carefully designed and conducted attitude survey may help to establish the feelings of staff on factors contributing to organisational climate. When morale is low, and feelings of frustration or alienation are found to exist, it is important that positive action is taken to remedy the causes.Morale can be viewed in terms of the mental attitudes which people have towards their tasks and responsibilities. Petrick and Manning suggest that before managers can start to improve morale they should review four main areas in which to develop the best possible attitudes in their staff. A sense of importance in their job. Staff should have a feeling of meaning in the job, challenging and reasonably demanding assignments, and a sense of job accomplishment based on competent performance.Teamwork among the staff. There should be a sense of group pride and self-esteem, a high level of human interactions and good relations with co-workers, team effort and the support of other staff including supervisors and top management. Management care about staff welfare. Staff should receive just rewards for their contribution and fair treatment for their efforts. There should be a clear statement of management goals and efforts to resolve genuine goal incongruence. Management should show concern for staff welfare, and attempt to create a feeling of mutual trust and respect with staff.Economic rewards fair and individualised. Attention should be given to payment of sufficient wages and the fair distribution of wages. If fringe benefits are added management should attempt to meet individual needs and preferences. There should be opportunities for job advancement including promotion and cross-]ob postings.77COMMITMENTAmong the factors which contribute to a healthy organisational climate, high morale and motivation, is the extent to which members of staff have a sense of commitment to the organisation. The extent of their commitment will have a major influence on the level of work performance. Walton suggests that a significant change in approaches to the organisation and management of work is from organisational control to commitment in the workplace. The evidence is well grounded that underlying all the policies of commitment strategy is a management philosophy at the centre of which 'is a belief that eliciting employee commitment will lead to enhanced performance'.78The concept of commitment itself, and the manner in which it is actually created, is not easy to describe. There does, however, appear to be a growing acceptance of the notion of attachment and loyalty. O'Reilly refers to the term 'organizational commitment' as 'typically conceived of as an individual's psychological bond to the organization, including a sense of job involvement, loyalty, and a belief in the values of the organization'.79Martin and Nicholls view commitment as encapsulating 'giving all of yourself while at work' This entails such things as using time constructively, attention to detail, making that extra effort, accepting change, co-operation with others, self-development, respecting trust pride in abilities, seeking improvements and giving loyal support.80 Based oncase studies of 14 British companies, including Jaguar, Royal Bank of Scotlan Steel, Pilkingtons, Rothmans, Raleigh, Schweppes and Burton, Martin and present a 'model of commitment' based on three major pillars, each with thre(i) A sense of belonging to the organisationThis builds upon the loyalty essential to successful industrial relations. 1 of belonging is created by managers through ensuring that the workforce informed involved sharing in success.(ii) A sense of excitement in the jobImproved results will not be achieved unless workers can also feel a sense . ment about their work which results in the motivation to perform well. T of excitement can be achieved by appealing to the higher-level needs of: pride trust accountability for results, (iii) Confidence in managementThe senses of belonging and excitement can be frustrated if workers do i respect for, and confidence in, management leadership. This respect is e through attention to: authority dedication ' competence.A large measure of the success of the companies studied derives from their ment of people and from creating a climate for commitment. For example: 'I feel trusted, they will make extraordinary efforts to show the trust to be wa: However, creating commitment is hard. It takes time, the path is not always and it requires dedicated managers.Securing the commitment of staffGenuine commitment requires not just a recognition or understanding of w organisation expects but an emotional and behavioural response from staff. If long service or expertise appear to be no longer rewarded, this may well 1 adverse effect on those members of the organisation who do survive and they likely to have a high level of commitment to the organisation.81 Guirdham suggi 'commitment of staff to the organisation has long been valued and is coming h fashion as the costs to loyalty of downsizing and re-engineering come to be felt according to Gratton, 'understanding the soul of the organisation and buildii and commitment is crucial to ongoing adaptation and change'.83In Chapter 1 we referred to the changing nature of the psychological contract suggests that the increasing pressure for organisations to change has prompted j disillusionment with the traditional psychological contract based on lifetime e ment and steady promotion from within. Companies must develop new \ increase the loyalty and commitment of employees. This includes attention to strategies based on recognition of contribution rather than status or position, sys training and development including the skills for working in cross-functional and the training of managers in counselling, coaching and leadership skills.84After the downsizing, de-layering, streamlining and outsourcing of receni Altman et al. question whether companies can continue to count on commitmei employees when they are no longer seen to be committed to them. The more < nies downsize, the more they are seen to be breaking the psychological contract, psychological contract needs to consider the organisation of the future.The old 'command and control' interpretation of loyalty in the workplace needs to be replaced with an attitude of commitment by both sides which leads to a more pragmatic relationship