Building Construction: Experiencing Construction
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Transcript of Building Construction: Experiencing Construction
The site - Ramal Villa is located in Kajang. It is an extremely low density project with only 71 units. Apart from having a single detached unit, the freehold and guarded community has two other types of semi-detached units, which are the Courtyard and the Generations. The building style emphasizes on modern design by having flat slab roofs and simple facades. To enhance greenery, rooftop gardens are also available for each and every single unit. The site is well circulated as it is easily accessible from major highways where the site are just thrown stone distance to LDP and Sungai Besi Highway.
Introduction of site | 2
Location plan
As seen from the location plan is the mentioned construction site which is located onLot 1609 and Lot 1621 which is connected vertically. It is flanked by two main roadson the north & south side namely Jalan Anggerik on the north side and on the southside, Jalan Teratal. As seen from the site plan, the only detached lot is located at thenorth left corner of the site. The west flank of the site is named The Generationswhich consists of 3 storey duplex units (semi detached) and whereas the rest of the site, The Courtyard is comprising of 3 storey quadriplex units whereby 4 of the sameunits are conjoined into one large single unit which whereby the rooftop garden arecombined on top. A small recreational park is located in between The Courtyard unitsto enhance greenery and allowing community interaction.
Site plan
Introduction of site | 3
Construction is one of the most hazardous and dangerous industry that comprises of a wide range of activities involving construction, alteration and sometimes also repair and maintenance. Hence, risks are intrinsic in any sort of construction. Accidents such as falling from heights, injures and fatalities are likely to happen. Hence, site safety procedures should not be taken lightly and need to be reinforce onto any construction site. Employers in workplaces need to ensure the health and safety in every aspects while working.
SITE SAFETY SIGNAGES
• Positioned at the main entry of the construction to notify public regarding the construction project.
• Signboards shows the name and type of construction project, the development firm, architect, contractors, engineers and other relevant members of the building team.
• To also act as to notify the pubic regarding the members and people responsible for the project.
• Positioned at main entrance of site to ensure attention from anyone before entering the site.
• Positioned also in accidents prone area to ensure the safety of workers.
• To act as a constant reminder regarding restricted activities on site.
CONSTRUCTION ORGANIZATION
BOARD
Safety precautions & equipment
Site safety
Site safety | 5
CONSTRUCTION ORGANIZATION BOARD INDICATION BREAKDOWN
• Project title• Project proposal & specifications• Project location
• Development firm
• Architecture firm
• Structural Engineering firm
• Mechanical & Electrical Engineering firm
• Contractors & sub contractors
• Plan permit & approval reference
• Developer license number • Advertisement & publicity permit number• Project execution & termination date
FRONT ELEVATION DRAWING OF
BOARD
SIDE ELEVATION DRAWING OF
BOARD Site safety | 6
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENTS (PPE)Personal protective equipment (PPE) is anything used or worn by a person or a construction labour to minimise the risk to the person's health or safety. These equipment are essential in order to allow construction labour to carry out construction works smoothly and safely throughout the entire construction project.
• Form of protective eyewear, usually plastic and transparent.
• Designed to enclose or protect the area surrounding the eye in order to prevent particulates, water or chemicals from striking the eyes.
SAFETY HELMET• A hard top helmet which serves to
protect the head from injuries from hard falling objects.
• It is also to protect the head from major injuries such as concussion upon falling down from a higher level.
SAFETY GOGGLES
EAR MUFFS• To act as protective gear to cover ears
from construction noise pollution which can hurt the ears.
• Serves to also enclose the ears without disrupting head comfort of construction workers and at the same time shield them from loud construction noises.
PROTECTIVE SUIT• Usually a thick rubber like synthetic
material which covers the entire body from neck to calf.
• The suit is designed as to insulate the body from any means of electrical conductivity and the thickness is to protect the body from external injuries.
SAFETY GLOVES• Protective gear for the hand which is
designed using electrical insulated material such as rubber.
• To protect hand from grazes and cuts during construction and also to insulate the hand from electrical conductivity.
SAFETY BOOTS• To act as a protective gear for the foot.
High top design prevents the leg from getting cuts.
• Rubber and synthetic material in order to prevent electrical shock and also to provide walking comfort during construction.
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CONSTRUCTION SCAFFOLDINGSScaffoldings are also considered as one of the major site safety equipment. Apart from acting as temporary support for the formworks of the buildings, it also ensures the safety of the construction workers while allowing them to access the buildings different floors while the building is still under construction and also to hasten the mobility and transportation of materials between floors of buildings and hence ensure the convenience and safety of the construction workers.
SCAFFOLDINGS SETSSCAFFOLDINGS SET UP
• Upon being set up, it serves to allow accessibility, mobility and also ensure convenience of workers
• Ensure convenience in transportation of materials vertically from bottom to top.
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HEALTH & HYGIENEHeath and hygiene on site are one of the prime points that needs to be taken very seriously as it ensures the health of the work
labour which are essential to ensure the smooth construction process and productivity.
SANITATION
A typical toilet on site
Sanitary convenience should be taken into consideration as to ease the workers and also to ensure the cleanliness and hygiene of the surrounding of the construction site.
Rows of self constructed concrete toilets on site
• Sanitary facilities and conveniences should be segregated according to gender of users for the construction workers.
• Water are also provided for in order to maintain the cleanliness and hygiene of the sanitary facilities on site.
• Ventilation and sufficient lightings are also needed to be present in these facilities in order to ease convenience in these facilities.
TEMPORARY CANTEENCanteens are also important and essential in any construction site as it provides food and beverages in order to maintain workforce and productivity among construction workers and hence indirectly maintaining efficiency and productivity within the construction site and project.
• Condition of the temporary canteen needs to be well hygiene as it affects the cleanliness of food and beverages being consumed by the construction workers.
• The temporary canteen needs to also be well lit, well ventilated and shaded as to provide comfort for the construction workers when they are having their meals.
• To ensure cleanliness, the canteen needs to be located further away from construction dumpster and waste and also sanitary facilities.
• The location of the temporary canteen needs to also be strategic around the site as to ease the convenience of the construction workers to have their meal after work.
Temporary canteen constructed out of plywood timber.
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GARBAGE COLLECTION Garbage collection facilities are one of the most important facilities to be present around the construction as to ensure the cleanliness and the hygiene of the surrounding of the construction site. The garbage facilities serve to act as a dedicated space for the disposal of sanitary wastes, construction wastes and also domestic wastes around the site such as food and beverages wastes after consumption.
