Bruno LatourWikipedia

***Bruno Latour (French: [latu]; born 22 June 1947) is a French philosopher, anthropologist and sociologist of science.[1] He is especially known for his work in the field of Science and Technology Studies (STS).[2] After teachingat the cole des Mines de Paris (Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation) from 1982 to 2006, he is now Professor at Sciences Po Paris (2006),[3] where he is the scientific director of the Sciences Po Medialab. He is also a Centennial Professor at the London School of Economics.[4]

Latour is best known for his books We Have Never Been Modern (1991; English translation, 1993), Laboratory Life (with Steve Woolgar, 1979) and Science in Action (1987).[5] Although his studies of scientific practice were atone time associated with social constructionist[5] approaches to the philosophy of science, Latour has diverged significantly from such approaches. He is best known for withdrawing from the subjective/objective division and re-developing the approach to work in practice.[1] Along with Michel Callon and John Law, Latour is one of the primary developers of actornetwork theory (ANT), a constructionist approach influenced by the ethnomethodology of Harold Garfinkel, the generative semiotics of Algirdas Julius Greimas, and (more recently) the sociology of mile Durkheim's rival Gabriel Tarde.

Biography

Latour is related to a well-known family of winemakers from Burgundy, but is not associated with the similarly named estate in Bordeaux.[7]

As a student, Latour originally focused on philosophy and was deeply influenced by Michel Serres. Latour received his Ph.D. in Theology [8] at theUniversity of Tours.[9] He quickly developed an interest in anthropology, and undertook fieldwork in Cte d'Ivoire which resulted in a brief monograph on decolonization, race, and industrial relations.[5]

After spending more than 20 years at the Centre de sociologie de l'innovationat the cole des Mines in Paris, Latour moved in 2006 to Sciences Po, where he is the first occupant of a Chair named for Gabriel Tarde. In recent years hehas also served as one of the curators of successful art exhibitions at the Zentrum fr Kunst und Medientechnologie in Karlsruhe, Germany, including "Iconoclash" (2002) and "Making Things Public" (2005). In 2005 healso held the Spinoza Chair of Philosophy at the University of Amsterdam.[10]

Awards and honors

On 22 May 2008, Latour was awarded an honorary doctorate by the Universit de Montral on the occasion of an organizational communication conference held in honor of the work of James R. Taylor, on whom Latour has had an important influence.Holberg Prize

On 13 March 2013, he was announced as the winner of the 2013 Holberg Prize.[11][12][13] The prize committee stated that "Bruno Latour has undertaken an ambitious analysis and reinterpretation of modernity, and haschallenged fundamental concepts such as the distinction between modern and pre-modern, nature and society, human and non-human." The committee states that "the impact of Latour's work is evident internationally and far beyond studies of the history of science, art history, history, philosophy, anthropology, geography, theology, literature and law."[11][12][13][14]

A 2013 article in Aftenposten by Jon Elster criticised the conferment to Latour, by saying "The question is, does he deserve the prize."[15] "If the statutes [of the award] had used new knowledge as a main criteria, in stead ofone of several, then he would be completely unqualified in my opinion."[16]

Main works

Laboratory Life

After his early career efforts, Latour shifted his research interests to focus on laboratory scientists. Latour rose in importance following the 1979 publication of Laboratory Life: the Social Construction of Scientific Facts with co-author Steve Woolgar. In the book, the authors undertake an ethnographic study of a neuroendocrinology research laboratory at the Salk Institute.[5] This early work argued that nave descriptions of the scientific method, in which theories stand or fall on the outcome of a single experiment, are inconsistent with actual laboratory practice.

In the laboratory, Latour and Woolgar observed that a typical experiment produces only inconclusive data that is attributed to failure of the apparatus or experimental method, and that a large part of scientific training involves learning how to make the subjective decision of what data to keep and what data to throw out. Latour and Woolgar argued that, for untrained observers, the entire process resembles not an unbiased search for truth and accuracy but a mechanism for ignoring data that contradicts scientific orthodoxy.

Latour and Woolgar produced a highly heterodox and controversial picture of the sciences. Drawing on the work of Gaston Bachelard, they advance the notion that the objects of scientific study are socially constructed within the laboratorythat they cannot be attributed with an existence outside of the instruments that measure them and the minds that interpret them. They view scientific activity as a system of beliefs, oral traditions and culturally specific practices in short, science is reconstructed not as a procedure or as aset of principles but as a culture. Latour's 1987 book Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society is one of the key texts of the sociology of scientific knowledge in which he famously wrote his Second Principle as follows: "Scientist and engineers speak in the name of new allies that they have shaped and enrolled; representatives among other representatives, they add these unexpected resources to tip the balance of force in their favor."