within the limited horizons against which businesses are being managed today worldwide. Employers will still commit themselves to their employees but employment can no longer be guaranteed.85Galunic and Weeks suggest that with the demise of job security, companies need other strategies to encourage commitment. Examples include paying more attention to compensation, flexible working, spending to support telecommuting and lifestyle-friendly perks. However, while such initiatives may encourage employees to work hard, they are no substitute for job security. In order to help restore commitment without again offering job security, Galunic and Weeks propose that in addition to company-specific training, there is a programme of investment in generic training that focuses on general skills and education to raise the professional level of employees. By developing 'employability' and the ability to earn a living through professional or occupational -not job - security, employees are in turn likely to respond with greater commitment to the company.86Watson refers to the basic choice that managers can make in trying to achieve managerial control through work design. The choice between direct and indirect control attempts influences the extent of the psychological commitment that is sought from staff. Ah organisation leaning towards direct control principles would be highly centralised with a tight bureaucratic structure and culture. There is an emphasis on strict rules and closely prescribed procedures in which a relatively low level of psychological commitment would be sought from employees.Because of the implication that management are putting little trust in employees to use their own discretion a 'low-trust' culture emerges. By contrast, an organisation leaning more towards the use of indirect control would be less centralised with a looser bureaucratic structure and culture. Rules would be relatively loose and procedures more flexible as employees have more discretion about how to carry out their tasks in a manner fitted to managerial requirements, and strategic priorities. Because of a high level of trust between members of the organisation there is a high level of psychological commitment to the organisation.87JIONAL CONFLICT r _; .,/, ,_ / ,It might be expected that a healthy organisational climate would be reflected by complete harmony in working relationships, and loyalty and common commitment to the goals and objectives of the organisation. This view of work organisations as 'happy families' is perhaps a worthwhile and creditable ideal and as such appears to be implied by a number of management writers.For example, Drucker makes the following point:Any business enterprise must build a true team and weld individual efforts into a common effort. Each member of the enterprise contributes something different, but they must all contribute towards a common goal. Their efforts must all pull in the same direction, and their contributions must fit together to produce a whole - without gaps, without friction, without unnecessary duplication of effort... The manager must know and understand what the business goals demand of him in terms of performance, and his superior must know what contribution to demand and expect of him - and must judge him accordingly. If these requirements are not met, managers are misdirected. Their efforts are wasted. Instead of teamwork, there is friction, frustration and conflict.68Such traditional views appear to imply a unitary perspective of the organisation. The organisation is viewed as an integrated and harmonious whole. Conflict is seen as adysfunction outcome and can be explained, for example, by poor communicati personality clashes or the work of agitators. But, if one accepts the views of, for ej pie, the social action writers and the idea of a pluralistic approach to v organisations, then conflict among competing sub-groups will be seen as inevitc Conflict is seen as an inherent feature of organisations and induced, in part, by the structure of the organisation. The pluralistic manager is more likely to accept that con in organisations requires careful handling and attempt to reconcile rival interests.The radical perspective is associated with the ideas of writers such as Karl Marx and structuralist approach to organisations and management discussed in Chapter I.8 challenges the traditional view of conflict and sees organisations in terms of the parity in power and control. Conflict is a feature of the unequal nature organisational life and a means of bringing about change.90 Collective bargaining is i seen as particularly helpful in a system stacked against the workers. Conflict is a na ral part of the class struggle.According to the radical approach, the design of organisation structure, mana ment systems and the choice and use of technology all form part of the struggle power and control within the work organisation. Greater attention should be given relationships between the formal and informal aspects of the organisation and t study of conflict between the needs of the individual and those of the organisatic and between workers and management.VIEWS OF CONFLICT iConflict, then, can be regarded as a reality of management and organisational behavioi and can be related to power and politics. Most of us will understand what is common meant by organisational conflict and be aware of its existence and effects. Yet conflii is another term which can be defined and interpreted in a number of ways. For our pu pose we can see conflict as behaviour intended to obstruct the achievement of som other person's goals, conflict is based on the incompatibility of goals and arises fror opposing behaviours. It can be viewed at the individual, group or organisation leve Ackroyd and Thompson use the term 'organizational misbehaviour' to refer to 'anythin you do at work which you are not supposed to'. Management establish boundaries tha distinguish acceptable and non-acceptable behaviour from employees. The actions o employees are then judged as falling one side or the other of these boundaries.91Common definitions of conflict tend to be associated with negative features and sit uations which give rise to inefficiency, ineffectiveness or dysfunctional consequences The traditional view of conflict is that it is bad for organisations. Conflict is perceivec as disruptive and