Portland State University Portland State University

PDXScholar PDXScholar

Library Faculty Publications and Presentations University Library

2013

Building and Sustaining a Culture of Assessment: Building and Sustaining a Culture of Assessment:

Best Practices for Change Leadership Best Practices for Change Leadership

Meredith G. Farkas Portland State University, meredith.farkas@pcc.edu

Follow this and additional works at: https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/ulib_fac

Part of the Library and Information Science Commons

Let us know how access to this document benefits you.

Citation Details Citation Details Farkas, Meredith G., "Building and Sustaining a Culture of Assessment: Best Practices for Change Leadership" (2013). Library Faculty Publications and Presentations. 78. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/ulib_fac/78

This Post-Print is brought to you for free and open access. It has been accepted for inclusion in Library Faculty Publications and Presentations by an authorized administrator of PDXScholar. Please contact us if we can make this document more accessible: pdxscholar@pdx.edu.

1

BuildingandSustainingaCultureofAssessment:

BestPracticesforChangeLeadership

MeredithFarkas

PortlandStateUniversity

Portland,Oregon

Citation:“BuildingandSustainingaCultureofAssessment:BestPracticesforChange

Leadership”,ReferenceServicesReview,Vol.41,Issue:1,pp.13‐31.Publishedversion

availablefrompublisherwebsiteathttp://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00907321311300857

ThisArticleisbroughttoyouforfreeandopenaccessbythePortlandStateUniversityLibraryatPDXScholar

2

1.Introduction Accountabilityhasbeenaguidingforceintheworldofhighereducationforthirty

years(Marrs,2009).Wherecollegesanduniversitieswereoncethoughtofaspublicgoods,

theyarenowbeinghelduptoscrutiny,askedtoshowthattheyarespendingmoneywisely

anddemonstratethevaluetheyprovidetostudents.Insupportofthisfocuson

accountability,regionalanddisciplinaryaccreditationagenciesbeganrequiringthat

assessmentbeconductedinallareasofhighereducation,includingintheclassroom.

Beyondsimplyofferingassignmentsandgivinggrades,facultyareincreasinglyexpectedto

beabletodocumentwhatstudentslearnedandhowthatcontributestoprogram‐leveland

campus‐widelearningoutcomes.

Inspiteofthisgreaterfocusonaccountability,fewinstitutionsofhighereducation

havedevelopedatruecultureofassessment.Manyfacultyhavenotinternalizedthevalueof

assessmentfordiscoveringmoreaboutstudentlearning;insteadtheyviewassessmentas

somethingmechanisticthattheyhavetodobecauseit’srequiredbyadministratorsor

accreditors.Forsome,assessmentmandatedfromabovegoesagainsttheirbeliefsinshared

governance,academicfreedomandindependenceoftheprofessoriate.Itseemsthatthe

well‐intentionedactionsofaccreditingagenciesmayhaveshiftedthefocusformanyaway

fromthetruepurposeofassessment‐‐toimprovestudentlearning(Haviland,2009a).

Atinstitutionswheretheculturehasnotembracedassessment,facultymayconduct

assessments,butthesestand‐aloneeffortsarenotthecornerstonesoffacultyand

institutionaldecision‐making.Atmanyinstitutions,thosewhobelieveinthevalueof

assessmentcometogetherincommitteesandtaskforcestodoprojectsaroundassessment,

butarerarelyabletochangetheculturethroughthisleadershipbyexample(Ennis,2010).

Sometimesentiredepartmentsembraceassessmentandareseenasmodelsatthe

University,butotherdepartmentsdon’tnecessarilyfollowsuit.

3

Libraries,likeotheracademicdepartments,areexpectedtoconductassessments

andactontheresults.Andlikemostofhighereducation,fewlibrariescanclaimtohave

developedacultureofassessment.Frequentlyamicrocosmoftheuniversitiesofwhichthey

areapart,thelibraryissubjecttothesamepressuresandlimitationsasteaching

departments.Individualunitsofthelibraryorindividuallibrariansmayembraceevidence‐

baseddecision‐makingandassessmentofstudentlearning,butuntilthatculturepervades

thelibraryassessmentwillnotbecomeaself‐sustainingventure.

Manyarticlesinthelibraryliteraturesuggestthatorganizationalcultureistoblame

forthelackofassessmentculturesinmanylibraries(Castiglione,2006;HillerandSelf,

2004.;Jantti,2005;LakosandPhipps,2004).Whilethisislikelytrueofquiteafew

institutions,changingculturemaynotbethemostefficientwaytobuildacultureof

assessment.Infact,acultureofassessmentcouldinsteadbeusedasalevertochangethe

organizationalculture.Changingattitudesandbehaviortowardsassessment,getting

librarianstointernalizeitsvalueandalteringorganizationalstructurescouldactually

achieveculturechange,asthebenefitsofacultureofassessmentarefar‐reaching.

JohnKotter’seight‐stepmodelforcreatingorganizationalchangeputsbehavioral

changebeforeculturechange,butensuresthatchangeisembeddedintheculturewitha

thoroughconsiderationofculturethroughouttheprocess.Kotter(1996)describesthisas

“graftingthenewpracticeontotheoldrootswhilekillingofftheinconsistentpieces”(p.

151).Kotter’smodelprovidesapragmaticparadigmforchange,especiallyforlibrarians

chargedwithleadingassessmenteffortswhoarenotadministratorsandcannoteffect

system‐widechange.

ThisarticleexplorestheideaofusingKotter’seight‐stepmodelforchange

leadershiptocreateacultureofassessmentthatisembeddedintheorganizationalculture.

Eachstepofthemodelwillbedescribedwithinthecontextofbuildingacultureof

4

assessment,supportedbyexamplesandsuggestionsfromtheliteratureoflibraries,higher

education,organizationalbehaviorandchangeleadership.Classicandrecentexamplesof

libraryorinstitutionalsuccesswithassessmentwillillustratethevalueofKotter’smodelto

libraries.Thischangemodelprovidesapragmaticopportunityforleaders,whetherthey

havepositionalauthorityorsimplyinfluence,tomakeatremendouschangeinthe

organizationalculturethroughcreatingacultureofassessment.Thearticlebeginswithan

overviewofwhatismeantby“acultureofassessment.”

2.WhatisaCultureofAssessment?

Despitetheincreasingprevalenceofassessmentbureaucraciesandmandatesin

highereducation,toooften,a“cultureofassessment”isseenbyinstitutionsassomething

mechanistic(Haviland,2009a).Acultureofassessmentmeansmorethansimplydoing

assessment.Alibrarycanconductassessmentsregularlywithoutitbecomingapervasive

partoftheculture.Atsomeinstitutions,assessmentisprimarilydonebecauseit’san

administrativeimperativeforaccreditation(DeardorffandFolger,2008).Thisdoesnot

meanthatassessmentisdoneinameaningfulwayorthatitsresultsareusedtolearnand

influencechange.Inacultureofassessment,assessmentbecomesthenormandavalued

partofplanningandteaching.Newservicesareplannedforwithconsiderationforhowthey

willbeassessed.Thelibrarydoesn’tjustcollectdata;itactsonandlearnsfromthatdata.

Librariansatinstitutionsinwhichacultureofassessmentisthenormdonotwish

tosimplyrelyonassumptionsaboutwhatstudentsneedorhowtheylearn.Theyassess

becausetheywanttoknowhowtheycanimprovetheirteachingandchangelibrary

servicestomaximizestudentlearning.Inherentinthisisacustomerservicefocusanda

willingnesstochangebasedonassessmentresults.Ennis(2010)suggeststhat“‘assessment

5

culture’iscodefornotjustdoingassessment,butlikingit.”Thisindicatesthatbuildinga

cultureofassessmentfrequentlyrequireschangingattitudesaswellasbehavior.

Thebenefitsofbuildingacultureofassessmentgowellbeyondgettingagood

reportfromtheaccreditationteam.Inthecurrenteconomicclimate,librariesneedtobe

nimbleandprovideservicesthatofferthegreatestreturnoninvestmentforstudentsand

faculty(LakosandPhipps,2004).It’sdifficulttoknowwhichservicesareprovidingthe

greatestvaluefortheeffortwithoutassessingthem.Whenlibraryadministrationuses

assessmentresultsintheirdecision‐making,itmakesthosedecisionsmoretransparent,

bothtopatronsandlibrarystaff.Inusingevidence,libraryadministrationcanmakebetter‐

informeddecisionsthatappearfairtobothstaffandpatrons.

Mostlibrariescannolongertakeforgrantedtheirstatusasapublicgoodorthe

heartofthecampus.Librarieshaveseensignificantbudgetcuts,shrinkingstaff,branch

librariesclosed,andotherunitsmovedintothelibrary.Inanenvironmentwhereit’sno

longergoodenoughtobe“thelibrary”,librariesneedtodemonstratehowtheycontribute

totheprimarygoalsoftheinstitution,includingstudentsuccess.Bybuildingacultureof

evidence,librarieswillbeabletoshowadministratorshowtheirworkpositivelyimpacts

studentsandfacultyandcontributestothosethingsacademicadministratorsaremost

concernedabout(Oakleaf,2010).Forlibrariesarguingformorefundingornewpositions,

havingevidenceofthatneedorthevalueitwillprovideiscritical.