Some of Latour's position and findings in this era provoked vehement rebuttals. Gross and Leavitt argue that Latour's position becomes absurd when applied to non-scientific contexts: e.g., if a group of coworkers in a windowless room were debating whether or not it were raining outside and went outdoors to discover raindrops in the air and puddles on the soil, Latour's hypothesis would assert that the rain was socially constructed.[17] Similarly, philosopher John Searle[18] argues that Latour's "extreme social constructivist" position is seriously flawed on several points, and furthermorehas inadvertently "comical results."

The Pasteurization of France

After a research project examining the sociology of primatologists, Latour followed up the themes in Laboratory Life with Les Microbes: guerre et paix (published in English as The Pasteurization of France in 1988). In it, he reviews the life and career of one of France's most famous scientists Louis Pasteur and his discovery of microbes, in the fashion of a political biography. Latour highlights the social forces at work in and around Pasteur's career and the uneven manner in which his theories were accepted. By providing more explicitly ideological explanations for the acceptance of Pasteur's work more easily in some quarters than in others, he seeks to undermine the notion that the acceptance and rejection of scientific theories is primarily, or even usually,a matter of experiment, evidence or reason. Another work, Aramis, or, The Love of Technology focuses on the history of an unsuccessful mass-transit project.

We Have Never Been Modern

Latour's work Nous navons jamais t modernes : Essais danthropologie symtrique was first published in French in 1991. It was soon translated into English by Catherine Porter and published in 1993 as We Have Never Been Modern.

Latour encouraged the reader of this anthropology of science to re-think and re-evaluate our mental landscape. He evaluated the work of scientists and

contemplated the contribution of the scientific method to knowledge and work, blurring the distinction across various fields and disciplines.[19]

Latour argued that society has never really been modern and promoted nonmodernism (or amodernism) over postmodernism, modernism, or antimodernism.[20] His stance was that we have never been modern and minor divisions alone separate Westerners now from other collectives.[21] Latour viewed modernism as an era that believed it had annulled the entire past in its wake.[22] He presented the antimodern reaction as defending suchentities as spirit, rationality, liberty, society, God, or even the past.[23] Postmoderns, according to Latour, also accepted the modernistic abstractions as if they were real.[24] In contrast, the nonmodern approach reestablished symmetry between science and technology on the one hand andsociety on the other.[25] Latour also referred to the impossibility of returning to premodernism because it precluded the large scale experimentation which was a benefit of modernism.[26]

Latour attempted to prove through case studies the fallacy in the old object/subject and Nature/Society compacts of modernity, which can be traced back to Plato.[19][27] He refused the concept of "out there" versus "in here".[28] He rendered the object/subject distinction as simply unusable and charted a new approach towards knowledge, work, and circulating reference.[28] Latour considered nonmoderns to be playing on a different field, one vastly different than that of post-moderns.[24] He referred to it as much broader and much less polemical, a creation of an unknown territory, which he playfully referred to as the Middle Kingdom.[24]

In 1998, historian of science Margaret C. Jacob argued that Latour's politicized account of the development of modernism in the 17th Century is "a fanciful escape from modern Western history".[29]

Pandora's Hope

Pandora's Hope (1999) marks a return to the themes Latour explored in Science in Action and We Have Never Been Modern. It uses independent

but thematically linked essays and case studies to question the authority and reliability of scientific knowledge. Latour uses a narrative, anecdotal approach in a number of the essays, describing his work with pedologists in the Amazon rainforest, the development of the pasteurization process, and the research of French atomic scientists at the outbreak of the Second World War. Latour states that this specific, anecdotal approach to science studies is essential to gaining a full understanding of the discipline: "The only way to understand the reality of science studies is to follow what science studies do best, that is, paying close attention to the details of scientific practice" (p. 24). Some authors have criticized Latour's methodology, including Katherine Pandora, a history of science professor at the University of Oklahoma. In her review of Pandora's Hope, Katherine Pandora states:

"[Latour's] writing can be stimulating, fresh and at times genuinely moving, but it can also display a distractingly mannered style in which a rococo zeal for compounding metaphors, examples, definitions and abstractions can frustrate even readers who approach his work with the best of intentions (notwithstanding the inclusion of a nine-page glossary of terms and liberal use of diagrams in an attempt to achieve the utmost clarity)".[30]

In addition to his epistemological concerns, Latour also explores the political dimension of science studies in Pandora's Hope. Two of the chapters draw on Plato's Gorgias as a means of investigating and highlighting the distinction between content and context. As Katherine Pandora states in her review:

"It is hard not to be caught up in the author's obvious delight in deploying a classic work from antiquity to bring current concerns into sharper focus, following along as he manages to leave the reader with the impression that the protagonists Socrates and Callicles are not only in dialogue with each other but with Latour as well."[30]

Although Latour frames his discussion with a classical model, his examples offraught political issues are all current and of continuing relevance: global warming, the spread of mad cow disease, and the carcinogenic effects of

smoking are all mentioned at various points in Pandora's Hope. In Felix Stalder's article "Beyond constructivism: towards a realistic realism", he summarizes Latour's position on the political dimension of science studies as follows: "These scientific debates have been artificially kept open in order to render impossible any political action against these problems and those who profit from them".[31]

"Why Has Critique Run Out of Steam?"