unnatural, and represents a form of deviant behaviour which shoulc be controlled and changed. Clearly, extreme cases of conflict in organisations can have very upsetting, or even tragic, consequences for some people and have adverse effects on organisational performance. Conflict situations can give rise to excessive emotional or physical stress.Conflict is not necessarily a bad thing, however. Properly managed, it can arguably have potentially positive outcomes. It can be an energising and vitalising force in groups and in the organisation. Conflict can be seen as a 'constructive' force and in certain circumstances it can be welcomed or even encouraged. For example, it can be seen as an aid to incremental improvement in organisation design and functioning, and to the decision-making process. Conflict can be an agent for evolution, and for internal and external change. Properly identified and handled, it can help to minimise the destructive influences of the win-lose situation.From a survey of practising managers, who reported that they spend approximately 20 per cent of their time dealing with conflict situations, Schmidt records a number of both positive and negative outcomes of conflict.92Positive outcomes include: better ideas produced; people forced to search for new approaches; long-standing problems brought to the surface and resolved; clarification of individual views; stimulation of interest and creativity; a chance for people to test their capacities.Negative outcomes include: some people felt defeated and demeaned; the distance between people increased; a climate of mistrust and suspicion developed; individuals and groups concentrated on their own narrow interests; resistance developed rather than teamwork; an increase in employee turnover.Broad interpretation of conflictThe current view appears to recognise that conflict can be interpreted more broadly than in the traditional view. For example, Townsend sees conflict as a sign of a healthy organisation - up to a point.A good manager doesn t try to eliminate conflict; he tries to keep it from wasting the energies of his people... If you're the boss and your people fight you openly when they think you're wrong -that's healthy. If your people fight each other openly in your presence for what they believe in -that's healthy. But keep all the conflict eyeball to eyeball.93A more recent view of conflict is the interactionist perspective, which believes that conflict is a positive force and necessary for effective performance. This approach encourages a minimum level of conflict within the group in order to encourage self-criticism, change and innovation, and to help prevent apathy or too great a tolerance for harmony and the status quo.94Conflict, per se, is not necessarily good or bad but an inevitable feature of organisational life and should be judged in terms of its effects on performance. Even if organisations have taken great care to try to avoid conflict it will still occur. Conflict will continue to emerge despite attempts by management to suppress it.The idea of conflict as inevitable is discussed by Irvine who suggests that if you ask a group of managers about the nature and level they experience, the majority will tell you honestly that apart from the odd minor tiff, there is not much conflict about. There are, however, 'difficult people'.Perhaps our reluctance to identify, and then directly address, conflict within organisations is based upon the widely held belief that conflict is inevitable, negative and unmanageable. There is a tendency to see conflict as a result of one person's personality. Conflict may be inevitable, but how dramatically situations could be changed if we could also view it as positive and manageable! What if we think of these situations as raising questions of difference? What if we were to make a shift away from blaming individuals and their personalities, recognizing instead that it is through normal human interaction that outward expressions of difference are produced?9*Much has been written about the implications of conflict as a social process. W recognising the importance of this debate, it is not the intention here to enter in detailed discussion of the ideologies of conflict. The important point is not so m whether competing sub-groups and conflict are seen as inevitable consequence organisation structure, but how conflict, when found to exist, is handled and mana; There are many potential sources of organisational conflict including the main c summarised below. Differences in perception. We all see things in different ways. We all have our o unique picture or image of how we see the 'real' world. Differences in percept result in different people attaching different meanings to the same stimuli. As j ceptions become a person's reality, value judgements can be a potential major sot of conflict. (The importance of perception was discussed in Chapter 4.) Limited resources. Most organisational resources are limited, and individuals groups have to fight for their share; for example, at the time of the allocation of next year's budget or when cutbacks .have to be made. The greater the limitation resources, then usually the greater the potential for conflict. In an organisation w reducing profits or revenues the potential for conflict is likely to be intensified. Departmentalisation and specialisation. Most work organisations are divided il departments with specialised functions. Because of familiarity with the manner which they undertake their activities, managers tend to turn inwards and to conc< trate on the achievement of their own particular goals. When departments need co-operate with each other this is a frequent source of conflict. Differing goals a internal environments of departments are also a potential source of conflict. I example, in Woodward's study of management organisation of firms in this couni (discussed in Chapter 10) she comments on the bad relationships between accoui ants and other managers. One reason for this hostility was the bringing together two quite separate financial functions.People concerned w:th works accounting tended to assume responsibility for end results that was not properly theirs; they saw their role as a controlling and sanctioning one rather than as a servicing and supportive one. Line managers resented this attitude and retaliated by becoming