Fortheindividualinstructor,assessmentprovidesinformationthatcanhelp

improveteachingandstudentsuccess.Certainly,whenteachingaclass,aninstructorcan

seehowengagedstudentaresimplybylookingatthem,butwithoutassessment,theydon’t

knowwhetherandwhatstudentsareactuallylearning.Assessmentcanprovideinsights

aboutwhataspectsofone’steachingareworkingwellandwhatarenot.Librarians

providingone‐shotinstructionsessionsfrequentlydon’tknowhowmuchstudentsinthe

6

classesalreadyknowaboutresearch.Formativeassessmentcanhelplibrarianstailortheir

instructiontotheneedsandexperiencelevelsofthestudentsinaclass.

Assessmentresultscanalsobeusedtoadvocateforbetterintegrationof

informationliteracyinstructionintoaparticularcourseorcurriculum.Atthisauthor’s

previousinstitution,theresultsofastudentlearningassessmentwereusedtodemonstrate

theinadequacyofaone‐shotmodelforteachinginformationliteracyinEnglish101.At

WartburgCollege,aninstitutionknownforitsworkwithassessment,“thecultureof

assessment…reassurestheconvertedwhilepersuadingthereluctantwithdata,not

anecdotes”(SchroederandMashek,2007,p.92).Byprovidingfacultywithevidenceofthe

efficacyoflibraryinstruction,librarianscanmakesignificantprogresstowardsthegoalof

curricularintegrationofinformationliteracyinstruction.

Finally,atinstitutionswherelibrarianswanttobeseenaspartnersinteachingand

learning,it’simportantthatweholdourselvestothesamestandardsasotheracademic

departments.Atmanyinstitutions,librariesarenotrequiredtoprovidethesame

assessmentdataasotheracademicunits.However,librariesshouldnotseethisasapass,

butasanopportunitytodemonstratetheircommitmenttoassessment.Theinformation

literacyprogramatWartburgisnotonlyassessedbythelibrary,butundergoesexternal

assessmentbytheGeneralEducationCommittee(SchroederandMashek,2007).In

providingthatdataandparticipatingincampus‐wideassessment,librariansdemonstrate

thattheyarepartnersinpromotingstudentlearning.

3.TheRoleofOrganizationalCulture

Buildingacultureofassessmentisadelicateandcomplexprocess;indeed,building

apropercultureofassessment,requiresthecooperationoftheentireorganization.Faculty

andstaffmustfeelempoweredtodeveloptheirownassessmentprogramandmeasures,

7

andadministratorsneedtoleadbyexampleandsupporttheirefforts.Throughitall,the

focusmustbeonstudentlearning,ratherthanaccreditationorotherexternalpressures.

Organizationalcultureisamajordeterminantofthesuccessorfailureofanychange

initiative.Changeinitiativesdevelopedwithoutconsideringcultureoftenleadtonegative

outcomes(LakosandPhipps,2004).Organizationalculturereferstotheartifactsand

behaviors,espousedvaluesandassumptionsofanorganization(Schein,1992).Tothose

insidetheorganization,theculturemaybeinvisible,butitexertsapowerfulforceonhow

theyrespondtochange(LakosandPhipps,2004).Thecultureisinfluencedbytheattitudes

oftheindividualswithintheorganization,normsinoperationsandcommunicationaswell

assharedhistory,andit,inturn,influenceshowthingsgetdoneandhowtheorganization

respondstochangeorperceivedthreats.

Anorganizationalculturethatcanfacilitatethecreationofacultureofassessmentis

onethattrustsitsmembers,wheremembersaremotivatedtolearn,andwheremembers

arecustomerservice‐focused.Librariansmustbecuriousaboutstudentlearningand

unafraidofwhattheymightdiscover.Theymustalsobewillingtochangebasedonwhat

theylearnfromdoingassessment.Thisrequiressignificantemotionalriskandcomfortwith

ambiguity(ShepstoneandCurrie,2008).Inanenvironmentinwhichindividualsdon’ttrust

eachotherordon’ttrusttheirleaders,suchriskswouldbeunthinkable.Inanenvironment

inwhichlibrariansdon’tfeelsupportedtoexperimentandmakechanges,theassessment

loopwillnotlikelybeclosed.

Organizationalcultureisfairlystaticandnotoriouslydifficulttochange(Lakosand

Phipps,2004).Whenthelibrarycultureisnotconducivetocreatingacultureofassessment,

leadingchangecanseemadauntingtask.LakosandPhipps(2004),whowrotetheseminal

workonorganizationalcultureandassessment,describetheprerequisitecultureand

conditionsforbuildingacultureofassessment,butdonotsuggestconcretestepstowards

8

creatingthatculture.Whilethesuggestionstomovetowardssystemsandstrategicthinking

arevaluable,theyseemmorefocusedontheadministratorthantheassessmentcoordinator

orheadofinstruction.Phippshaswrittenelsewhereaboutthetremendousandpositive

organizationalculturechangethattookplaceatherinstitution,theUniversityofArizona,

butthischangecameinitiallyfromthetopandinvolvedtheentiretyoflibraryoperations

andculture(Phipps,2004).Atmanyinstitutions,thosetaskedwithbuildingacultureof

assessmentarenotadministratorsanddon’thavetheabilitytoinitiatesuchasystem‐wide

change.Thelibraryadministrator(s)maybesupportiveofbuildingacultureofassessment,

butthetaskofcreatingitisfrequentlydelegated.

ManyorganizationsdonotexemplifytheidealculturedescribedbyLakosand

Phipps,butthisdoesn’tmeanthattheyareunabletomovetowardsacultureofassessment.

Kotter’schangemodelrequiresadeepawarenessofthelibrary’scultureinordertodevelop

avision,communicationplan,andstepstowardschange,butitdoesnotrequireaspecific

typeofcultureinwhichchangecanhappen.Certainly,administrationmustbestrongly

supportiveoftheideaofbuildingacultureofassessmentandwillingtowalkthetalk,but

thechangeprocesscanbeledbyindividualsoperatingthroughinfluenceratherthan

positionalauthority.

4.ChangeLeadershipandKotter’sEight‐StepModel

Leadingchangeisadifficultbusiness.Choi(2011)arguesthatthemajorityof

change‐relatedfailuresarecausedbyimplementationfailuresratherthanthefailureofthe

initialidea.Therefore,thestepsthatleaderstaketobuildconsensusandsupportforchange

arecriticallyimportant.Changeleadershipreferstotheapproachaleader(orleadership

team)takeswithregardtoaspecificchangeinitiative.Afterworkingwithandinterviewing

over100diversebusinessesontheirchangeprocesses,JohnKotter(1995)definedaneight‐

9

stepprocessfororganizationalchange:1)establishasenseofurgency,2)formaguiding

coalition,3)createavision,4)communicatethevision,5)empowerotherstoactonthe

vision,6)planforandcreatingshort‐termwins,7)consolidateimprovementstocreate

morechange,and8)institutionalizenewapproaches.Originallywrittenasanarticlein

HarvardBusinessReview(Kotter,1995),Kotterwroteseveralfollow‐upbooksthatexpound

onhischangeleadershipmodel(Kotter,1996,2002,2008).Thismodelisfocusedon

embeddingchangeintheorganizationalcultureandisidealforlibrarieswantingtomore

thansimplychangebehavior.

TheliteratureisfullofglowingreviewsofKotter’sworkanditiscitedfrequentlyas

aleadingchangemodel.Oneoftheveryfewcritiques(Kelman,2005)focusesonhis

relianceonanecdotalevidenceratherthanrigorousscholarship.Whileitistruethat

Kotter’smodelreliesonhisownobservations,theseobservationscomefrommorethan

100businessesofvarioussizesandtypesinvarioussituations.

WhileKotter’smodelisquitepopularandwell‐knownbothinsideandoutsideofthe

businessworld,onlyahandfuloflibrarianshavewrittenaboutapplyingittofacilitatea

changeinalibrary(Horn,2008;NussbaumerandMerkley,2010;Sidorko,2008)andeach

ofthemadmitstoonlyutilizingpiecesofthemodel.Reflectingonthemodelafterthe

changeprocess,Sidorkoquestionswhetherasequentially‐orderedmodelispracticalwhen

situationsaresodiverse,andanotherstudyusingKotter’smodelactuallyusedthestepsin

adifferentordertogreatsuccess(Uys,2010).Thisspeakstotheideathatperhapsthesteps

donotnecessarilyhavetobeundertakenintheexactorderrecommended.LikeSidorko,

thisauthorconcedesthatthereisnoone‐size‐fits‐allsolutiontochange,butKotter’smodel

provideshelpful,concretestepstowardchangethathavebeenusedsuccessfullyinmany

organizations.

