 Corridor Design Portfolio
Most land contamination is the result of historical activities such as improper
handling, accidents, or practices or the disposal of toxic and hazardous
materials and wastes, that have since been abandoned because of their
negative impact on the quality of the environment. But their effects have
been difficult for communities to manage, dealing with consequences
“ranging from abandoned buildings in inner cities to large areas
contaminated with toxic materials from past industrial or mining activities.”
These sites not only have soil that is contaminated but that also leaches
toxins into nearby ground and surface waters wreaking more havoc by being
absorbed by plants and animals, contaminating drinking water supplies, or
contaminating indoor air in buildings that sit on top of it.
Land contamination can result from a variety of intended, accidental, or
naturally occurring activities and events such as manufacturing, mineral
extraction, abandonment of mines, national defense, waste disposal,
accidental spills, illegal dumping, leaking underground storage tanks,
hurricanes, floods, pesticide use, and fertilizer application. Sites are
categorized in a variety of ways, often based on the level and type of
contamination and the regulations under which they are monitored and
cleaned up. (See the “Categorizing Contaminated Lands” box for an overview
of the common types of contaminated sites.) (Report on the Environment (ROE).
Chapter 4, Contaminated Land Chapter. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.)
Remediation of contaminated sites can be lengthy, difficult, and expensive
processes but ones that communities must forge through all the same. This
section offers brownfield redevelopment and blight removal as two ways to
meet this challenge head on. On the opposite page is an illustrated example
of redevelopment projects that have occurred in downtown Lansing.
Graphic source (this page): U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Report on the
Environment (ROE).
Image source (opposite page): Department of Environmental Quality. Overlay illustration
by Na Li, Land Policy Institute, Michigan State University.
3-52 Corridor Design Portfolio
3-53 Corridor Design Portfolio
Properties where redevelopment is hindered by the presence or potential
presence of contaminants are considered brownfields. Contamination adds
time, cost, and complexity to redevelopment projects. However, some of the
advantages to redeveloping brownfields are reusing existing infrastructure,
minimizing urban sprawl, increasing property values, and reducing health risks.
Michigan has historically been one of the world’s largest manufacturing centers
and has many older and vacant former industrial sites that are contaminated.
The photos to the right and on the next page show redevelopment of
contaminated properties in Lansing into what is now Cooley Law School
Stadium, the Lansing City Market and the Accident Fund Insurance Company of
America Corporate Headquarters.
Large areas of contaminated and/or vacant land is an unfortunate scene in
many places in the industrial Midwest and other areas of the country. Many
communities have had success cleaning up brownfield sites and adapting
them for other uses. In most cases a combination of federal and/or state
environmental incentives were essential to making the project economical
for a redeveloper.
A large-scale, local example is the City of Flint’s efforts to remediate 60 acres of
a former Chevrolet facility (“Chevy in the Hole”) and turn it into a park. The site
will have more than 1,000 new trees planted, which will help to clean the soil of
contaminants by a process called phytoremediation. This is a long-term process
by which plants trap contamination in their root structures, thus removing them
from the soil. The trees help to reduce the direct contact risk with the soil so
that the area could once again be utilized for various uses. This is an innovative
redevelopment of heavily contaminated brownfield property.
BEFORE
AFTER
3-54 Corridor Design Portfolio
With the help of a Michigan Department of Environmental Quality grant, the City
of Lansing removed a large quantity of contaminated soil during the construction
of then Oldsmobile Park, now Cooley Law School Stadium.
Source: Michigan Department of Environmental Quality.
Across the river, a contaminated and functionally-obsolete
power station was remediated and redeveloped into the
Accident Fund Insurance Company’s national headquarters.
Source: Michigan Department of Environmental Quality.
Since the project’s completion, other redevelopment projects have popped up
around it including a mixed-used building across the street to the south, new
restaurants to the southwest, a permanent farmers market to the west, and new
commercial buildings to the east.
Source: GoogleMaps. 2014.
RESOURCES
1) Brownfield and Land Revitalization. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
2) Brownfield Grants and Loans. Land & Remediation Development. Michigan Department of Environmental Quality.
3) Brownfield Redevelopment. Development Assistance. Michigan Economic Development Corporation.
3-55 Corridor Design Portfolio
Blight is used to describe urban decay, such as unsightly buildings that are in
disrepair (often vacant and falling down), and trash and dumping. This type of
decay can lead to becoming areas where illicit activities occur. Blight discourages
new development and can lead others nearby to care less for their property.
Once blight becomes pervasive in an area, then the rest of the property often
deteriorates rapidly.
Many post-industrial cities in Michigan and the Midwest have problems with
blight as a result of the vacuum that has been left after decades of
deindustrialization and population losses. Detroit and Flint have experienced
massive blight and have both shrunk to half of the size of their peak populations.
As a result, vast areas of the two cities are vacant.
Vacant properties are vulnerable to vandalism, metal scrapping that leaves
buildings hollow and empty shells, drug activity, arson, and other illegal and
community-threatening activities.
Many post-industrial cities have begun removing blighted properties and
sometimes entire neighborhoods are cleared. This provides cities with
opportunities for redevelopment while reducing the number of abandoned
structures. Communities are exploring a variety of options for reuse including
urban agriculture. (See Urban Agriculture p. 1-171 and Community Gardens
p. 1-173). Many communities are also starting Land Banks to manage these
lands, clear them up, package and resell the parcels that have potential for
economic reuse. Sometimes land banks remodel vacant homes, and resell them,
rather than letting them become unsightly, dangerous crime incubators.
3-56 Corridor Design Portfolio
Images of the blight removal process in Flint. A badly dilapidated and abandoned
home is demolished, the site is cleared, and the parcel is returned to nature.
Source: Beyond Blight: City of Flint Comprehensive Blight Elimination Framework. 2014. Pruett,
Natalie. Imagine Flint.
A May, 2014 report by the Detroit Blight Removal Task Force. The
Task Force seeks to stop and remove blight before it spreads to
other areas.
Source: Detroit Blight Removal Task Force Plan.
A map by the Detroit Blight Removal Task Force showing the total scope of blight
in Detroit. Included in the map are parcels recommended for structural removal,
parcels recommended for further analysis, and blighted vacant lots in the city.
Source: Detroit Blight Removal Task Force Plan.
RESOURCES
1) Acquisition for Spot Blight Removal. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.
2) Michigan Community Revitalization Program. Development Assistance. Michigan Economic Development Corporation.
3) Detroit Blight Removal Task Force.
4) Genesee County Land Bank.