Main dumping site around the construction site without any sort of proper dumpster
Food and beverage wastes are being littered around the construction site disregarding the site cleanliness.
Temporary facilities are not well taken care off and gradually becomes dumping spot for certain construction waste
Construction wastes such as spoilt and unusable zinc sheets are dumped randomly around the site.
The construction site has many random dumping spots which cleanliness are not emphasized. Site safety | 10
Bad practices are common in local construction sites due to the lack of surveillances from higher authorities and also lack of emphasis on the penalties on certain wrongdoings. Most of the bad practices are concerning site safety and also the health and cleanliness on construction site.
BAD PRACTICES AROUND CONSTRUCTION SITE
HEALTH & HYGIENESITE SAFETY
Construction workers are not well equipped with safety glove while handling and bending the reinforcement bars. This practice is dangerous to the workers as it will injure the hands of the workers while working.
Scaffoldings are not well equipped with construction safety nettings. This will increase the tendency of the construction to fall from height and also materials from falling below.
Main dumping site is not properly managed and increase the chances of pests breeding.
The canteen is situated at a close distance from the main dumping area which is unhealthy and unhygienic for the workers in terms of food consumption.
The sanitary facilities are not provided with efficient water supply for cleaning and it is not well lit and ventilated. This is unhygienic as it will attract pests such as flies and in the long run producing unpleasant stench.
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Site plants and machineries are mandatory in order to smoothen the construction process and also to hasten the phase and process of the construction in order to meet the date of completion of the construction project, maintain consistency and accuracy and also to ensure the safety and health of the workers as to avoid works from being done manually. Site plants and machineries varies from different construction projects which is also dependent on the scale of the construction project. There are a vast range of construction plants and machineries that are used and a few of the examples are earthmoving and excavating, lifting and vertical transportation and others.
LIST OF PLANTS & MACHINERIES USED ON SITEITEM DESCRIPTION MODEL & SPECS QUANTITY
1 Lorry Daihatsu 1 tonDaihatsu 3 ton
1 No.1 No.
2 Crane Mobile crane – Zoom Lion 25 tonsMobile crane Kato NK 300 III
1 No.1 No.
3 Excavator Mitsubishi 200Hitachi 300
1 No.1 No.
4 Concrete mixer 10 Nos.
5 Vibrator poker 10 Nos.
6 Compactor complete with engine 1 No.
7 Vibrator engine complete with pump 1 No.
8 Bar bender & bar cutter 5 Sets
9 Scaffolding & accessories 10,000 Set
10 High pressure jet pump 2 Sets
11 Generator set 2 Sets
12 Wielding set 1 Set
Plants & machineries
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EXCAVATION & EARTH MOVING MACHINERIESThese equipment and transportation are essential in order to smoothen and hasten the process of excavation and earthwork during the construction period on site. Mainly, these excavators and transport used are to excavate the earth around the site and also to transport the soil and earth around at a large amount at a time. These earth, soil and sand are also being transported by these means of transportations in order to level up the irregular site level of the construction site.
EXCAVATORSEarth and soil from slopes and terrain are being excavated to create trenches and to even out land by these
machineries.
EXCAVATOR BACKHOE LOADER• Serves dig trenches for foundation
and also site clearing works. • Used on site for site clearing and excavation works but usage are
not as heavy duty as compared to the excavator. • The backhoe bucket can be substituted with various types of
construction attachments which can carry out various functions.
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Truck on site transporting the excavated earth to designated location.
Truck releasing transported excavated earth onto designated location on site for site
levelling.
EARTH MOVING TRANSPORTATION & HAULING EQUIPMENTSAfter the excess earth and soil from slopes and terrain are being excavated, these excess soil are being transported away to different designation around the site either to be reuse as to even out the land or to be dump as construction waste.
• Trucks are hauling units which are used to transport excavated materials and construction wastes to designated sites over a distance at a relatively low cost.
• Trucks being loaded with construction wastes and bulk materials such as rocks and earth by loaders.
• These hauling machineries increase efficiency of the construction process entirely and hence smoothen the excavation and also the construction transportation process.
Construction trucks
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PAVING MACHINERIESThese equipment and lightweight machineries are used alongside with roadworks machineries and equipment.
VIBRATOR COMPACTOR • Applied on site to compact the
foundation of the soil using the vibration force produced by the engine.
• Serves to reduce the sizes and particulates to a denser and more compact mass.
• Enhances stability of foundation of earthwork before the paving works commence.
CONCRETE PLANTS & MACHINERIESConcrete machineries are widely used in any construction as it saves costs as compared to prefabricating and transporting it from the factory. It also eases construction workers’ convenience as it is mobile and easy to work with
CONCRETE MIXING TRUCK• Serves to transport and also mixing the
concrete to the construction site.• This piece of machinery serves to maintain
the concrete in liquid state through agitation by the turning the drum in order to prevent it from solidifying before reaching the construction site.
PORTABLE CONCRETE MIXER• Serves to combine the cement,
aggregate and water to form concrete homogenously and producing it directly on site.
CONCRETE DUMP• A dumping spot for unusable
concrete and slump tested concrete to be disposed.
HIGH PRESSURE JET PUMP• Portable machine which
serves to spray mixed concrete onto designated spot on site evenly and efficiently.
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OTHER SITE PLANTS, MACHINERIES & EQUIPMENTS
PORTABLE ELECTRIC GENERATOR• Serves to generate electrical supply
when there are no power supply available on site.
• Ease convenience of workers as to utilize it to obtain mobile electricity to operate other machineries..
CONSTRUCTION LEVELLING TELESCOPE (DUMPY LEVEL)
• An optical instrument used to establish or to check the points in the same horizontal plane.
• Serves to survey and build with a vertical staff to measure height differences and to transfer, measure and set heights.
BAR BENDER & CUTTER
• Used by construction workers to bend the steel bar in various curvature for various specific purposes.
• The excess bended bars can be then cut of by the cutter which is also attached onto the machine itself.
MOBILE CRANE
• Suitable for small scale construction by which requires crane utilization without having the need to install a permanent tower crane .
• Easily transported to site having with little or without setup and assembly of parts.
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External works are mainly the preliminary preparation that has to be carried out in order for the actual construction works to be done smoothly. This is to ensure the smooth process of the construction works and to provide the construction and completion of site clearance and earthwork around the designated site boundary. External work types consist of site clearing, site levelling and excavation, designating temporary facilities and also utility connections.