10

Intheworldofeducation,Kotter’smodelhasbeenusedasaframeworkfor

analyzingalreadyexistingcasestudiesfocusedonchange.Nitta,Wrobel,Howard,and

Jimmerson‐Eddings(2009)demonstratefailuresinthechangeinitiativeoftheLittleRock

SchoolBoardinitsadoptionofareorganizationplanbylookingatitthroughthelensof

Kotter’smodel.Inhighereducation,Kotter’smodelhasbeenusedtoimplementanopen

sourcelearningmanagementsystematCharlesSturtUniversity(Uys,2010),putfaculty

developersatthecenterofeducationalchange(Dawson,Mighty,andBritnell,2010),andto

transformtheUniversityofPuertoRicoSchoolofDentalMedicine’sclinicalassessment

system(Guzmánetal.,2011).AllofthesecasestudiesillustratethepotentialofKotter’s

modelforcreatingchangeindiverseareasofhighereducation.

4a.Step1:BuildaSenseofUrgency

EdgarSchein(1979),anotedexpertonorganizationaldevelopmentsuggeststhat

“thereasonsomanychangeeffortsrunintoresistanceoroutrightfailureisusuallydirectly

traceabletotheirnotprovidingforaneffectiveunfreezingprocessbeforeattempting

changeinduction.”(p.144).Sogettingthechangeprocessoffontherightfootisanecessity.

Asenseofurgencyisanimportantfirststepinwhichemployeesdeterminewhetherit’s

worththeefforttochange.Whenemployeesevidenceasenseofurgency,theycometo

workeachdayexcitedaboutcontributingtothechangeeffort.Complacencytendstobea

problemformatureorganizationswithsignificanthistorylikelibraries.Itiseasytodevelop

tunnelvisionandnotseebeyondthelibrary’swalls.Creatingasenseofurgencymay

requireshiftingthelibraryfacultyandstaff’sfocustowardstheexternal:forexample,

towardsstudentlearningasopposedtolibraryinstruction.

Forsomeorganizations,theurgencyiscreatedforthem.Inthe1970s,Northeast

MissouriStateUniversity(nowTrumanStateUniversity)wastransitioningfromateacher’s

11

collegetoacomprehensiveuniversity(McClainandKrueger,1985).Thisshiftrequired

tremendouschangeinavarietyofareasandgavethenewPresident,CharlesMcClain,the

opportunitytoturnwhatcouldhavebeenseenacrisisintoanopportunityforpositive

changesinstudentlearning.McClaininsistedthattheUniversityhadanobligationto

preparestudentstobesuccessfulintheirprofessionalemploymentandthatthatthe

Universityshouldbeabletodemonstrateitsimpactonstudentsuccess(Magruder,

McManis,andYoung,1997).Hecreatedchangesimplybyaskingthefacultyhowtheyknow

thattheyarepreparingstudentsadequately.Thisrequiredfacultytolookoutsideofthe

classroomandtothinkabouthowtheirveryindividualinstructioncontributestothelarger

goalsoftheUniversity.Sometimesallittakesisforfacultytoseetheirworkfromadifferent

perspective.

Urgencyisnotdrivenbyfearoranxiety,butbyopportunitiesandasenseof

possibility.Therefore,achangemessagedesignedtocreateasenseofurgencyshouldnotbe

fear‐producing.Feartendstoleadtofightorflightthinkingwhichproduceschaoticand

disorganizedwork(Armenakis,Harris,andMossholder,1993).AtNortheastMissouriState

University,PresidentMcClaincreatedurgencywithaclearvisionfortheinstitution,not

withafearoffailure(McClainandKrueger,1985).DuttonandDuncan(1987)believethata

goodchangemessagemustclearlyconveytheurgencyoftheactionandasenseof

confidencethattheorganizationcanachievethedesiredendstate.Thisrequiresthe

memberstoagreeonwhatthatdesiredendstateshouldbe,toseevisiblesupportforthe

effort,andtoseehowthechangewillbenefitthem.

Kotter(2008)arguesthatgettingbuy‐inisnotenoughbecauseitonlyengagesthe

head,nottheheart.Mostlibrarianshaveprobablybeeninameetingwhereeveryone

agreedtoacourseofaction,butwhenitcametimetoformataskforcetodothework,no

onevolunteered.Peoplecanlogicallyagreetosomethingwithoutwantingtopersonallyput

12

anyefforttowardsit.Thechangemessagemustspeaktopeople’spassions,andthus,must

bebasedonanunderstandingofwhatdrivespeopleintheirwork.Tocreateasenseof

urgency,thepersonconveyingthemessageshouldlettheirpassionshowandtryto

humanizethemessagewithhumorandafocusonthehumanimpacts.Kottersuggestsusing

datasparinglyandonlythosethatmightshiftpeople’sperspectives.Beyondtheverbally

communicatedmessage,it’spossiblethatthechangeleaderscanprovideexperiencesthat

communicatethesamemessage.Thiscouldinvolveoutsidespeakersandlearning

opportunities,oreventasksthatillustratethenecessityofthechange(Armenakisand

Harris,2002).Themoretimestheneedisemphasizedtothelibraryfacultyandstaff,

especiallybydifferentsources,thebetter.

4b.Step2:FormaGuidingCoalition

Hill(2005)conceivesoftheleaderasa“fixer”whoworksoutsideofexisting

hierarchiestodecreasebarrierstoandencourageparticipationinassessment.Thisrole

canbeexceedinglydifficultandleadersorfixerscanbepronetoburnout.Strategiesto

preventburnoutincludehavingtwoormoreleadersinvolvedatanyonetime(Anagnoset

al.,2008)orhavingtherolerotateperiodically(Hill,2005).Kotter(1996)suggeststhata

guidingcoalitionisamoreeffectiveunitthananindividualpushingchangeforwardalone.

Thekeyingredientsforbecominganeffectiveleaderaretrustandpoliticalcapital

(Hiller,Kyrillidou,andSelf,2006).Bothcantakesignificanttimetobuild(Galfordand

Drapeau,2003),whichiswhyit’srarelyagoodideatotaskanewemployeewithleading

change.Tobuildtrustandpoliticalcapital,leadersmustbeconsistentinwordanddeed,

leadbyexample,communicateopenlyanddealwithconflictstransparently.Leadersneed

tobuildpeople’sfaithintheircompetenceandloyaltybeforeotherswillbewillingto

extendthemselvesinsupportofthatleader’schangeinitiative.Trustisalsoincredibly

13

delicateandonemisstepcannegateyearsofgoodwork(GalfordandDrapeau,2003;Hill

andLineback,2012).

Whilesomelibrarieshaveassessmentcoordinators,manyhavechosentoform

assessmentcommitteessothattheresponsibilityforspearheadingassessmenteffortsis

betterdistributed(HillerandSelf,2004).Librariesfrequentlyformtaskforcesbasedonthe

goalofrepresentativeness;theyworktowardshavingmembersfromeachunitinvolvedin

thechange.Whilediversityisimportant,inmostcasesitshouldbesecondarytochoosing

therightpeople.Kotter(2002)suggeststhatanidealgroupwouldcontainpeoplewith

visionandasenseofwhat’shappeningoutsideoftheorganization,credibilitywithinthe

organization,politicalknowledge,formalpositionalauthority,andgoodcommunication

skills.Somepeoplemayexemplifymorethanoneofthosequalities,buteachofthose

qualitiesisessentialfordevelopingastrongvisionandcommunicatingitpersuasivelyto

therestofthelibrary.Themembersalsoneedtobeabletoworkcollaborativelytogether

andcommitfullytothechangevision.

4c.Step3:Createavision

Thetaskforceshoulddevelopavisionthatreflectsastrongunderstandingof

organizationalcultureandwhatitsmembersvalue(Kotter,1996).Accordingto(Awbrey,

2005),employeesascribemeaningtotheorganizationinwhichtheywork,andthekeyto

creatingsuccessfulchangeistounderstandthatmeaningandincorporatingitintothe

changevision.Thevisionneedstobeclearenoughthatitcouldbedescribedinjustone

minute(Kotter,2002).Whenthevisionisunclear,librarianscanquicklybecomefatigued

byambiguityandinitiativesthatseemunconnected.Thevisionshouldprovideaclear

pictureofwhatthechangewilllooklike,whileatthesametimespeakingtothethingsthat

makelibrariansvaluetheirwork.

14

4d.Step4:Communicatethevision

ThenextstepinKotterschangemodelasksthetaskforcetoengagewith

stakeholdersindialogueaboutthepotentialimpactofthechangevisionandwhatskills

librariansneedtofeeleffectiveinthesenewroles(MoranandBrightman,2000).They

shouldspeaktransparentlytoanypotentialorstatedconcerns;ifeverythingisn’tputonthe

tableatthispoint,lingeringskepticismcouldpoisonthewholeendeavor(Kotter,2002).