In a 2004 article,[32] Latour questioned the fundamental premises on which he'd based most of his career, asking, "Was I wrong to participate in the invention of this field known as science studies?" He undertakes a trenchant critique of his own field of study and, more generally, of social criticism in contemporary academia. He suggests that critique, as currently practiced, is bordering on irrelevancy. To maintain any vitality, Latour argues that social critiques require a drastic reappraisal: "our critical equipment deserves as much critical scrutiny as the Pentagon budget." (p. 231) To regain focus and credibility, Latour argues that social critiques must embrace empiricism, to insist on the "cultivation of a stubbornly realist attitude -- to speak like William James". (p. 233)

Latour suggests that about 90% of contemporary social criticism displays oneof two approaches which he terms "the fact position and the fairy position." (p. 237) The fairy position is anti-fetishist, arguing that "objects of belief" (e.g., religion, arts) are merely concepts created by the projected wishes and desires of the "naive believer"; the "fact position" argues that individuals are dominated, often covertly and without their awareness, by external forces (e.g., economics, gender). (p. 238) "Do you see now why it feels so good to be a critical mind? asks Latour: no matter which position you take, "Youre always right! (p. 238-239) Social critics tend to use anti-fetishism against ideas they personally reject; to use "an unrepentant positivist" approach for fields of study they consider valuable; all the while thinking as "a perfectly healthy sturdy realist for what you really cherish." (p. 241) These inconsistencies and double standards go largely unrecognized in social critique because "there is never any crossover between the two lists of objects

in the fact position and the fairy position." (p. 241)

The practical result of these approaches being taught to millions of students in elite universities for several decades is a widespread and influential "critical barbarity" that haslike a malign virus created by a "mad scientist"thus far proven impossible to control. Most troubling, Latour notes that critical ideashave been appropriated by those he describes as conspiracy theorists, including global warming skeptics and the 9/11 Truth movement: "Maybe I am taking conspiracy theories too seriously, but I am worried to detect, in those mad mixtures of knee-jerk disbelief, punctilious demands for proofs, and free use of powerful explanation from the social neverland, many of the weapons of social critique." (p. 230)

Reassembling the Social

In Reassembling the Social (2005),[33] Latour continues a reappraisal of his work, developing what he calls a "practical metaphysics", which calls "real" anything that an actor (one whom we are studying) claims as a source of motivation for action. So if someone says, "I was inspired by God to be charitable to my neighbors" we are obliged to recognize the "ontological weight" of their claim, rather than attempting to replace their belief in God's presence with "social stuff", like class, gender, imperialism, etc. Latours nuanced metaphysics demands the existence of a plurality of worlds, and the willingness of the researcher to chart ever more. He argues that researchers must give up the hope of fitting their actors into a structure or framework, but Latour believes the benefits of this sacrifice far outweigh the downsides: "Their complex metaphysics would at least be respected, their recalcitrance recognized, their objections deployed, their multiplicity accepted."[33]

For Latour, to talk about metaphysics or ontologywhat really ismeans paying close empirical attention to the various, contradictory institutions andideas that bring people together and inspire them to act. Here is Latour's description of metaphysics:

If we call metaphysics the discipline . . . that purports to define the basic

structure of the world, then empirical metaphysics is what the controversies over agencies lead to since they ceaselessly populate the world with new drives and, as ceaselessly, contest the existence of others. The question then becomes how to explore the actors' own metaphysics.[33]

A more traditional metaphysicist might object, arguing that this means there are multiple, contradictory realities, since there are "controversies over agencies" since there is a plurality of contradictory ideas that people claim asa basis for action (God, nature, the state, sexual drives, personal ambition, and so on). This objection manifests the most important difference between traditional philosophical metaphysics and Latour's nuance: for Latour, there is no "basic structure of reality" or a single, self-consistent world. An unknowably large multiplicity of realities, or "worlds" in his terms, existsonefor each actors sources of agency, inspirations for action. Actors bring "the real" (metaphysics) into being. The task of the researcher is not to find one "basic structure" that explains agency, but to recognize "the metaphysical innovations proposed by ordinary actors".[33] Mapping those metaphysical innovations involves a strong dedication to relativism, Latour argues. The relativist researcher "learns the actors' language," records what they say about what they do, and does not appeal to a higher "structure" to "explain" the actor's motivations. The relativist "takes seriously what [actors] are obstinately saying" and "follows the direction indicated by their fingers when they designate what 'makes them act'". The relativist recognizes the plurality of metaphysics that actors bring into being, and attempts to map them ratherthan reducing them to a single structure or explanation.