SITE CLEARING WORKSSite clearing works are mandatory and serve as the fundamental basis in preparing the site for construction. It is the process of clearing any site construction obstruction which could be any sort of existing natural vegetation or structures by which the presence are inappropriate for the commencements of site construction. Site clearance works mostly include the removal of vegetation such as natural trees and stumps that are within the site boundary.
Two cuts for the undercut forming a pie shaped cut line in the base of the tree trunk facing the direction of which the tree is intended to fall. An backcut which is 3-5cm above the base of the undercut is cut at right angles to the falling direction.
In order to remove the remaining tree stump the dozer blade is placed against the stump and a lifting action is furthered applied onto the stump.
The tractor is backed and the dozer blade is lowered.
The stump is tilted forward until the roots in front of the dozer blade are slightly lifted out from the ground.
The dozer blade is now inserted under the lifted roots.
While lifting the blade, a pushing force is applied in order to break the stump out of the ground and hence entirely removing the tree from the ground.
If the tree trunk still resists falling, a wedge is hammered into the backcut to the direction intended for the tree to fall.
External works
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Step 7
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EARTHWORK & EXCAVATIONAfter the procedure of site clearance works are done, earthworks are to be proceeded. Earthworks are engineering works involving the excavation and land filling process through the constant moving, excavating, replacing, refilling and backfills bulk materials such as earth and soil on site. Besides, excavation works are also to prepare the construction site for even and well levelled land for the smooth process of construction works to take place.
The topography and the elevation of the terrain are studied and surveyed thoroughly. The contour lines signifies the changes of land in elevational views.
The cut line is then made to estimate the amount of land to be cut and to be backfilled with the amount of cut land.
The cut line is the marked to the intended level onto the existing slopping land and whereby holes are filled under the cut liens.
The marked cut lines will be removed and to be used as filler to achieve the accurate and efficient desired landscape..
The slopping topography to be cut or excavated and the remaining bulk material are used to backfill the designated the spaced needed to be filled.
After ground has been cut out from its original ground level, a battered surface will form and the original ground level is reduced to form a flat surface.
The designate zone that needs to be filled are then filled up to the intended level, thus producing a higher formation level as compared to the original ground level, hence forming a flat surface as well.
CUTTING & FILLING UP CLOSE
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Site securing is important and essential as to avoid theft around the construction site and also to ensure each and everyone safety surrounding the construction site, construction workers or public citizens alike. Apart from that designations are also an important point that should not be taken for granted as the location of facilities are important to ensure the convenience of the construction worker and indirectly affect the progress and efficiency of the construction project.
1. Toilets & Lavatories
2. Site offices & meeting room
3. Materiality storages
4. Staff & visitor carpark
5. Vehicle and machinery wash
6. Temporary water supply tank
7. Bar bending station
8. Cement storages
9. Canteen
10.Scaffolding and timber formwork storages
11. Workmen hut
12.Dumpsite
Construction organizational sign board and safety signboard.
CONSTRUCTION SITE LAYOUT LEGEND
Hoarding entry and fencing surrounding the site to ensure safety.
Coarse aggregate storage
Fine aggregate storage
Portable concrete mixer
Electrical Substation
SITE SECURING & DESIGNATIONS
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SITE SETTING OUTSite setting out is also considered as one of the major, essential and important preliminary works that needs to be carried out in order to allow the commencement of construction works. Setting out is basically the establishment of the marks and lines to define the site boundary, the definite position and also the level of the construction elements for the construction works to be proceeded with efficient and accurate reference to them.
• The temporary bench mark or the site datum post (1) is being set up as the main reference point of the rest of the set up points.
• The base line is then being set up with reference to the datum post and on the other hand acting as the reference line itself to all other setting out lines and points by which all can be related.
• Corners posts are then set up in order to mark the main building boundary.
ON SITE DETACHED LOT SETTING OUT PLAN
ON SITE DETACHED LOT FOUNDATION TRENCHES
SETTING OUT PLAN • After the site setting has been carried out accurately. Profile boards are being set up along all corners of the building.
• This step is to ensure the accuracy of the width of the walls later on and also the width of the foundation trenches that is to be excavated before the commencement of foundation works. External works | 22
ON SITE DETACHED LOT SETTING OUT PLAN DETAILS CLOSE UP
ON SITE DETACHED LOT FOUNDATION TRENCHES
SETTING OUT PLAN DETAILS CLOSE UP
1. TEMPORARY BENCHMARK / SITE DATUM POST
Detailed drawings below are to be viewed with reference to the setting out plans previously. Detailed drawings below are to be viewed with reference
to the setting out plans previously.
2. CORNER POSTS
3. BUILDERS’ SQUARE
Act as a standard measurement tool in order to measure and indicate an accurate perpendicular angle (90 degrees) upon setting out at corner posts.
1. TYPICAL PROFILE BOARD
2. FOUNDATION TRENCHES
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FOUNDATION TRENCHES EXCAVATION WORKSThe excavation works for foundation and trenches are mainly to establish the size, shape and direction of the entire building frame. Besides, these foundation trenches are also essential as it also serves to ex=stablish the width and position of the walls using the profile boards that has been set up as guidelines and reference points.
A temporary site datum post is being set up at a strategic spot as to act as reference point.
A tripod holding the construction levelling telescope (dumpy level) is used to obtain perpendicular angles with the help of the plumb rod being attached onto the corner post or with the help of a site datum.
OR
The well levelled telescope will be then used to act as surveillance in order to make sure the profile boards are well levelled.
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3Step 4 Step 5
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TEMPORARY FACILITIES & SERVICESThese basic facilities ad services are mandatory to be present before the actual construction works proceed. The contractor are assigned the responsibility to consider thoroughly the types of all temporary facilities and services required in order to smoothen the construction process. Services such as personal sanitation and food and beverages are also the basic requirements which are to be present in the construction site. These facilities and services can range from infrastructures to basic work facilities and services.
HOARDINGSThese hoardings which surrounds the site boundary serve to secure the sit perimeter and to prevent noise and also dust and construction waste to obstruct adjoining properties
CROSS SECTION OF A TYPICAL HOARDING
CONSTRUCTION ORGANIZATIONAL SIGN
BOARDDisplays and notify the public regarding the information of the construction project and also to notify the public regarding the presence of the construction site at that particular area.
SITE OFFICE & MEETING ROOMTo hold meetings directly on site between the building team in order to save time and solve construction issues.
VEHICLE & MACHINERY WASHTo ensure the hygiene and cleanliness of the transport and vehicle before exiting the construction site to a public and non construction area.