Thevisioncanbecommunicatedinavarietyofways–inreports,lectures,group

discussionsandone‐on‐onechats.Thisisapointwhenhavingataskforceismorevaluable

thanasingleindividual,becausepeoplewillrespondpositivelytodifferentmembersofthe

taskforce.Differentcommunicationmethodscanbeemployedbasedontheresponsesof

librarians.Ifgroupcommunicationbreaksdown,itmightbewisetomeetindividuallywith

librarianswho’dbeenvocalintheircriticism.Sometimes,thoseresistingchangesimply

needtofeelthattheirconcernshavebeenheardbythechangeleader(s).

Resistanceisacommonforceinanychangeinitiative.Whilemanyearly

managementresearcherssawresistanceasthecauseoffailures,morerecentstudies

suggestthatresistanceisusuallyasymptomofproblemswiththechangevisionorits

communication,andhowchangeleadersrespondtoresistancedeterminesthefateofthe

initiative.Infact,manyscholarsnowarguethatresistancecanbeausefullearningtoolfor

leaders(FordandFord,2009,2010;Gandz,2008).Itisimportantfirsttodecodethe

resistance‐‐tounderstandtherealreasonwhytheindividualisfightingtheproposed

change.Peoplemayresistanideathatisnotcompletelycleartothembecauseoftheanxiety

createdbyambiguity.Thesimplefixforthisisbetterarticulationofthevision.

Alternatively,theresistorcouldbecommunicatingimportantinformationaboutthe

institutionalcultureorstructuresthatmustbeaddressedbeforetheinitiativemoves

15

forward.Also,peoplemayresistbecausetheyhavelegitimateconcernsofwhichmembers

ofthecoalitionwereunaware.It’sverypossiblethatthevisionwillneedtobealteredbased

ontheresistanceencountered.

Resistancecanbeexpectedinnearlyanychangeinitiative.Thereisawealthof

literatureonfacultyresistancetoassessment(Bird,2001;DeardorffandFolger,2008;

Ennis,2010;Haviland,2009a,2009b;Marrs,2009;Kramer,2009;Weiner,2009).The

reasonswhyfacultyandstaffresistanassessmentculturearevaried,butregardlessoftheir

basisinreality,allmustbeaddressedbyadministrationtoensurefacultybuy‐in.Library

faculty,particularlythoseonthetenuretrack,frequentlybristleattheideaofwhatthey

perceivetobeoutsideinterferenceintotheirteaching.Academicfreedomisamajortenetof

highereducationandlibrariansmightfearthatdatacouldbeusedbyadministratorstocut

libraryfundingordictatethedirectionofthelibrary’sinstructionprogram.Thisfearof

losingfacultyautonomymaybequiterealisticatsomeinstitutions(Haviland,2009b).

Librariansmayalsofearthattheywillbepunishedforpoorassessmentresults,especiallyif

theresultsconcernoneoftheareasonwhichlibrariansareevaluatedfortenureor

promotion.Libraryadministratorsmustmakeitclearthatit’stheactofdoingassessment,

notindividualresults,uponwhichlibrarianswillbeevaluated(Becker,2009).Theyshould

worktoensurethatthedecisiontoconductassessmentdoesnotfeelriskytolibraryfaculty

andstaff(Hill,2005).Timeisamajorconcernforfacultyandanadministrationthatdoesn’t

helpfacultyfindthetimetodoassessmentwilllikelyseepoorparticipationand/orpoor

assessmentquality.

Feedbackandcriticismofthevisionshouldbeacceptedwithgracebythetaskforce

members;attachmenttothefinerpointsisunproductiveatthisstageandwillleadthe

vision’sdetractorstodigintheirheels(Kotter,1996).Basedonfeedbackfromstakeholders,

thetaskforcewilllikelyneedtomakesignificantrefinements.Itisatthispointinthe

16

processthatvisibleadministrativesupportiscritical.Thisisnotuniquetobuildinga

cultureofassessment.Anysortofdisruptivechangewillonlybesuccessfulwiththeactive

supportofadministration.Inordertocreateanatmosphereoftrust,administratorsmust

beconsistentinwordanddeed.Consequently,oneofthemostimportantthingstheycando

tosupportassessmentistoleadbyexample.Libraryplanningcanincludeperformance

metricsandhowthosemetricswillbeassessed.Libraryadministratorscanalsouse

assessmentresultsinmakingfundingdecisions,planningfornewservicesandimproving

existingones.Toengagefacultyandstaff,administratorsshouldkeepthefocusfor

assessmentonimprovinglibraryservicesandteaching.Whenfacultyandstaffperceivethat

theadministratorsareonlymotivatedtocreateacultureofassessmentforaccreditation,

cynicismandlow‐motivationwilllikelyresult(LakosandPhipps,2004).AttheCollegeofSt.

BennedictandSt.John’sUniversity,whilefacultywereentrustedwiththedesignofthe

assessmentprogram,itwastheProvost’sofficethatprovidedthecalltoactionandhelped

motivatefacultybyusingassessmentresultstomakeresourceallocationdecisions

(Kramer,Knuesel,andJones,2011).

Forinstructionlibrariansworkingtowardsacultureofassessmentthisislikelya

goodtimetodeveloplearningoutcomesthatdescribetheinformationskills,dispositions

andabilitiesstudentswithwhichshouldbecompletingtheircourseofstudy.Thelibraryat

PierceCollegeundertookanefforttodesignoutcomesnotonlyfortheirinstruction

program,butforeverydepartmentinthelibrary.Intheend,eachlibrarianhadabetter

senseofthedirection,butaclearsenseofhoweachdepartment’sactivitiesfitintothe

largergoalsofthelibrary(Flynn,Gilchrist,andOlson,2004).Program‐levellearning

outcomesreflectthosethingsthelibrariansvalueandhelptodeterminethefocusof

assessment.Workingasagrouptodefinetheseoutcomescanbeagoodteam‐building

exercise(Bird,2001)that,ifnothingelse,willgivethetaskforceasenseofhowthegroup

17

willworktogetherandwhatculturalissuesneedtobeaddressed.Italsocreatesacommon

roadmapforstudentlearningandassessment.AlvernoCollege,amodelinstitutionfor

assessmentculture,begantheirworkwithassessmentbydefiningeightabilitiesthatthey

wantedtheirstudentstomasterandthatcouldbemeasured(Loacker,1985).These

abilitiesinfluenceeveryaspectoftheireducationalworkfrominstructionaldesignto

assessment.

4e.Step5:Empowerotherstoactonthevision

Onceavisionhasbeendeveloped,refinedandcommunicated,Kotterstatesthatthe

nextstepistoempowertherestofthelibraryfacultyandstafftoactonthevision.This

requiresleadersandadministratorstoremoveanybarrierstolibrariansparticipatingin

assessmentandtoencourageexperimentation.Sometimes,organizationalstructuresinhibit

people’sabilitytoexperiment,sharetheirideasandreflectonassessmentresults.

Administratorsneedtoensurethatorganizationalstructuresreward,ratherthan

discourage,assessment.Sometimespromotionand/ortenuresystemsactually

disincentivizerisk‐takingandinformation‐sharing.Inanenvironmentinwhichpeoplefeel

thattheyhavetochoosebetweentheirjobsecurityandchange,securitywillwinout

(Kotter,1995).Inadditiontoremovingbarrierstoassessment,administratorsmayalso

wishtolookathowtheycanincentivizeassessmentthroughsystemsthatreward

assessmentworkandserviceorteachingimprovementsmadebasedonassessmentdata.At

someinstitutions,facultyarerecognizedfortheirassessmentworkwithawards,grantsor

courserelease(PiascikandBird,2008).Iftheinstitutionvaluesassessment,facultyand

staffshouldbejudgedbytheirparticipationinthisarea(Anagnosetal.,2008).It’salso

criticaltoensurethatfacultyandstaffarejudgedbytheirparticipationinassessment,not

theirassessmentresults.Insuchamodel,individualresultswouldbeusedsolelyforthe

18

facultymember’sprofessionaldevelopment.Forlibrarydecisionmakingtheywouldbe

usedinaggregate.AtNortheastMissouriStateUniversity,PresidentMcClaincreatedan

environmentwherefacultyfeltsafeexperimentingwithassessmentbecausetheyknewthe

resultswouldnotbeusedagainstthem(Magruderetal.,1997).

Anotherimportantroleforadministratorsistoprovidelibraryfacultyandstaffwith

theresourcestheyneedtoconductmeaningfulassessmentandlearnfromandactonthe

results.Whetherintentionalornot,theexistenceorlackofnecessaryresourcesspeaks

volumestofacultyandstaffaboutthelevelofcommitmentlibraryoruniversity

administrationhastobuildingacultureofassessment.Oneofthemostimportantresources

facultyandstaffneedtosupportassessmentworkistime.Ittakestimetodevelop

assessmenttools,conductassessmentsandanalyze,reflectonandmakechangesbasedon

theresults.Studieshaveshownthatthelesstimelibrariansaregivenforassessment,the

lessmeaningfultheprocesswillbe(MoranandBrightman,2000).Cornerswillbecut.