aggressive and obstructive.96 The nature of work activities. Where the task of one person is dependent upon tl work of others there is potential for conflict; for example, if a worker is expected i complete the assembly of a given number of components in a week but the perse forwarding the part-assembled components does not supply a sufficient number o time. If reward and punishment systems are perceived to be based on keeping u with performance levels, then the potential for conflict is even greater. If the work ( a department is dependent upon the output of another department a similar situ; tion could arise, especially if this situation is coupled with limited resources; ic example, where the activities of a department, whose budget has been reduce below what is believed necessary to run the department efficiently, are interdepenc ent with those of another department, who appear to have received a more generou budget allocation.I Role conflict. A role is the expected pattern of behaviours associated with member occupying a particular position within the structure of the organisation. In practice the manner in which people actually behave may not be consistent with thei expected pattern of behaviour. Problems of role incompatibility and role ambiguit; arise from inadequate or inappropriate role definition and can be a significant souro of conflict. (Role conflict was discussed in Chapter 7.) Inequitable treatment. A person's perception of unjust treatment, such as in the operation of personnel policies and practices, or in reward and punishment systems, can lead to tension and conflict. For example, according to the equity theory of motivation (discussed in Chapter 5) the perception of inequity will motivate a person to take action to restore equity, including changes to inputs or outputs, or through acting on others. Violation of territory. People tend to become attached to their own 'territory' within work organisations; for example, to their own area of work, or kinds of clients to be dealt with; or to their own room, chair or parking space. Jealousy may arise over other people's territory - for example, size of room, company car, allocation of a secretary or other perks - through access to information; or through membership of groups.97 A stranger walking into a place of work can create an immediate feeling of suspicion or even resentment because people do not usually like 'their' territory entered by someone they do not know, and whose motives are probably unclear to them.Ownership of territory may be conferred formally, for example by organisation charts, job descriptions or management decisions. It may be established through procedures, for example circulation lists or membership of committees. Or it may arise informally, for example through group norms, tradition or perceived status symbols. The place where people choose to meet can have a possible, significant symbolic value. For example, if a subordinate is summoned to a meeting in a manager's office this might be taken that the manager is signalling higher status. If the manager chooses to meet at the subordinate's place of work, or on neutral territory, this may be a signal that the manager wishes to meet the subordinate as an equal. If a person's territory is violated this can lead to the possibility of retaliation and conflict. Environmental change. Changes in an organisation's external environment, such as shifts in demand, increased competition, government intervention, new technology or changing social values, can cause major areas of conflict. For example, a fall in demand for, or government financial restrictions on, enrolments for a certain discipline in higher education can result in conflict for the allocation of resources. If the department concerned is a large and important one, and led by a powerful head, then there could be even greater potential for conflict.There are many other potential sources of organisational conflict, including: individual - such as attitudes, personality characteristics or particular personal needs, illness or stress; group - such as group skills, the informal organisation and group norms; organisation - such as communications, authority structure, leadership style, managerial behaviour; the age gap - for example, Hart discusses how relationships between older employees and younger managers, where experience is on one side and power on the other, can lead to conflict.The problem for the inexperienced manager in conflict with an older employee is that it is all too easy to label someone 'difficult' rather than intelligently trying to explore the reasons behind their behaviour. If steps are not taken to improve the relationship both manager and employee can end up feeling threatened and undermined.98iTRATEGIES FOR MANAGING CONFLICT ';7 ;":i /'.\Although a certain amount of organisational conflict may be seen as inevitable, there are a number of ways in which management can attempt to avoid the harmful effects of conflict. Many of these practices have been discussed in previous chapters. The strate-' gies adopted will vary according to the nature and sources of conflict outlined above. Clarification of goals and objectives. The clarification and continual refinemei goals and objectives, role definitions and performance standards will help to a misunderstandings and conflict. Focusing attention on superordinate goals, thai shared by the parties in conflict, may help to defuse hostility and lead to more operative behaviour. Resource distribution. Although it may not always be possible for manager increase their allocated share of resources, they may be able to use imagination initiative to help overcome conflict situations - for example, making a special cas higher management; greater flexibility to transfer funds between budget headij delaying staff appointments in one area to provide more money for another area Human resource management policies and procedures. Careful and detailed atl tion tp just and equitable HRM policies and procedures may help to reduce area; conflict. Examples are: job analysis, recruitment and selection, job evaluation; : terns of reward and punishment; appeals, grievance and disciplinary procedu arbitration and mediation; recognition of trade unions and their officials. Non-monetary rewards. Where financial resources are limited, it may be possibls pay greater