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BAR BENDING & CUTTING STATIONServes as a workplace dedicated for construction workers to bend and cut reinforcement bars for particular construction purposes.
SCAFFOLDINGSServes as a temporary structure to support the formwork of the construction and also to ease the construction workers vertical mobility around the building during construction works.
MATERIALITY STORAGESA dedicated place to store construction materials such as cement, aggregate and also building accessories in order to protect the materials and accessories from damage due to weather.
TEMPORARY CANTEENA space designated for the construction workers to have their meal while taking a break from construction works.
WORKMEN ACCOOMODATIONSSpace dedicated to house and accommodate workers to stay and rest throughout the entire construction project phase last.
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SANITATION FACILITIESTo provide comfort and relief fro the construction workers and at the same time serves as a dedicated spot for sanitation purposes which ensure on site hygiene and construction workers health.
ELECTRICAL SUPPLYTo provide constant flow of electricity in order for the operation of machineries to be carried out smooth and constantly without jeopardizing the work efficiency and productivity.
PORTABLE ELECTICAL SUPPLYTo accommodate for far range usage of electric supply as to enhance convenience for the workers to operate the machineries during power outage or to work at a further range of reachability within the construction site..
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SLUMP TESTSlump test are also one of the major point that should not to be taken for granted as it is once of the most significant task and procedure of external works. Slump tests serves to examine the mixture and quality of a batch of premixed concrete and hence to determine its suitability of usage for construction works .
BASIC SET UP FOR SLUMP TEST
COLLAPSED SLUMP
SHEAR SLUMP
ZERO SLUMP TRUE SLUMP
Detailed drawings above indicating different types of slumps produced. Out of all, only the concrete batch being determined as true slump is qualified and suitable to be proceed onwards to be used for construction works. The rest of the concrete batches are either too liquid or too solid in state which are unsuitable for construction.
Construction worker carrying out slump test and measuring the height of the slump in order to determine the suitability of the batch of concrete.
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SLUMP TEST PROCEDURE
The slump cone is dampen and is filled with 1/3 full by volume and rod 25 times with a tamping rod.
The cone is further filled with 2/3 by volume. This layer is rod 25 times penetrating through by not all the way through the bottom layer. The rodding action is distributed evenly over the entire cross section of the layer.
The cone is later then filled till it overflows. This layer is again rod 25 times with rod penetrating into but not directly through the second layer. The rodding is again distributed evenly across this entire cross section of the layer.
The excess concrete from the top of the cone is then removed using the tamping rod as a screed. The overflow base of the cone is also cleaned.
The cone is then lifted vertically immediately with slow, even motion. The cone must be ensured to not be tilted in anyways throughout this process. The withdrawn cone is then inverted and place next to the slumped concrete without touching it.
A straight edge is laid across the top of the cone. The amount of slump in inches is then measured from the bottom of the straight edge to the top of the slumped concrete at a point over the original center of the base. The examination should be completed at an elapsed time of mot more than 2 ½ minutes. The concrete is then discarded and shall not be used to perform any other tests.
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Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
Step 4 Step 5 Step 6
CONCRETE:The quality of concrete is good and fast, with the characteristic cube strength and addition water to cement with a ratio of 0.45 to provide optimal compressive strength
STEEL:Wieldable steel for reinforcing concrete, coiled to provide tensile strength
Shallow piled foundation is used for the particular site. Piling is a more suitable foundation for this structure rather than the rafting foundation because the structure is a three storey semi detach house with a soil condition that is not hard and also very stable. Also, it is able to withstand the load capacity of the semi-detached house. Raft foundations are more potentially used for unstable type of soil or soils that are highly compressible .
Foundation of a structure is always constructed below the ground level so as to increase the lateral stability of the structure. It includes the portion of the structure below the ground level and is built, so as to provide a firm and level surface for transmitting the load of the structure on a large area of the soil lying underneath. The solid ground on which the foundation rests is called the Foundation Bed.
REINFORCED CONCRETE PILEPILING
FOOTING( SITE )
RAFT FOOTING( REFERENCE )
MATERIALITY:
foundation
TYPES OF FOUNDATION
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MACHINERY ANALYSIS HYDRAULIC PILING MACHINE
to raft foundation :
Back stay : transfer the counterweight tension from the leader towards the ground to stabilize the drive
Crane : lift and hoist the pile
Diesel pile hammer : create the magnitude of force to drive the pile by inducing downwards momentum in the metal ram.
Leader : provide vertical attachment to support for the pile hammer
Helmet : to distribute the force from the hammer to the pile evenly and prevent damage
1: noise pollution, affecting human and animals sleeping quality and patterns, sensitive devices and induce sensory- related illness
2. Pose structural damages such as settlements to nearby natural or man-made structure due to propagation of intense vibration
Top Sheave
Leader
Diesel Pile Hammer
Crane
Helmet
Back Stay
Pile
HYDRAULIC PILING HAMMER SECTION : ( 4 )
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PILE CAP SPECIFICATIONS
ONE PILE CAP TWO PILE CAPS
THREE PILE CAPS FOUR PILE CAPS
PILING LAYOUT IN A SINGLE
UNIT A pile cap is a thick concrete mat that rests on concrete or timber piles that have been driven into soft or unstable ground to provide a suitable stable foundation. It usually forms part of the foundation of a building, typically a multi-story building, structure or support base for heavy equipment. The cast concrete pile cap distributes the load of the building into the piles. A similar structure to a pile cap is a "raft", which is a concrete foundation floor resting directly onto soft soil which may be liable to subsidence.
Piles intersecting two separate points.
Pile
Pile cap
Reinforced concrete
Ground beam to support the walls
Pile cap
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Ends of the piling pipe The reinforce steel is placed before filing up the concrete bar foundation.
Hydraulic Pile machine hammering down the pipe pile
PILING PROCESS
Form and layout
Timeframe
Investment
Underground Water Condition
Construction method
Building Code Requirements
Factors to avoid during piling
process Exceeding Load
Excessive Moisture
Intense Vibration
Plumb Error
Considerations before design
piling specification
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GRADE BEAM
BEAMSA beam is a horizontal structural element that is capable of withstanding transverse loads (floor slab/roof slab) primarily by resisting bending. They transfer all the loads including its self weight to other structural elements below (columns/walls). In other words, a column is a compression member.
The grade beam used at the site was of reinforced concrete, and it was positioned horizontally at ground level to support the superstructure, transferring the load to the piles below.