Facultyandstaffmayconductassessmentsasrequestedbyadministration,butwithtimeat

apremium,thoseresultswilllikelygounused.Withlimitedtime,facultywilllooktousing

assessmenttoolsthatrequiretheleastinvestmentoftheirtimeratherthanthosethatwill

providethemostmeaningfuldata.Givendailyoperationalandbusinessneeds,timeisoften

oneofthemostdifficultthingsforadministratorstoprovide,butifbuildingacultureof

assessmentisastrategicpriority,otherresponsibilitiesmightneedtobedeemphasized.

Asimportantastimeistocreatingacultureofassessment,withouteducation,an

assessmentprogramwillneverproducemeaningfulresultsandchange.Facultyandstaffdo

notintuitivelyknowhowtoconductmeaningfulassessmentandmostlibraryand

informationstudiesprogramsdonotrequireanassessmentcourse.Facultyandstaffneed

traininginthebestpractices,aswellasthemethodsandmodes,fordevelopingassessment

tools,analyzingresultsandusingthoseresults.Evenfacultywhoindividuallytakethe

19

initiativetoassesstheircoursesfrequentlyarticulateaneedforfurthertrainingin

assessmentdesign(Ebersole,2009).Jantti(2005)describeshowstaffdevelopmentwasthe

maincatalystforbuildingacultureofassessmentattheUniversityofWollongong.Through

traininginassessmenttools,techniquesandstatisticalanalysis,librariansdevelopeda

senseofself‐efficacyandenthusiasmforassessmentwork.Becker(2009)describeshow

theassessmentteamathisinstitutionspenttwoyearssimplylearningaboutanddiscussing

assessmenttheoriesandtechniques.Hereportsthatitwasnotjustthelearningthatwas

valuable,buttheactofbecoming“acommunityoflearners”thathelpedbuildanassessment

culture(p.2).Learningaboutassessmentasagroupcanhelpfacultyandstaffdevelopa

commonvocabularyandcommonframeofreference,bothofwhichcanhelpbuild

consensusinthedevelopmentofanassessmentprogram.

Atmanyinstitutions,incentivesareneededtoencouragefacultyandstafftobe

activelyinvolvedinassessment.AtOhioStateandBallStateUniversities,fundingis

earmarkedtoincentivizeindividualanddepartment‐wideassessmentwork(Banta,1997).

Ennis(2010)seesthisasthedarkersideofbuildingacultureofassessment;theideathat

“wherecommunityfails,compensationcansucceed,andeffectiveassessmentprogramsand

servicescanandsometimesmustbepurchased,thestateoftheinstitutionalculture

notwithstanding”(p.15).Ontheonehand,itmaynotbewisetopayfacultyandstafftodo

thingsthatthelibrarywilllaterwantthemtodoaspartoftheirjobs.Ontheotherhand,

busylibrariansmaysimplyneedtohavetheexperienceofconductinganassessmenttosee

itsvalue,anexperiencesomewouldnotpursuewithoutincentives.ThefacultyatAlverno

callthis“fund[ing]creativestarts”(Loacker,1988).Offeringincentivesmayalsoindicateto

facultyandstaffthattheadministrationvaluesassessment,whichisalsoapowerful

motivatortoparticipate.

20

IntheirstudyofhowARLlibrariesarepositionedtouseassessmentresults,Hiller,

Kyrillidou,andSelf,(2008)foundthatfewlibrarianswereabletoanalyzeandpresentdata

effectively.Therearemanytechnologiesinexistencethatcanhelpfacultyandstaffto

collectandanalyzeassessmentdata.Purchasingassessmenttechnologiesandtraining

facultyandstaffintheirusewillhelptoensurethatdataactuallygetsused.Inaddition,it’s

vitaltohaveindividualsonstaff(whetherinthelibraryorattheinstitution)whohave

expertiseindataanalysisandcansupportthoseseekingtolearnfromtheirownresultsand

departmentsseekingtolearnabouttheirprogramholistically.Areportontheearlyresults

ofamajorgrant‐fundedprogramforcommunitycollegesfocusedonbuildingacultureof

assessmentfoundthatthegreatestbarriertoparticipatinginstitutionswastheirlackof

abilitytoeasilyretrieveandanalyzeassessmentdata,whichwaslargelyattributedto

inadequateinformationsystems(Brocketal.,2007).Investingintechnologiesandpeopleto

provideusefuldatatoindividualsanddepartmentsiscriticallyimportanttothoseseeking

toclosetheassessmentloopandactuallyactontheresults.

EncouraginglibrarianstoexperimentisalsoacriticalpartofstepfiveofKotter’s

changemodel.Experimentationallowslibrarianstotryoutassessmenttoolsinasafeand

low‐accountabilityenvironment.AttheVirginiaPolytechnicInstituteandStateUniversity,

librariansinvolvedininstructionweregivenseveralassessmenttoolsandaskedtouse

someofthemduringaone‐yearexperimentationperiod.Afterthattime,theymetasa

grouptodiscusswhattheylearnedfromtheassessmentworkandtochoosethosetools

thatweremosteffectiveatmeasuringstudentlearning.Throughtheirefforts,theywere

abletofoster“acreative,collegial,andsupportiveenvironmentthatemphasizes

programmaticsuccessoverindividualperformanceevaluations”(AriewandLener,2005).

4f.Step6:Createshort‐termwins

21

Inthatinitialworktowardsthevisionforchange,Kotter(1995)stressestheneed

for“short‐termwins”toincreasefacultyandstaffmotivation.Planningforvisiblesuccesses

earlyoncankeepupthemomentumtowardsthelargervision.Atthebeginning,itmay

makesensetostartsmallandfocusonthingsthatareeasiertoassess.Kramer(2009)calls

thisideaofsmallexposurestoassessmentovertime“buildingassessmentanti‐venom.”

Whiletheymightnotbethemostrigorousorvaluableassessmentsthatcouldbedone,

theremaybesomevaluetoassessing“well‐lightedsites”atthestartofanassessmentpush

(Allen,2007).Selectingquestionsthatareeasiertoanswerthroughassessmentorusing

toolsthatareeasiertoadministerandanalyzecanbuildtheconfidenceoffacultyandstaff.

Similarly,DeardorffandFolger(2008),suggestthatfacultyfocustheirassessment

workinitiallyonquestionstheyhaveanddevelopassessmenttoolsdesignedtoanswer

thosequestions.Sincethefocusofenquiryemanatesfromlibrarianinterests,assessmentis

non‐threatening,butstillprovidesexperience,whichisvitaltogetfacultyandstaffto

ultimatelyinternalizeitsvalue.Frequently,peoplewillnotrecognizethevalueof

assessmentuntiltheyactuallyuseitintheirclassesandlearnfromit.Evensomethingas

smallasaone‐minutepaper,aclassicclassroomassessmenttechniquecanyieldvaluable

insightsaboutwhatstudentslearned.

Whateverapproachistaken,administratorsshouldgivefacultyandstaffthe

freedomtodeterminetheirownassessmentgoalssolongastheyareconsistentwiththe

overallvision(Ebersole,2009).Librariansaremorelikelytobuyintoassessmentwhen

theyhavethefreedomtocharttheirowncourseandtheabilitytomakeassessment

meaningfultothem.Especiallyatinstitutionswherelibrarianshavefacultystatus,

initiativesthataretightlycontrolledbyadministratorstendtoresultinstrongresistance

fromthelibrariansexpectedtoimplementthem(NdoyeandParker,2010).

22

4g.Step7:Consolidateimprovements

Thisinitialworkwithassessmentdoesnotsignaltheendofthechangeprocess,but

theopportunitytouseearlysuccessesasalevertokeepupthemomentum.Kotter(1996)

describesmanychangeinitiativesthatfailedbecausetheleadersdeclaredvictorytoosoon.

Assessmentshouldstarttobeseenasacontinuousprocessratherthansomethingdone

beforeanaccreditationcycle,andatthispoint,librariansareprobablyreadytostart

refiningtheirassessmenttoolsandselectingmorechallengingquestionstoanswer.The

taskforcememberscancontinuetoremindpeoplehowwhatthey’redoingfitsintothe

largervision(Kotter,1996).

Whetherandhowthecollectedassessmentdataisusedbythelibrarycan

determinethesuccessorfailureofthechangeinitiativeatthispoint.Institutionsofhigher

educationcollecttremendousquantitiesofdataforvariousreportingagencies.Most

librariesareverygoodatcollectingdata,butmanyarenotquiteasgoodatusingthatdata

tomakedecisionsaboutfunding,servicesandcollections.Whileassessmentshouldideally

informplanning,toooftenthetwoareunconnected(Middaugh,2009).Thiscanbehugely

problematic,bothintermsofmakingsoliddecisionsinlibrariesandbuildingacultureof

assessment.Inasurveyofinstitutionsthathavebuiltacultureofassessment,72%saidthat

theuseofdatawasimportanttocreatinganassessmentculture(NdoyeandParker,2010).