attention to non-monetary rewards. Examples are: job design; m interesting, challenging or responsible work; increased delegation or empowerme flexible working hours; attendance at courses or conferences; unofficial perks more relaxed working conditions. Development of interpersonal/group process skills. This may help to encourag better understanding of one's own behaviour, the other person's point of view, co munication processes and problem-solving. It may also encourage people to wc through conflict situations in a constructive manner. Group activities. Attention to the composition of groups and to factors which aff< group cohesiveness may reduce dysfunctional conflict. Overlapping group membi ship with a 'linking-pin' process, and the careful selection of project teams or ta forces for problems affecting more than one group, may also be beneficial. Leadership and management. A more participative and supportive style of lead( ship and managerial behaviour is likely to assist in conflict management - f example, showing an attitude of respect and trust; encouraging personal self-devf opment; creating a work environment in which staff can work co-operative together. A participative approach to leadership and management may also help create greater employee commitment. Organisational processes. Conflict situations may be reduced by attention to sue features as: the nature of the authority structure; work organisation; patterns of con munication and sharing of information; democratic functioning of the organisatioi unnecessary adherence to bureaucratic procedures, and official rules and regulation Socio-technical approach. Viewing the organisation as a socio-technical system, i which psychological and social factors are developed in keeping with structural an technical requirements, will help in reducing dysfunctional conflict.E OF ORGANISATIONAL CHANGEChange is a pervasive influence. We are all subject to continual change of one forrt or another. Change is an inescapable part of both social and organisational life.The effects of change can be studied over different time scales, from weeks to hun dreds of years, and they can be studied at different levels. Change can be studied in terms of its effects at the individual, group, organisation, society, national or international level. However, because of its pervasive nature, change at any one level isinterrelated with changes at other levels, and it is difficult to study one area of change in isolation. But our main focus of attention is on the management of organisational change. Organisational change can be initiated deliberately by managers, it can evolve slowly within a department, it can be imposed by specific changes in policy or procedures, or it can arise through external pressures. Change can affect all aspects of the operation and functioning of the organisation."An organisation can only perform effectively through interactions with the broader external environment of which it is part. The structure and functioning of the organisation must reflect, therefore, the nature of the environment in which it is operating. There are factors which create an increasingly volatile environment, such as: juncertain economic conditions; 'globalisation and fierce world competition;the level of government intervention;political interests;scarcity of natural resources;rapid developments in new technology and the information age.In order to help ensure its survival and future success the organisation must be readily adaptable to the external demands placed upon it. The organisation must be responsive to change. Other major forces of change include: increased demands for quality and high levels of customer service and satisfaction; greater flexibility in the structure of work organisations and patterns of management; the changing nature and composition of the workforce; and conflict from within the organisation.Change also originates within the organisation itself. Much of this change is part of a natural process of ageing - for example, as material resources such as buildings, equipment or machinery deteriorate or lose efficiency; or as human resources get older, or as skills and abilities become outdated. Some of this change can be managed through careful planning - for example, regular repairs and maintenance; choice of introducing new technology or methods of work; effective human resource planning to prevent a large number of staff retiring at the same time; management succession planning - training and staff development. However, the main pressure of change is from external forces. The organisation must be properly prepared to face the demands of a changing environment. It must give attention to its future development and success and this includes public sector organisations and the armed forces.100Public sector executives face unique obstacles in leading organisational change, in part because of entrenched civil service bureaucracies, procedural constraints such as managing performance and firing employees, and dealing with many different stakeholders with competing priorities.101Most planned organisational change is triggered by the need to respond to new challenges or opportunities presented by the external environment, or in anticipation of the need to cope with potential future problems; for example, intended government legislation, a new product development by a major competitor or further technological advances. Planned change represents an intentional attempt to improve, in some important way, the operational effectiveness of the organisation.The truth about organizational change is that getting the structure and the numbers right i the first step, and very important; but animating the structure to achieve the right actions b right motivated people is vital. For any organization, and any organizational change, the cer tral purpose is to create so thriving and developing an organic activity that the organizatio; can provide excellent well-paid employment for all its people.Robert Heller10The basic underlying objectives can be seen in general terms as: modifying the behavioural patterns of members of the organisation; and improving the ability of the organisation to cope with changes in its environmenACAS refer to initiating and maintaining a Quality of Working Life (QWL) change pi gramme. Such initiatives could stem from a variety of