Pile caps are interconnected with grade beams and ground slab to ensure lateral forces can be distributed to all the piles.
The piles and grade beams of the building at our site work in conjunction to elevate the structure, provide vertical and lateral support for the elevated home, and transfer loads imposed on the elevated home and foundation to the ground below.
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GRADE BEAMConstruction Process
Reinforcement and Formwork
Footings and grade beams must be reinforced to resist the moment forces that develop at the base of the piers due to the lateral loads on the foundation and the elevated home
After the piers have been drilled and poured, trenches are dug for the grade beams. Wood is used to create formwork and steel reinforcing is placed inside the formwork. The reinforcing from the pier is tied to the reinforcing in the grade beam.
Grade beams must be a minimum of 200mm by 600mm with 2 – 15M bars top and bottom.
An acceptable void form must be placed under all grade beams.
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Both ends of the beam are rigidly fixed into the supports. Main reinforcement bars and stirrups are provided.
Fixed Beam
ReinforcementSteel bars are added within the concrete beams to provide extra strength and support to the beam itself.
Above is the reinforcement configuration of the concrete beam to handle tension and sheer load.
CROSS SECTION OF REBAR
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Beam formwork
• Beam soffit must be thickened timber or strengthened plywood. • Beam sides 18mm plywood or 25mm boards, with studs (cleats) at 500 to
600mm centres. Deep beams (over 600mm) should have walkers and ties.• Use angle fillets in the beam side to soffit joint where possible.
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Beam Construction process
Step 1Erect the props and support, set up the soffit of the beam.
Step 2Construct formwork for the side of the beam.
Step 3Place the steel reinforcement.
Step 4Erect the other side of the beam formwork, and complete with struts for extra support.
Step 5Pour the concrete into the formwork.
StrutsConcrete filling
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Ground floor
First floor
Second floor
COLUMNSA column is a vertical structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above (the ceiling/roof slab) to other structural elements below (foundation). In other words, a column is a compression member.
Reinforced concrete columnsSizes of the columns
The sizes of the concrete columns on site differ from one floor to another. The bottom most floor has a more thorough reinforcement, and is larger in size due to the amount of load and weight that it will have to withstand.
For design purposes, the columns are separated into two categories: short columns and slender columns.These columns are prone to face different kinds of failures.
Failures of columns due to sizes
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ColumnFormwork
Concrete formwork is the temporary structure built to support and confine concrete until it hardens. Formwork refers to vertical forms used to form walls and column.
It consists of the following: Side & End Planks, Yoke, Nut & Bolts. The two end & two side planks are joined by the yokes and bolts.
Adjustable steel clamps
Plan and elevation of column formwork
The four panels are joint by clamps that help tighten them to build the formwork.
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Columns Reinforcements
Concrete is strong when compressed, but they need to be somewhat elastic to regain their height after being compressed by live loads (people), and if they’re turned to twisted by dynamic loads (wind/earthquake). Concrete columns must always have steel reinforcement because they are subject to bending.
The columns on site are composed of concrete with an embedded steel frame to provide reinforcement.
formworkBracing
Column bracing maintains the accuracy of the column form position and plumb so that it is within tolerance. It is able to withstand results of forces acting on either the column formwork or the bracing.
On site: Bracing is applied to support the formwork of columns
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COLUMNConstruction process
Step 1Place the reinforcement on the ground, and pour the concrete
Step 2Set up the panels around the steel bars and bind them together with steel clamps
Step 3Brace the formwork
Step 4Pour the concrete into the formwork.
Beams & columns | 44
When constructing the floor system it is important to take the type of flooring, the laying of pipes and reinforcement into consideration. The type of flooring in a house must be adequately supported by the flooring structure below. Floor systems are the horizontal surface of a room or interior space and its supporting construction. Floor systems must support both live loads and dead loads which then transfer to the supporting beams, columns or loadbearing walls.
Concrete slab are common foundation or floor systems in many parts of the world. Particular in warmer climates with soils that are stable. Concrete slabs are plate structures that are reinforced to span either one or both directions of a structural bay.
A building concrete slab consists of (from ground up) 4” of sand, gravel, or crushed stone; a layer of 6 mil polyethylene used as a vapor barrier . A layer of wire mesh embedded in the concrete.
One way slab is supported on two opposite side only thus structural action is only at one direction. Total load is carried in the direction perpendicular to the supporting beam. If a slab is supported on all the four sides but the ratio of longer span 1 to shorten span is greater than 2, then the slab will be considered as one way slab. Main reinforcement is provided in only one direction for one way slabs. One way slabs are designed for flexure and shear on a per meter width basis, assuming that they act as a series of independent strips. Thus one-way shear in slabs is often referred to as beam shear, and design for flexure and shear is carried out using a beam analogy.
Ground floor slab is built on a compacted hard ground supported by beams.
One way slab and beam
slab
ONE WAY SLAB
slab | 46
SLABS SUPPORTING BY BEAMS
One way slab supported on beams on all four sides
One way slab supported on beams on two sides
Provides useful flat surface One way slab may be used when there is architectural
limitations It is the simplest form of slab design Main reinforcement placing is one way, so there is a
little congestion than two way slab.
When a slab is supported only on two parallel apposite edges, it spans only in the direction perpendicular to two supporting edges. Such a slab is called one way slab. Also, if the slab is supported on all four edges and the ratio of longer span(ly) to shorter span (lx) i.e ly/lx > 2, practically the slab spans across the shorter span. Such a slabs are also designed as one way slabs. In this case, the main reinforcement is provided along the spanning direction to resist one way bending.
APPLICATIONS OF ONE WAY SLABS
BEHAVIOR OF ONE WAY SLAB
slab | 47
The slab above ground floor is known as intermediate slab.
It usually takes 7-14 days for concrete slab to cure. But for intermediate reinforced concrete slab it requires formwork for temporary support while the concrete is wet, which delays the construction process for approximately 7 days. The intermediate floor includes an intermediate floor layer including an elastic and resilient material. Intermediate floor slab is usually cast between 100-300mm, depending on the live and dead loads asserted on the slab.
Slab formwork and shoring
Fresh concrete must be shaped and supported by formwork until it cures and able to support itself. Moreover, temporary supports called shoring are used to support beam and slab forms.
INTERMEDIATE SLAB
slab | 48
Step 3 Concrete class is cast on top of the wire reinforcement with the formwork acting as a mould. The concrete is then spread by until the form is full and even. The ground taxes 1-2 days to cure and after curing of 14 days, the formwork are then removed.