AtQueensUniversityofCharlotte,arecentprojecttotieassessmenttoresourceallocation

ledtoa97.7%returnrateforassessmentplansandreports(Slater,Burson,andMcArthur,

2011).

OakleafandHinchliffe(2008)examinethereasonswhyindividualinstruction

librariansdonotusetheresultsofassessmentsthey’veconducted.Thereasonsidentified

includedalackoftime,lackofknowledgeaboutassessment,lackofsupport,andalackof

clearexpectations.Manyalsodidnotfeelconfidentthattheassessmentstheyconducted

23

adequatelymeasuredstudentlearning.Thisspeaksstronglytotheneedforeducationand

administrativesupport.

Datacanalsobesharedwithstakeholders.Thismayleadtousefulconversations

abouthowtoimprovelibraryservices.Sometimeslibrariansaretooclosetotheresultsto

noticesomethingthatanoutsidermightsee.Whilelibrariansmayinterpretassessment

resultsoneway,otherstakeholdersmayseethemdifferently,whichcouldleadto

alternativestrategiesforimprovement.AtWartburgCollege,theinformationliteracy

coordinatorvisitswithdepartmentchairsannuallytoshareassessmentresults.Thishas

alsogiventhecoordinatortheopportunitytodiscusshowtoimprovestudentinformation

literacyineachdepartmentthroughbetterintegration(SchroederandMashek,2007).

Acultureofassessmentisacultureoflearning,andlibrarianscanbenefit

tremendouslybycomingtogetherwiththeircolleaguestodiscussassessmentdesignand

results.Teachingtendstobeveryindividualwork,butsharingtheirmethodologyand

resultscanbothhelpotherstodesigneffectiveassessmentsandcanoffervaluablefeedback

toguideimprovement.AccordingtoLoacker(1988)“atAlverno,becauseassessmentis

designedtoworkthroughouttheentirecurriculum,facultycollaborationhasbecomea

dramaticoutcomeoftheassessmentprocess.Collaborationinturnhasbecomeagrowing

causeofeffectiveness”(p.29).Universitiesthathavesuccessfulassessmentprograms,such

astheUniversityofMarylandUniversityCollege,haveinvestedheavilyintheircentersfor

teachingandlearningtoprovidefacultywithtrainingandspacesforcollaborativelearning

(McDaniel,Felder,Gordon,Hrutka,andQuinn,2000).Librarianscanlearnfromboth

failuresandsuccesses,butlibrariansneedtofeelcomfortablesharingboth,whichrequires

aculturewhereexperimentationisvaluedandfailureisseenasalearningtool.

Thisstepisalsoagoodtimetoremindlibrarianswhythey’redoingwhatthey’re

doing(Kotter,2002).Ifthetaskforcecanshowfacultyandstaffwhatpositivechangeshave

24

comefromtheassessmentworkdonethusfar,itwillincreasetheirconfidenceinthe

changeprocess.Assessmentresultsoftenresultinpositivechangesnotonlyforstudents,

butforfacultyandstaff.AttheUniversityofTennesseeatKnoxville,knowingthattheyhad

gooddataaboutstudentlearningbuiltfacultyconfidenceaboutmakingchangesto

departmentalgoalsandcurricula(Mentkowski,1991).AtNortheastMissouriState

University,theassessmentprogramremindsfacultyandstafftimeandagainofthe

centralityofstudentlearningtotheirmission,somethingthatcanbeeasytoforgetina

worldofcompetingpriorities(McClainandKrueger,1985).Thevisibilityofassessment

resultsandtheirimpactcontinuallykeepthefocusonstudentsuccess.

4h.Institutionalizenewapproaches

ThefinalstepthatKotterdefinesinvolvesmakingthenewapproachespartofthe

institutionalstructure.Thismeansembeddingassessmentinthelibrary’sculturesoit’sa

regularpartofwhatthelibrarydoes.Foradministration,thismaymeanusingassessment

dataindecision‐makingandrequiringanynewserviceproposaltocomewithpossible

assessmentmetrics.Fortheinstructioncoordinator,thismaymeandetermininghownew

hireswillbetrainedinassessmenttoorientthemtothelibrary’sassessmentculture.For

libraryfacultyandstaff,itmeansseeingassessmentmuchliketheyseeworkingatthe

referencedeskorcollectiondevelopment;anintegralpartoftheirworkaslibrarians.The

communicationstrategythatstartedwithstepfourshouldcontinue,withafocusonthe

positiveimpactsoftheassessmentwork(Kotter,1996).Thisisthepointatwhich

assessmentisingrainedinthecultureanditsvalueforimprovingstudentlearningis

generallyaccepted.

Structuralelementsofthelibrarythatimpactindividualandunitbehaviorcanbe

alteredtoencourageassessmentandstressitsimportance.AtWollongongUniversity,

25

positiondescriptionswererevisedtoplaceemphasisonassessmentandotherstrategic

goals(Jannti,2005).WhenanewdeanarrivedattheUniversityofArizonainthe1990s,

goalsrelatedtoassessmentwerewrittenintothestrategicplanandresourceswere

specificallyallocatedtowardsassessmentactivities(Phipps,2004).Promotionand/or

tenurerequirementscanbeamendedtoincludeparticipationinassessmentworkasan

evaluativecriterion.Buildingassessmentintothestructuresthatgovernthelibraryandthe

workoflibrarianswillhelptomakeitaculturalnorm.

Acommitmenttoacultureofassessmentrequiresacommitmenttoinculcatingnew

facultyandstaff.Therewillbeturnoveratthelibraryandnewmembersofthecultureneed

tolearnwhattheinstitutionnowvalues.ThefacultyatAlvernoCollegedevelopedapaper

entitled“PartnersinLearning:StaffCollaborationinPromotingStudentLearningAcrossthe

College”thatistobereadbyanddiscussedwitheverynewhireattheinstitution(Wagner,

2009).Newfacultyandstaffarerequiredtogothroughsignificanttrainingregardingtheir

curriculumandassessmentmodel,whichmakesthevaluesoftheinstitutionclearfromthe

start.Sustainingchangeisparticularlydifficultwhenchangeleadersleavetheinstitution,

whichisanotherreasonwhyit’ssovaluabletoputresponsibilityforthechangeprocesson

ataskforceratherthananindividual.Thisisalsoareasonwhyit’svaluabletogivefaculty

thereinswhenitcomestoassessmentprogramdesign.Losinganindividuallargely

responsiblefortheassessmentprogramcanhavedrasticconsequences,butwhenthe

programispoweredbyfacultyinitiative,itislessvulnerabletoleadershipchanges.The

goaloftheeighthstepofKotter’schangemodelistoensurethattheprojectisnolonger

heldtogethersolelybythetaskforce–inotherwords,thatitcanhavealifeand

sustainabilitybeyondthechangeleaders.

5.Discussion

26

ThispaperprovidesaproposedapplicationofKotter’schangemodelforbuildinga

cultureofassessment.Giventhatresponsibilityforleadingassessmentisfrequently

delegatedtotaskforcesand/orcoordinators,thismodelseemsideallysuitedtoleadership

withoutpositionalauthority.InKotter’smodel,whiletheadministrationhastosupportthe

changeinitiative,theydonotnecessarilyhavetoleadthechange.Giventhenumberof

middle‐managersandfront‐linelibrarianstaskedwithcreatingchangeinourprofession,

thismodelmayworkwellforavarietyofchangeinitiatives.Manyauthorswriteaboutthe

impactoforganizationalcultureontheabilitytoeffectchangeorbeinnovative(Bair,Hu

andReeve,2011;CameronandQuinn,2011,;Naranjo‐Valencia,2011).Librariansin

culturesthatdonotmatchthedescribedidealculturemightfeelthattheycan’tleadchange

untiltheculturehasbeentransformedbyadministration.Kotter’smodelcouldallow

librarianstochangeculturebychangingbehavior,ratherthantheotherwayaround,

providingamodelthatcouldworkforlibrariesinlessthanidealorganizationalcultures.

ThisauthorquestionswhetherKotter’smodelwouldtrulyworkinanyculture,assome

organizationalcultureswouldlikelyblockmanyofhissteps,butitcertainlyprovidesmore

flexibilityforchangeleaders.

Kotter(1996)addressesthefactthathisideasaboutculturechangecominglastfly

inthefaceofdecadesofresearch,buthearguesthathe’sseeninhundredsofbusiness

changeeffortsthatchangingculturefirstdoesn’twork.Changingbehaviorfirst,witha

strongunderstandingoftheculture,allowsemployeestoseethebenefitsofanew

approach,whichhelpstofacilitateculturechange.WhileKotter’sargumentsarelogical,

decidingwhethertotrusthisextensiveobservationsoversignificantscholarlyresearchisa

questioneachchangeleaderwillhavetoanswerforhisorherself.