issues which might provide window for change' to management and/or worker representatives. Examples includ a general sense that the organisation could perform better; the need to improve organisation^ flexibility, quality or to develop new custom concern; a sense that skills and abilities of people are under-utilised or concerns about a la. of commitment from employees; the need to introduce changes in technology or working practices; workers feeling over-controlled by supervision or by the process or jobs seen as beii boring; concerns about ineffective communications or poor performance indicators; fractious relationships between managers and the managed.103Behaviour modificationA programme of planned change and improved performance developed by Lewi involves the management of a three-phase process of behaviour modification: unfreezing - reducing those forces which maintain behaviour in its present forn recognition of the need for change and improvement to occur; movement - development of new attitudes or behaviour and the implementation c the change; refreezing - stabilising change at the new level and reinforcement through suppori ing mechanisms, for example policies, structure or norms.104French er al. list eight specific components of a planned-change effort related to th above process.105 (See Figure 12.7.)

Figure 12.7 Stages in a planned-change effort(Source: Adapted Irom French, W. L. Kast, F. E. and Roseiuwag. J. E.. Understandng Human Behaviour in Organizations. Harper & Row (1985). p. 9.)In Goldsmith and Clutterbuck's study, one of the critical issues of the high-performande companies is evolutionary versus revolutionary change. Although recognising that occasionally radical change is necessary and sometimes it is necessary to push through tough measures with urgency, the companies tend to be cautious but deliberate innovators, and balance the need for continuous change against the need to conserve core values.They have a very strong preference for evolutionary change, for a whole variety of reasons. It enables you to identify wrong turnings before too much damage is done; it gives time for both employees and customers to adapt; and it is less likely to disrupt people's attention to the core activities and values. They can, however, take rapid action when it is needed in response to unpredictable changes in their environment, because they usually have an in-built nimbleness.I06Change is reciprocal and changing organisations will affect the nature of managerial work. Stewart, for example, describes how changes in organisations affect the kinds of jobs that managers have to do and the nature of their lives and careers. Older managers now work for very different kinds of organisations from those in which they first became managers. Although hierarchies of authority will continue to exist in large organisations they will be shorter and there will be wider networking. There will be a smaller number of middle managers but with more responsible roles. Managers' jobs are more complex and demanding, and managers' careers are much less predictable. But managers now have a greater choice in their work and careers.107According to Crainer, many managers refuse to accept the necessity of change. Instead of being proactive, change is often reactive, the last resort.Research repeatedly shows that it is managers who are the chief stumbling block to making change happen. Changing organizational structures and managerial thinking challenges and undercuts traditional power bases . . . For the manager reared on the old functional certainties, the new world organization is very difficult to manage. Indeed, the vast majority of managers are neither trained nor equipped to manage in such an environment.108Crainer suggests that the seven skills involved in managing change are:1 managing conflict;2 interpersonal skills;3 project management skills;4 leadership and flexibility;5 managing processes;6 managing strategy;7 managing their own development.The challenge of e-businessIt is impossible to know exactly what the future of e-business will bring but it will continue to bring tremendous change. One of the biggest changes for managers, especially within large organisations, is learning how to get to grips with an increasingly flexible workforce. As a result of the e-business environment many people can work at any time, anywhere and at any place. Many employees work at home but although the virtual office may help organisations to cut costs, it also poses many management challenges including the challenge to put structures in place to ensure regular meetings take place. Flexible working calls for flexible managers. This means that the traditional line managers need to become leaders, coaches and facilitators. Given the accelerating rate of change particularly with the intranet, it is essential that organisations invest in and develop their managers to succeed with this change.IrrdcHANGEDespite the potential positive outcomes, change is often resisted at both the individu and the organisational level. Resistance to change - or the thought of the implicatior of the change - appears to be a common phenomenon. As long ago as 1970, Toffl, wrote about the psychological dimension of 'future shock', and that people are nan rally wary of change. 'Among many there is an uneasy mood - a suspicion that chang is out of control.'109Resistance to change can take many forms and it is often difficult to pinpoint th exact reasons for the resistance. The forces against change in work organisation include: ignoring the needs and expectations of members; when members have insuffi cient information about the nature of the change; or if they do not perceive the neei for change. Fears may be expressed over such matters as employment levels and jol security, de-skilling of work, loss of job satisfaction, wage rate differentials, changes tc social structures and working conditions, loss of individual control over work, ara greater management control.Some common reasons for individual resistance to change within organisations includ* the following; Selective perception. People's own interpretation of stimuli presents a unique pic ture or image of the 'real' world and can result in selective perception. This can lead to a biased view of a particular situation, which fits most comfortably into a person's own perception of