Step 1 The desired area for ground of a site is excavated and compacted, the hole is usually larger than the slab for formwork to fit in the hole.
Step 4 Scaffolding and shoring are placed on the ground floor to support the timber centering of the first floor. The formwork of the first floor is installed on the timber centering.
Step 5 Concrete is then casted into the formwork that holds the welded wire reinforcement in place. Finally, a layer of concrete is casted on top of the reinforcement and an intermediate slab is formed.
Step 2Formwork is installed around the compacted hardcore. Welded wire reinforcement is layered on top of the damp proof membrane.
CONCRETE GROUND AND INTERMEDIATE FLOOR SLABConstruction process
slab | 49
SLAB DETAILS
• Formwork for slabs and beams consists of sole plates, wedges, props, head tree, planks, batten and ledgers.
• Beam formwork rests on head tree.
• Slab form work rests on battens and joints
• If prop height are more than 8’ provide horizontal braces.
A beam-and-slab system, with a one way slab, and beams cast compositely with the slab, is a highly efficient floor system.
Ground floor depth usually varies from 100-300mm, depending on the ground bearing capacity and also the live ad dead load.
Formwork for concrete beams and slabs
slab | 50
TYPES OF WALL
A wall in general, is rows of bricks stacked vertically to a certain height. Walls are important element in a building as it not only bears the load of the home; it also serves as a divider between spaces. They are also sound barriers and fire walls that protect the interior space of a building.
Bears load resting upon it by conducting its weight to a foundation structure. The materials most often used to construct load-bearing walls in large buildings are concrete, block, or brick.
Does not support any gravity loads from the building hence doesn’t bear any weight besides its own.
1. Roof spans between external walls and internal load bearing wall.
2. Floor spans from external wall to internal load bearing wall.3. Load bearing wall transmits part of roof load to foundation.4. Load bearing wall transmits part of roof and floor load to
foundation.
5. Roof spans from external wall to external wall..6. Floor spans from external wall to external wall.7. Non load bearing walls built off floor surfaces.8. External load bearing walls transmit part of roof and floor
load to foundation.
LoadLoad Bearing WallNon- Load Bearing Wall
Legend:
Wall system
Load bearing wall Non Load bearing wall
walls | 52
Step 5Tap it into place until the top edge of the brick lines up exactly with the fishing line guide..
Step 6Scrape away any excess mortar that has been squeezed from between the bricks as you go before it dries and hardens. Ensure that you remove the mortar before it hardens.
Step 8Once the corners are built, simply move the fishing line up, row by row, and fill in the spaces between the corners. Because your bottom row is level and your corners are vertical, your whole wall is sure to be level and vertical.
On-site:Fishing lines are extended at corners to indicate levels. During brick layering process.
Step 7Use a spirit level to check that the row is level and to ensure that the corners are vertical (i.e. straight up and not leaning in or out).
BRICK-LAYERING PROCESS
Step 1Bricks must be laid on a concrete slab or foundation.
Step 3Place enough mortar to lay 2-3 bricks at a time.
step 4'Butter' each new brick by applying mortar onto the end of the brick before placing it hard up against the preceding brick and into the mortar bed. .
Step 2Start by building the corners. To lay the first course of bricks, use your trowel to spread mortar onto the concrete surface. Use a fishing line stretched tight between the corners to lay the first row of bricks. The back top edge of every brick laid must be exactly in line with the fishing line.
walls | 53
TYPES OF BRICK USED
Cement Sand Brick Economical friendly Uneven surface thus requires plastering Offers excellent strength as a load-bearing member.
Common Burnt Clay Brick Used in general work with no special attractive
appearances Requires plastering and rendering Thermal and acoustic insulation Fire resistant
On-site:Party walls (fire wall) are built using burnt clay brick due to its fire resistant property. The rest of the walls are built using cement sand bricks because it is more economical.
On-site:Bricks at the top of the non bearing walls are arranged diagonally to fill up the space at the top of the wall. This is a bad exercise in construction as it weakens the wall greatly.
On-site:Walls are chased after built to run electrical wires and power points. This is done before plastering process.
walls | 54
PLASTERING PROCESS
Step 1When plastering walls, try to avoid working in the direct sun or drying winds. Plaster needs to retain its moisture for as long as possible. Step 2Load your hawk with plaster mix and scoop it onto the steel trowel. Apply to the wall with pressure.
Step 5Wet the leveled plaster with water (flicked lightly with a brush), then use a float to smooth the surface.
On-site:Metal brackets are installed to ensure straight edges when walls are being plastered. Thickness of plasters are also marked to ensure even plastering work.
Step 3Plaster small areas at a time. A whole wall should be completed in one operation.
Step 4Once the plaster starts to stiffen, level the surface by pulling a straight edge over the plaster with a sawing motion.
Step 6Cover the plaster area with plastic or use a fine spray of water to keep it damp for as long as possible (up to 7 days).
walls | 55
Stairs are the conventional means of vertical access between floors and different levels in buildings. Stairs are a series of steps, each elevated a measured distance, leading from one level of a structure to another. It should be constructed to provide ready, easy, comfortable and safe access up and down with steps that are easy to climb, within a compact area, so as not to take up excessive floor space.
TYPE OF STAIRS
2 parallel flights of straight stairs joined by a landing that requires 180 degree turn in the walk line. Half-turn staircases are also a variety of staircases with straight flights. Just like quarter-turn stairs they also have a landing, but here it changes a direction of the flight by 180 degrees already and also serves as a place for rest when moving. The landing divides the staircase into two, thereby reducing quantity of treads in one flight, and makes walking more comfortable. Staircases of this type are very convenient, functional, and safe.
COMBINATION OF OPEN AND CLOSE
STAIRWAYThe staircase is sandwiched between a wall and a open stairwell.
The double quarter turn or double quarter landing allows the stair case to turn through 180 degrees. This is achieved by turning 90 degrees on two large square steps or landings.
staircase
HALF-TURN STAIRCASE DOUBLE-QUARTER TURN STAIRCASE
staircase | 57
The staircase connects the 3 floors. The construction of the staircase is easy as it is continuous from the lowest level.
Stairwell is formed between the two parallel flight of stairs.