Kotter’smodelhasbeensuccessfullyfield‐testedinacademia,butithasnotbeen

showntobeeffectiveinanylibrarycasestudiestodate.ThecaseforKotter’schangemodel

27

inbuildingacultureofassessmentwouldbestrengthenedbycasestudiesfromlibraries

thathavesuccessfullyimplementedKotter’smodel,especiallyintermsofbuildingan

assessmentculture.NussbaumerandMerkley(2010)developedtheirownchangemodelat

theUniversityofLethbridgethatwasinspiredbyKotter,butborelittleresemblancetohis

modelasitfocusedonchangingcultureearlyintheprocess.Horn(2007)ledamajor

reorganizationprocessusingKotter’smodel,butskippedcriticalstepssuchascreating

short‐termwinsandempoweringthoseoutsideoftheguidingcoalition.Whilethisauthor

believesthatthereshouldbemoreflexibilityinhowthemodelisimplemented,thesetwo

casestudiesignoredsuchcriticalaspectsthat,whilethechangeswereultimatelysuccessful,

itwouldnonethelessbeastretchtogivecredittoKotter’smodel.Whilethispaperdoesnot

lookatthemodelthroughtheexperienceofusingitinalibrarychangecase,theauthor

suggeststhatcasestudiesarenotnecessarilyasilverbulletforprovingefficacy.What

workswellatoneinstitutionmaynotnecessarilyworkatanother.Still,casestudiesinthe

libraryliteraturewouldcertainlystrengthenthecaseforusingKotter’smodel.

Changemodelsingeneraltendtobeveryprescriptiveandnomodelcouldpossibly

beaone‐size‐fits‐allsolutionforeverylibrary.EvenifKotter’smodelisagoodfit,itmight

notalwaysbepossibletofollowitexactly.WhileKottersuggeststhatthestepsmustbe

undertakensequentially,thisauthorarguesthatagoodleaderrespondscreativelyto

changesintheenvironmentratherthanmindlesslyfollowingaprescription.Onecouldstill

embracetheessentialelementsofKotter’svisionwithoutbeinginlockstepwithhismodel.

6.Conclusion

Theliteraturefromlibrariesandhighereducationclearlyindicatesthatdoing

assessmentandbuildingacultureofassessmentaretwoverydifferentthings,though

certainlythelatterrequirestheformer.Acultureofassessmentpervadeseveryaspectof

28

practiceandplanningandisfocusedonusingassessmentforimprovement.Itrequiresa

significantinvestmentofresourcesandadministrativesupport.Mostofall,itneedsleaders

whounderstandhowtoshepherdassessment;fromcreatingasenseofurgencyanda

guidingvisiontoanchoringchangeintheculture.

AsKotter’smodelillustrates,achangeprocessthatendswithchangesinfacultyand

staffbehaviorwillnotcreatelastingeffects.Peoplewilleventuallyresumetheiroldhabits

oncetheurgencyhassubsided.Forachangeprocesstobesuccessfulovertime,the

organizationmustalsochangestructuresandpoliciestobothaccommodatethechangeand

embeditintheculture.Buildingacultureofassessmentrequiressignificantinvestments

fromeveryareaofthelibrary,but,inthecurrentclimateofaccountabilityalongwith

limitedresources,mostlibrariescanhardlyaffordnottomakethatinvestment.

5.WorksCited

Allen,J.(2007),“Strategicadaptationsandearlysuccesses”,AssessmentUpdate,Vol.19No.2,pp.5‐7.

Anagnos,T.,Conry,B.J.,Guenter,S.M.,Snell,J.,Till,B.V.,andDefi,S.(2008),“Buildingsustainableassessment:OneUniversity’sexperience”,AssessmentUpdate,Vol.20No.6,pp.5‐9.

Ariew,S.,andLener,E.(2005),“Evaluatinginstruction:Developingaprogramthatsupportstheteachinglibrarian”,ResearchStrategies,Vol.20No.4,pp.506‐515.

Armenakis,A.,andHarris,S.G.(2002),“Craftingachangemessagetocreatetransformationalreadiness”,JournalofOrganizationalChangeManagement,Vol.15,No.2,pp.169–183.

Armenakis,A.,Harris,S.G.,andMossholder,K.W.(1993),“Creatingreadinessfororganizationalchange”,HumanRelations,Vol.46,No.6,pp.681–703.

Awbrey,S.M.(2005),“Generaleducationreformasorganizationalchange:Integratingcultureandstructuralchange”,TheJournalofGeneralEducation,Vol.54,No.1,pp.1–22.

Banta,T.W.(1997),“Movingassessmentforward:Enablingconditionsandstumblingblocks”,NewDirectionsforHigherEducation,Vol.100,pp.79–91.

Baird,K.,Hu,K.J.,Reeve,R.(2011),"Therelationshipsbetweenorganizationalculture,totalqualitymanagementpracticesandoperationalperformance",InternationalJournalofOperations&ProductionManagement,Vol.31No.7,pp.789–814.

Becker,R.(2009),“Implementinganassessmentprogram:Afacultymember’sperspective”,AcademicLeadershipJournal,Vol.7No.1,pp.2‐5.

Bird,A.M.(2001),“Facultybuy‐intoassessmentactivities:Agroupdynamicsapproach”,AssessmentUpdate,Vol.13No.1,pp.6‐16.

29

Brock,T.,Jenkins,D.,Ellwein,T.,Miller,J.,Gooden,S.,Martin,K.,MacGregor,C.,etal.(2007),BuildingaCultureofEvidenceforCommunityCollegeStudentSuccess:EarlyProgressintheAchievingtheDreamInitiative.MDRC,NewYork,NY.

Cameron,K.S.,andQuinn,R.E.(2011),DiagnosingandChangingOrganizationalCulture:BasedontheCompetingValuesFramework,JohnWileyandSons,SanFrancisco,CA.

Castiglione,J.(2006),“Organizationallearningandtransformationalleadershipinthelibraryenvironment”,LibraryManagement,Vol.27No.4/5,pp.289‐299.

Choi,M.(2011),“Employeeattitudestowardorganizationalchange:Aliteraturereview”,HumanResourceManagement,Vol.50No.4,pp.479‐500.

Dawson,D.,Mighty,J.,andBritnell,J.(2010),“Movingfromtheperipherytothecenteroftheacademy:Facultydevelopersasleadersofchange”,NewDirectionsforTeachingandLearning,Vol.122,pp.69–78.

Deardorff,M.D.,andFolger,P.J.(2008),“Makingassessmentmatter:Changingcultures,improvingteaching,andtransformingdepartments”,AnnualmeetingoftheAmericanPoliticalScienceTeachingandLearningConference,SanJoseMarriott,SanJose,California,Feb22,2008,availableatEducationResearchComplete(accessed3May2012).

Dutton,J.E.,andDuncan,R.B.(1987),“Thecreationofmomentumforchangethroughtheprocessofstrategicissuediagnosis”,StrategicManagementJournal,Vol.8,No.3,pp.279–295.

Ebersole,T.(2009),“Postsecondaryassessment:Facultyattitudesandlevelsofengagement”,AssessmentUpdate,Vol.21No.2,pp.1‐14.

Ennis,D.(2010),“Contraassessmentculture”,AssessmentUpdate,Vol.22No.2,pp.1‐15.Flynn,C.,Gilchrist,D.,andOlson,L.(2004),“Usingtheassessmentcycleasatoolfor

collaboration”,ResourceSharing&InformationNetworks,Vol.17,No.1‐2,pp.187–203.Ford,J.D.,andFord,L.W.(2009),“Decodingresistancetochange”,HarvardBusinessReview,

Vol.87No.4,pp.99‐103.Ford,J.D.,andFord,L.W.(2010),“Stopblamingresistancetochangeandstartusingit”,

OrganizationalDynamics,Vol.39No.1,pp.24‐36.Galford,R.,andDrapeau,A.S.(2003),“Theenemiesoftrust.”,HarvardBusinessReview,Vol.

81No.2,pp.88‐95.Gandz,J.(2008),“Onleadership:Cherishtheresistors”,IveyBusinessJournal,Vol.72No.4,

pp.1‐3.Guzmán,W.Z.,Gely,M.I.,Crespo,K.,Matos,J.R.,Sánchez,N.,andGuerrero,L.M.(2011),

“Transformationofadentalschool’sclinicalassessmentsystemthroughKotter’seight‐stepchangeprocess”,JournalofDentalEducation,Vol.75,No.4,pp.485–495.

Haviland,D.(2009a),“Leadingassessment:Fromfacultyreluctancetofacultyengagement”,AcademicLeadership,Vol.7No.1,availableathttp://www.academicleadership.org/article/print/leading‐assessment‐from‐faculty‐reluctance‐to‐faculty‐engagement(accessed4May2012).

Haviland,D.(2009b),“Whyarefacultywaryofassessment?”,AcademicLeadershipJournal,Vol.7No.3,availableathttp://www.academicleadership.org/cgi/article/print/Why_are_faculty_wary_of_assessment(accessed4May2012).