reality, and can cause resistance to change. For example, trade unionists may have a stereotyped view of management as untrustworthy and therefore oppose any management change, however well founded might have been the intention. Managers exposed to different theories or ideas may tend to categorise these as either: those they already practise and have no need to worry about or those that are of no practical value and which can be discarded as of no concern to them. Habit. People tend to respond to situations in an established and accustomed manner. Habits may serve as a means of comfort and security, and as a guide for easy decision-making. Proposed changes to habits, especially if the habits are well established and require little effort, may well be resisted. However, if there is a clearly perceived advantage, for example a reduction in working hours without loss of pay, there is likely to be less, if any, resistance to the change, although some people may, because of habit, still find it difficult to adjust to the new times. Inconvenience or loss of freedom. If the change is seen as likely to prove inconvenient, make life more difficult, reduce freedom of action or result in increased control, there will be resistance. Economic implications. People are likely to resist change which is perceived as reducing either directly or indirectly their pay or other rewards, requiring an increase in work for the same level of pay or acting as a threat to their job security. People tend to have established patterns of working and a vested interest in maintaining the status quo. Security in the past. There is a tendency for some people to find a sense of security in the past. In times of frustration or difficulty, or when faced with new or unfamiliar ideas or methods, people may reflect on the past. There is a wish to retain old and comfortable ways. For example, in bureaucratic organisations, officials often tend to place faith in well-established ('tried and trusted') procedures and cling to these as giving a feeling of security. Fear of the unknown. Changes which confront people with the unknown tend to cause anxiety or fear. Many major changes in a work organisation present a degree of uncertainty; for example, the introduction of new technology or methods of working. A person may resist promotion because of uncertainty over changes in responsibilities or the increased social demands of the higher position.I Although organisations have to adapt to their environment, they tend to feel comfortable operating within the structure, policies and procedures which have been formulated to deal with a range of present situations. To ensure operational effectiveness, organisations often set up defences against change and prefer to concentrate on the routine things they perform well. Some of the main reasons for organisational resistance against change are as follows. Organisation culture. Recall that the culture of an organisation develops over time and may not be easy to change. The pervasive nature of culture in terms of 'how things are done around here' also has a significant effect on organisational processes and the behaviour of staff. An ineffective culture may result in a lack of flexibility for, or acceptance of, change. Maintaining stability. Organisations, especially large-scale ones, pay much attention to maintaining stability and predictability. The need for formal organisation structure and the division of work, narrow definitions of assigned duties and responsibilities, established rules, procedures and methods of work, can result in resistance to change. The more mechanistic or bureaucatic the structure, the less likely it is that the organisation will be responsive to change. For example, Cloke and Goldsmith refer to: 'the command-and-control relationship between managers and employees generating an institutional blindness that blocks, frustrates, and reduces the speed, extent, and effectiveness of change'.110 Investment in resources. Change often requires large resources which may already be committed to investments in other areas or strategies. Assets such as buildings, technology, equipment and people cannot easily be altered. For example, a car manufacturer may not find it easy to change to a socio-technical approach and the use of autonomous work groups because it cannot afford the cost of a new purpose-built plant and specialised equipment. Past contracts or agreements. Organisations enter into contracts or agreements with other parties, such as the government, other organisations, trade unions, suppliers and customers. These contracts and agreements can limit changes in behaviour - for example, organisations operating under a special licence or permit, or a fixed-price contract to supply goods/services to a government agency. Another example might be an agreement with trade unions which limits the opportunity to introduce compulsory redundancies, or the introduction of certain new technology or working practices. Threats to power or influence. Change may be seen as a threat to the power or influence of certain groups within the organisation, such as their control over decisions, resources or information. For example, managers may resist the introduction of quality circles or worker-directors because they see this as increasing the role and influence of non-managerial staff, and a threat to the power in their own positions. Where a group of people have, over a period of time, established what they perceive as their 'territorial rights', they are likely to resist change.iMJCGEMENT OF ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE ^...^-w*As we have seen, people tend to be resistant to change. It is important, therefore, fo management to understand the reasons for, and nature of, resistance and to adopt dearly denned strategy for the initiation of change.111 The successful management o change is an increasingly important managerial responsibility. New ideas and innova tions should not be perceived as threats by members of the organisation. The effort made by management to maintain the balance of the socio-technical system will influ ence people's attitudes, the behaviour of individuals and groups, and thereby the leve of organisational performance and effectiveness.The successful management of change is clearly essential for continued economic performance and competitiveness. Stewart is among those writers who point out how changes in technology and in domestic government policies have had a radical impact on managers in many companies and in public service organisations.One of the most difficult problems for managers is rapid change. How British managers react to change will have an important influence on Britain's economic future. This is true for managers in the public service as well as for those in "industry and commerce. The tempo of change has speeded up; hence the demands made on managers to plan for, and adjust to, change are greater. All change requires both abilities.'] 