STAIRWELL
STAIRWELL
SECTION DRAWING OF STAIRS
staircase | 58
STAIRS TERMINOLOGY
The headroom is sufficient for the user with a height clearance of 2.2m. The rise is constant so that it is safe for the user. A width of
RISE, THREAD & HEADROOM
staircase | 59
FORMWORK & PROCESSFormwork is the molding into which wet concrete is poured to give the user greater control over the exact shape of the finished, cured concrete. Formwork can be built with almost anything but is most often built with a combination of timber, plywood, and steel or aluminum hardware. Formwork can either be dismantled after the concrete has cured to an acceptable level, or it can be left to remain embedded on a permanent basis. The basic concept of formwork is the creation of “walls” that will sand-which concrete poured between them.
Step 2 Bracing
Step 8 Pouring the Concrete
Step 4 Reinforcement added
Step 5 Installing Steps
Getting the Formwork Right
Step 3 Assembling Form
Pouring concrete into the mold. Concrete is applied from the top till the bottom of the stairs.
Concrete poured is left to dry and harden.
The framework is being removed.
Step 1
staircase | 60
CONCRETE STAIR CONSTRUCTION
Concrete stairs span between landings. Where there are loadbearing walls around the stair, it is generally economic to build. The landings into the side walls as one-way spanning slabs and construct the flights as inclined slabs between the landings. Concrete staircases are especially popular as it lasts longer relative to wooden staircases and is cheaper than installing staircases constructed from metallic materials. When designed correctly, a concrete staircase is not only functional but can also add aesthetic value to the overall design of the building.
Picture shows how the staircase is built into the wall.
Inclined Slab Stair
staircase | 61
CIRCULATIONSTANDARD REQUIREMENTS
Minimum requirements
Thread : 225 mmRisers: 180 mm( less than or 16 risers per flight ) Width of thread: 900 mm( measured from outside the stringer )
Landings provide well-needed resting stages or a platform that allows others to pass, enabling less mobile users to move at their own pace.
Two landings as resting platforms.
The width of the staircase is wide enough to promote two way circulation.
40
Steepness of the stairs constructed is roughly 40 degrees.The inclination is safe and comfortable for the users.
staircase | 62
CORE DRILLED AND GROUTED
HANDRAIL DETAILS900mm to 1m above the pitch line of the stair.
Start 300mm before the first step and end at the top step.
Grout is a particularly fluid form of concrete which is used to fill gaps. Railing post is directly drilled into the cement stairs.
Recommended installation method for all in-ground rails and railing to be installed permanently into a concrete slab.
Measure and mark installation location of railing posts.
Drill 3” diameter x 4” deep core in concrete for each post location.
Fully insert into hole and make sure it is properly aligned and level.
Fill the hole with grout.The height of the railing is at 90cm which is safe for the users.
staircase | 63
WINDOWSA window is an opening formed on a wall or roof primarily to admit daylight through some transparent or translucent material. Windows provides controlled natural ventilation to buildings and make a major contribution to the visual appearance of buildings.
SLIDING WINDOWS
Open with the sash sliding left or right. Sliding windows are easier and faster. In a single slider, one sash slides to open. In a double sliders are create for providing air circulation.
CASEMENT WINDOWS
Hinged at the side and open outward like a door. It looks like a picture window because unlike double hung or sliding windows. A casement window has no rail, some casement windows are simply pushed open but most have a hand crank
AWNING WINDOWS
Hinged on top and open outward, enabling ventilation without letting in rain or falling leaves. Screens are on the inside of the window, where they are more protected from the elements.
FIXED WINDOWS
Open with the sash sliding left or right. Sliding windows are easier and faster. In a single slider, one sash slides to open. In a double sliders are create for providing air circulation.
BA
C
D
WINDOWS anatomy
Doors & windows | 65
Frame
Sash
Glass
Jamb
Mullion
INSTALLATION METHOD OF ALUNIMIUM FRAMES
Step 1Clean the opening. Ensure it is dry and free from dirt, oil and debris.
Step 2Apply water resistant coating to the masonry. Extend the coating into the opening on all four sides.
Step 3Confirm the opening is plumb, level and square. Measure and mark the opening where the interior of the new doors will be placed.
Step 4Secure clips to the window frame.
Step 5Done.
Doors & windows | 66
DOORSA door is a solid barrier that is fixed to a frame in an opening in a wall to hinge, pivot or slide open (or to close). The door opening, doorway, allows access and egress from building and between rooms, compartments and corridors. As a component part of a wall, the door and its frame are integral to the overall performance of the wall.
POCKET DOOR
A pocket door is a sliding door that disappears, when fully open, into a compartment in the adjacent wall. Pocket doors are used for architectural effect, or when there is no room for the swing of a hinged door
FLUSH DOOR
A flush door is a completely smooth door, having plywood or MDF fixed over a light timber frame, the hollow parts of which are often filled with a cardboard core material. Skins can also be made out of hardboards.
SLIDING DOOR
A sliding glass door or patio door, is a type of sliding doors in architecture and construction. It is a large glass window opening in a structure that provides access from indoors to the outdoors. Helps in air ventilation and natural lighting entering the building.
TIMBER DOOR
A door constructed with panels, usually shaped to pattern and is installed between the stiles and rails that form the outside frame of the door. As a main door for the building.
DOORS ANATOMY
Doors & windows | 67
INSTALLATION METHOD OF DOORS FRAME
Step 1Verify and confirm the door location and the dimensions of the rough opening.
Step 2Confirm the opening is plumb, level and square.
Step 3Measure the width and height of the opening.
Step 4Lintel placed on the top of the doors to support the following bricks wall construct.
Step 5Pre-drill and fasten the treated.
Step 6Done.
Doors & windows | 68
Roof is an assemblage to provide cover for homes, buildings, and commercial, industrial, and recreational areas. Roofs are constructed in different forms and shapes with various materials. A properly designed and constructed roof protects the structure beneath it from exterior weather conditions, provides structural support for superimposed loads, provides diaphragm strength to maintain the shape of the structure below, suppresses fire spread, and meets desired aesthetic criteria.Modern roof construction usually consists of an outer roofing assembly that is attached atop a deck or sheathing surface, which in turn is supported by a primary framework such as a series of beams, trusses, or arches.
Section of the top roof
Mono pitched roofFlat roof concrete
Roof top plan
MONO PITCHED ROOF
A single-sloping roof surface and often not attached to another roof surface. It is usually for storage.