Hill,J.S.(2005),“Developingacultureofassessment:Insightsfromtheoryandexperience”,JournalofPoliticalScienceEducation,Vol.1No.1,pp.29‐37.

Hill,L.,andLineback,K,(2012).“Doyourpeopletrustyou?”,HarvardBusinessReviewBlogs,availableathttp://blogs.hbr.org/hill‐lineback/2012/03/do‐your‐people‐trust‐you.html(accessed12May2012).

30

Hiller,S.,Kyrillidou,M.,andSelf,J.(2006),“Keystoeffective,sustainableandpracticallibraryassessment”,Proceedingsofthe2006LibraryAssessmentConference,BuildingEffective,Sustainable,PracticalAssessment.September25–27,2006,Charlottesville,VA,pp.171–176.

Hiller,S.,Kyrillidou,M.,andSelf,J.(2008),“Whentheevidenceisnotenough:Organizationalfactorsthatinfluenceeffectiveandsuccessfullibraryassessment”,PerformanceMeasurementandMetrics,Vol.9No.3,pp.223‐230.

Hiller,S.,andSelf,J.(2004),“Frommeasurementtomanagement:usingdatawiselyforplanninganddecision‐making”,LibraryManagement,Vol.53,No.1,pp.129–155.

Horn,A.(2008),“Strategiccompetence:tosoarabove”,LibraryManagement,Vol.29,No.1/2,5–17.

Jantti,M.(2005),“Developingaculturethatvaluestheneedforassessmentandcontinuousimprovement:thegrowthofalearningorganization”,paperpresentedatthePerformanceMeasuresforLibrariesandInformationServicesConference,21‐22March2005,Sydney,availableathttp://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1018&context=asdpapers(accessed25July2012).

Kelman,S.(2005),Unleashingchange:Astudyoforganizationalrenewalingovernment,BrookingsInstitutionPress,Washington,D.C.

Kotter,J.P.(1995),“Leadingchange:Whytransformationeffortsfail”,HarvardBusinessReview,Vol.73No.2,pp.59–67.

Kotter,J.P.(1996),LeadingChange,HarvardBusinessSchoolPress,Cambridge,MA.Kotter,J.P.(2002),Theheartofchange :real‐lifestoriesofhowpeoplechangetheir

organizations,HarvardBusinessSchoolPress,Cambridge,MA.Kotter,J.P.(2008),Asenseofurgency,HarvardBusinessSchoolPress,Cambridge,MA.Kramer,P.I.(2009),“Theartofmakingassessmentanti‐venom:Injectingassessmentin

smalldosestocreateafacultycultureofassessment”,AssessmentUpdate,Vol.21No.6,pp.8‐11.

Kramer,P.I.,Knuesel,R.,andJones,K.(2011),“SuccessfulAssessmentLeadership:HelpingSeniorCampusAdministratorsHelpFaculty”,IndianaUniversityPurdueUniversityIndiana2011AssessmentInstituteConference.October30‐November1,2011,Indianapolis,IN.

Lakos,A.,andPhipps,S.E.(2004),“Creatingacultureofassessment:Acatalystfororganizationalchange”,portal:LibrariesandtheAcademy,Vol.4No.3,pp.345‐361.

Loacker,G.(1985),“Assessmentinhighereducation:Toservethelearner”,NationalConferenceonAssessmentinHigherEducation,sponsoredbytheAmericanAssociationforHigherEducation,October13‐15,1985,ColumbiaS.C.,availableathttp://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED260678.pdf(accessed26July2012).

Loacker,G.(1988),“Facultyasaforcetoimproveinstructionthroughassessment”,inMcMillan,J.H.(Ed.),AssessingStudents’Learning:NewDirectionsforTeachingandLearning,Number,Jossey‐Bass,SanFrancisco,CA,pp.19–32.

Magruder,J.,McManis,M.,andYoung,C.C.(1997),“Therightideaattherighttime:Developmentofatransformationalassessmentculture”,NewDirectionsforHigherEducation,Vol.100,pp.17–29.

McClain,C.J.,andKrueger,D.W.(1985),“Usingoutcomesassessment:Acasestudyininstitutionalchange”,inEwell,P.T.(Ed.),NewDirectionsforInstitutionalResearch,Jossey‐Bass,SanFrancisco,CA,pp.33–46.

Marrs,H.(2009).“Perceptionsofcollegefacultyregardingoutcomesassessment”,InternationalElectronicJournalforLeadershipinLearning,Vol.13No.2.Availableathttp://www.ucalgary.ca/iejll/marrs(accessed23May2012).

31

McDaniel,E.A.,Felder,B.D.,Gordon,L.,Hrutka,M.E.,andQuinn,S.(2000),“Newfacultyrolesinlearningoutcomeseducation :Theexperiencesoffourmodelsandinstitutions”,InnovativeHigherEducation,Vol.25,No.2,pp.143–157.

Mentkowski,M.(1991),“Creatingacontextwhereinstitutionalassessmentyieldseducationalimprovement”,TheJournalofGeneralEducation,Vol.40,pp.255–283.

Middaugh,M.F.(2009),“Closingtheloop:Linkingplanningandassessment”,PlanningforHigherEducation,Vol.37No.3,pp.5‐14.

Moran,J.W.,andBrightman,B.K.(2000),“Leadingorganizationalchange”,Leadership,Vol.12No.2,pp.66‐74.

Naranjo‐Valencia,J.C,Jiménez‐Jiménez,D.andSanz‐Valle,R.(2011),"Innovationorimitation?Theroleoforganizationalculture",ManagementDecision,Vol.49No.1,pp.55–72.

Ndoye,A.andParker,M.A.(2010),“Creatingandsustainingacultureofassessment”,PlanningforHigherEducation,Vol.38No.2,pp.28‐39.

Nitta,K.A.,Wrobel,S.L.,Howard,J.Y.,andJimmerson‐Eddings,E.(2009),“Leadingchangeofaschooldistrictreorganization”,PublicPerformanceandManagementReview,Vol.32,No.3,pp.463–488.

Nussbaumer,A.,andMerkley,W.(2010),“Thepathoftransformationalchange”,LibraryManagement,Vol.31,No.8/9,pp.678–689.

Oakleaf,M.(2010),ValueofAcademicLibraries:AComprehensiveResearchReviewandReport,AssociationofCollegeandResearchLibraries,Chicago.

Oakleaf,M.,andHinchliffe,L.J.(2008),“Assessmentcycleorcircularfile:Doacademiclibrariansuseinformationliteracyassessmentdata?”,inS.Hiller,K.Justh,M.Kyrillidou,andJ.Self(Eds.),Proceedingsofthe2008LibraryAssessmentConferenceBuildingEffectiveSustainablePracticalAssessment,AssociationofResearchLibraries,Washington,D.C.,pp.159‐164.

Phipps,S.(2004),“Thesystemdesignapproachtoorganizationaldevelopment:TheUniversityofArizonamodel”,LibraryTrends,Vol.53,No.1,pp.68–111.

Piascik,P.,andBird,E.(2008),“Creatingandsustainingacultureofassessment”,AmericanJournalofPharmaceuticalEducation,Vol.72No.5,pp.1‐9.

Schein,E.(1979),“Personalchangethroughinterpersonalrelationships”,inBennis,W.(Ed.),Essaysininterpersonaldynamics,DorseyPress,HomewoodIll.,pp.129–162.

Schein,E.(1992).Organizationalcultureandleadership(2nded.),Jossey‐Bass,SanFrancisco.

Schroeder,R.,andMashek,K.B.(2007),“Buildingacasefortheteachinglibrary:Usingacultureofassessmenttoreassureconvertedcampuspartnerswhilepersuadingthereluctant”,PublicServicesQuarterly,Vol.3No.1/2,pp.83‐110.

Shepstone,C.,andCurrie,L.(2008),“Transformingtheacademiclibrary:Creatinganorganizationalculturethatfostersstaffsuccess”,TheJournalofAcademicLibrarianship,Vol.34No.4,pp.358‐369.

Sidorko,P.(2008),"Transforminglibraryandhighereducationsupportservices:Canchangemodelshelp?",LibraryManagement,Vol.29,No.4/5,pp.307–318.

Slater,J.B.,Burson,T.E.,andMcArthur,J.A.(2011),"Connectingassessmenttoresourceallocation:AdemonstrationprojectatQueensUniversityofCharlotte",AssessmentUpdate,Vol.23,No.4,pp.9–11.

Uys,P.M.(2010),"Implementinganopensourcelearningmanagementsystem",AustralasianJournalofEducationalTechnology,Vol.26,No.7,pp.980–995.

Wagner,V.(2009),"AlvernoCollege",NewDirectionsforStudentServices,No.127,pp.7–12.Weiner,W.F.(2009),“Establishingacultureofassessment”,Academe,Vol.95,No.4,pp.28‐

32.