2The importance of managing workplace change is also emphasised, for example, in a recent ESRC publication.Workplaces are dynamic and they always have been. Those who like to view the past as a time of static business organisations are mistaken although of course the pace of change increases and declines and is not always the same. Modernisation has become an awful word in the corrosive language of public discourse. But any enterprise that has ever wanted to survive and prosper has always needed to restructure and innovate. The fundamental question is where the balance lies in the crucial relationship in what is an interactive process between continuity and change.1Organisational Christensen and Overdorf suggest a framework to help managers understand whatresponses to types of change the organisation is capable and incapable of handling. They iden-disruptive tify three factors that affect organisational responses to different types of changechange and what an organisation can and cannot do: resources - access to abundant, high quality resources increases an organisation's chances of coping with change; processes - the patterns of interaction, co-ordination, communication and decision-making employees use to transform resources into products and services. Processes may be formal and explicitly defined and documented, or informal and routines or ways of working that evolve over time; values - the standards by which employees set priorities that enable them to judge whether an order is attractive, whether a customer is more or less important, whether an idea for a new product is attractive or marginal.The factors that define an organisation's capabilities and disabilities evolve over time -they start in resources, then move to visible, articulated processes and values, and finally migrate to culture. Christensen and Overdorf maintain that when an organisation faces the same sort of problem that its processes and values were designed to address, managing can be straightforward. However, when the problem facing the organisation is fundamentally different these same factors constitute disabilities, especially when the organisation's capabilities have come to reside in processes and values. There are three possible ways in which managers can develop new capabilities to cope with change: create new organisational structures within corporate boundaries in which new processes can be developed; spin out an independent organisation from the existing organisation and develop new processes and values; acquire a different organisation whose processes and values match closely the new requirements.114Many books and articles refer to the steps or actions to be taken to secure successful and sustainable change.115 For example, Kotter and Cohn list the following eight steps for successful large-scale change.1 Create a sense of urgency among relevant people, whatever the nature or size of the organisation.2 Build a guiding team with the credibility, skills, connections, reputations and formal authority to provide change leadership.3 Create visions which are sensible, clear and uplifting, and sets of strategies.4 Communicate the vision and strategy in order to induce understanding and commitment.5 Empower action and remove obstacles that stop people acting on the vision.6 Produce short-term wins that help to provide credibility, resources and momentum to the overall effort.7 Don't let up but maintain the momentum, consolidate early changes and create wave after wave of change.8 Make change stick by nurturing a new culture, and developing group norms of behaviour and shared values.116SOCIAL FACTORS OF CHANGEThe effective management of change must be based on a clear understanding of human behaviour at work. Most people are not detached from their work but experience a range of emotional involvements through their membership of the organisation, they feel threatened and disoriented by the challenge of change. Emotions such as uncertainty, frustration or fear are common reactions. It is understandable therefore that people often adopt a defensive and negative attitude, and demonstrate resistance to change.Elliott explains change as a complex, psychological event. The power of change needs to be respected and managed. Managing change places emphasis on employee (and customer) needs as the highest priority. To be successful, organisations need a dedicated workforce and this involves the effective management of change. But not everyone reacts to change in the same way. Change impacts each person differently and management must accept the individual nature of change. For example, senior managers responsible for initiating a restructuring may be filled with great expectations. They do not see the sense of resistance and find it hard to accept the negative impact of change. But the change may mean inconvenience, uncertainty and loss for other people. Loss and grief are just as normal reactions to change as are excitement and anticipation.117In a similar vein, Riches refers to the emotional stages of change, and to the feeling of loss arising from unexpected and unwanted changes.When organizations go through change, for example a restructure, a merger, downsizing, the installation of new information technology, outsourcing, a shift to customer focus or a new location - many employees experience a sense of loss. This is obvious if it means losing a Job. Yet often the reasons for the sense of loss are not clear but the effects may be just as profound - both for the individual and on the organization's bottom line.118Culture, change According to Bali, almost every business, whether large or small, has recognised thiand IT in anSMEStyle ofmanagerial.behaviouru j ----------< - *e>^ ^ jiuaii, nas lecogmsea tn