Characteristics:- Simple installation- Low maintenance- Low cost- Drain away rainwater
FLAT ROOFA roof which does not exceed 10° to horizontal
Characteristics:- Light weight- Wind resistance- Easy access for gutter system- Space for placing equipment- Easy to maintain
TYPES OF ROOF
roof
roof | 70
STRUCTURETHE PURLIN ROOF
The purlin roof consists of both rafters and purlins. The ridge purlin is supported by posts. The rafters act as simple supported beams between the purlins, either with or without cantilever. Purlins must be supported by load bearing walls or by structural beams and any horizontal thrust from the purlin must be catered for. the strut and its associated connections and supports should be of adequate size and strength to resist buckling and to carry the appropriate loading.
PURLINAny horizontal structural members
FASCIA BOARDLong, straight board that runs along the lower edge of the roof. The fascia is fixed directly to the roof trusses and usually does all the work of supporting the bottom row of tiles and carrying all the guttering.
RAFTERSStructural members (beam) that support the roof deck and associates the load
L SHAPED ANCHOR BRACKET
Secure the rafters to the roof beam
roof | 71
INSULATIONThermal insulation in a building is very important to even the temperature of the spaces within the buildings. The purpose of insulation is to provide resistance flow of heat and reduce unwanted heat loss or gain.Metal
roofing Double sided sisalation foil Ventilation space
Metal roofing
Purlin
Double sided sisalation foil
Rafters
Ceiling lining
GUTTER SYSTEMA gutter system is part of the roof. It consists of strainer, outlet, offset, elbow, downspout and etc. The main purpose is to protect a building's foundation by channelling water away from its base. The gutter also helps to reduce erosion, prevents leaks in basements and crawlspaces, protects painted or stained surfaces by reducing exposure to water and provides a means to collect rainwater for later use.
Double sided sisalation foil
Metal roofing
Anchor bracket to roof beam
Gutter w/ domes roof outletVistaboard
Brickwall with plaster on both sides
Gauge to fascia board
Stopened outletRunning outlet
Downpipe
Offset bend
Pipe socket
Shoe
Gutter angle
The advantages of insulation• Control the internal temperature of the building• Prevents moisture being introduced into the ceiling by
outside weather conditions such as rain, humidity or precipitation
• Decrease the effects of damp which may lead to serious illnesses and structure failure
• Fire retardant that improves fire safety• Energy efficient as it reduces the amount of energy
required to cool a building and decrease electricity usage
roof | 72
CORRUGATED METAL ROOFING ( SITE )Metal roof decking is corrugated to increase its stiffness. It is designed for pitched, flat, or arched construction on virtually all types of buildings. Roof deck is popular because it is strong, lightweight, economical, and easy to install. Therefore, the smaller columns are used to support the structure in residential houses.
CORRUGATED METAL DECK
Advantages: • Lightweight and reduce the load• Reflects solar heat and can cut
back on cooling costs immensely• High durability• Low maintenance
Disadvantages:• Noisy in the event of heavy rain• Higher cost
Fastener arrangement
Reason using screw as fastener:
• Faster to install • Consistent screw
installation streamlines the inspection process with no special inspections
• Save time and money with painted decks
• No need to repaint or touch up from welding
• Reduce costs by eliminating the need for welding leads, welding rod, portable welders, fuel, and certified welders
roof | 73
Gaps for draining water
Batten
TILES ROOF ( REFERENCE)Roof tiles can be an alternative for the metal roof of the selected site. It is also designed to drain away the rainwater as the
overlapping of the tiles prevent rainwater from dripping into it. Materials such as clay, fibre cement and concrete are used for the roof tiles.
Where the tiles meet the gutter is called the eaves. An eaves course of tiles is normally shorter than the rest of the tiles used and is normally invisible when the roof is complete as it is fully covered by the layer of tiles above. It is there to provide a second layer of tiles for waterproofing.
Concrete tiles roofingSteel battensRoof joist
Single sided sisalationCeiling runner
Fascia boardDome water outlet
Vertical downsproutWaterproof fibrous plaster ceiling
The concrete roof tiles are nailed to roof battens running parallel to the roof eaves.
Gaps are left in the battens so that water passing through the tiles drains down to the eaves, and a waterproof membrane is below the battens.
Hurricane clips are recommended or often required by local building codes in hurricane prone areas.
The clips are fastened to the roof deck, usually with multiple fasteners, and clip to edges of the roof tiles. In high wind and hurricane areas the number of fasteners is also increased.
TYPES OF TILESAlternatives for the metal decking
Nail holesFLAT SINGLE TILES
Nail holes
Interlocks
FLAT INTERLOCKING
INTERLOCKING TILESNail holes
InterlocksReinforcing ribsWater courses
Nail holes
roof | 74
INSTALLATION PROCESS
Step 1Steel rafters are individually installed on the site. Each of the steel rafters are secured with bolts.
Step 2Double sided sisalation foils are placed on the rafters as heat insulation.
Step 3Metal decks are installed by screwing through the edge of the roof.
SITE (CORRUGATED METAL
ROOFING)
REFERENCE (TILES ROOFING)
Step 1Steel rafters are individually installed on the site. Each of the steel rafters are secured with bolts.
Step 2Single sided sisalation foil are placed on the rafters as heat insulation.
Step 3Steel batten are installed horizontally to hook the tiles in secure.
Step 4Tiles are then hooked on the batten to cover.
Here are two different installation processes based on different types of roof. One obtained from the site and the other as a reference.
roof | 75
Upon completing this Building Construction project over the span of two months, we were given multiple opportunities to expand our knowledge on building construction. We had the chance to visit a construction site, as well as learned the construction process of erecting a building. We were brought around by the site manager, and were explained little details of the construction site as well as experiences that he has gone through. Due to the site being an ongoing construction site, we followed the safety specifications that were given, we brought our own safety helmets and wore safe covered shoes and long pants to ensure our own safety. We got to witness different processes of constructions, such as wall plastering, roofing, construction of stairs, wood framing of doors and constructions of all other sorts.
Upon doing researches we also came to realize that from the site that we visited, certain inappropriate practices were implemented, and some construction methods not properly applied. We have learned to be more aware the consequences, and grasped that these applications should never be administered solely for the function of cutting costs or time. Construction is a lengthy but fairly complicated process, and little details should not be easily overlooked.
In conclusion, we were grateful that this project brought us an opportunity to be involved with the construction industry. Throughout this project we took a glimpse of what it takes to build buildings of all sorts that can be seen today, from little details to a larger scale. We also came to realize that regulations that were set must be followed, and communication is really important amongst professionals of the building industry. Architects, engineers and contractors required to be able to communicate and coordinate among one another to produce excellent results. Thus, being able to visit the construction site gained us a generous amount of knowledge and experience that we believe that we would later apply further in the future.
summary
summary | 77
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