Bibliography

Books

Latour, Bruno; Woolgar, Steve (1986) [1979]. Laboratory life: the construction of scientific facts. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691094182.Originally published 1979 in Los Angeles, by Sage Publications Latour, Bruno (1987). Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers Through Society, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, USA.

Latour, Bruno (1988). The Pasteurization of France. Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, USA. Latour, Bruno (1993). We Have Never Been Modern (tr. by Catherine Porter), Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, USA. Latour, Bruno (1996). Aramis, or the love of technology, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, USA. Latour, Bruno (1999). Pandora's hope: essays on the reality of science studies, HarvardUniversity Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, USA. Latour, Bruno (2004). Politics of Nature: How to Bring the Sciences into Democracy (tr. by Catherine Porter), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, 2004. with Peter Weibel (eds.) Making Things Public: Atmospheres of Democracy, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-12279-0. Latour, Bruno (2005). Reassembling the social: an introduction to Actornetwork theory, Oxford ; New York, Oxford: University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925604-4 Latour, Bruno (2009). On the Modern Cult of the Factish Gods. Duke University Press. Latour, Bruno (2010). The Making of Law: An Ethnography of the Conseil d'Etat. Polity. Latour, Bruno (2013). Rejoicing: Or the Torments of Religious Speech. Polity. Latour, Bruno (2013). An Inquiry into Modes of Existence. Harvard University Press.

Chapters in books

Latour, Bruno; Callon, Michel (1992), "Don't throw the baby out with the Bath School! A reply to Collins and Yearley", in Pickering, Andrew, Science as practice and culture, Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, pp. 343368, ISBN 9780226668017. Latour, Bruno (1992), "Where are the missing masses? The sociology of a few mundane artifacts", in Bijker, Wiebe E.; Law, John, Shaping technology/building society: studies in sociotechnical change, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, pp. 225258, ISBN 9780262521949. Latour, Bruno; Akrich, Madeline (1992), "A summary of convenient vocabulary for the semiotics of human and nonhuman assemblies", in Bijker, Wiebe E.; Law, John, Shaping technology/building society: studies in sociotechnical change, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, pp. 259264, ISBN 9780262521949. Latour, Bruno (1992), "Whose cosmos, which cosmopolitics? Comments on the peace terms of Ulrich Beck", in Robertson-von Trotha, Caroline Y., Kultur und Gerechtigkeit (Kulturwissenschaft interdisziplinr/Interdisciplinary Studies on Culture and Society, Vol. 2), Baden-Baden: Nomos, ISBN 9783832926045.

Latour, Bruno (2015), "Les vues de l'esprit. une introduction l'anthropologie des sciences et des techniques", in Emmanuel Alloa, Penser l'image II. Anthropologies du visuel, Dijon: Les presses du rel, pp. 207256, ISBN 978-2-84066-557-1

Journal articles

Latour, Bruno (March 2000). "When things strike back: a possible contribution of science studies to the social sciences". British Journal of Sociology (Wiley) 51 (1): 107123. doi:10.1111/j.1468-4446.2000.00107.x.

References

Wheeler, Will. Bruno Latour: Documenting Human and Nonhuman Associations Critical Theory for Library and Information Science. Libraries Unlimited, 2010, p. 189.See Steve Fuller, "Science and Technology Studies", in The Knowledge book. Key concepts in philosophy, science and culture, Acumen (UK) and McGill-Queens University Press (NA), 2007, p. 153.See Latour's "Biography" Bruno Latour's official websitehttp://www.lse.ac.uk/sociology/whoswho/Visiting%20Fellows.aspxHeather Vidmar-McEwen,"Anthropologists biographies: Bruno Latour", "Anthropologists biographies: Bruno Latour", Indiana University Anthropology Department"The most cited authors of books in the humanities". timeshighereducation.co.uk. 26 March 2009. Retrieved 16 November 2009.Blok, A. & Elgaard Jensen, T. Bruno Latour: hybrid thoughts in a hybrid world. London: Routledge, 2011.Skirbekk, Gunnar. "Bruno Latours anthropology of the moderns". Radicalphilosophy.com. Retrieved 5 January 2015."Bruno Latour" by Heather Vidmar-McEwenhttp://www.uva.nl/en/disciplines/philosophy/home/components-centrecolumn/the-spinoza-chair.htmlBruno Latour wins the 2013 Holberg Prize, Holberg Prizehttp://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2013/03/13/l-anthropologue-francais-bruno-latour-distingue-en-norvege_1847284_3224.htmlhttp://www.aftenposten.no/kultur/Holbergprisen-til-Bruno-Latour-7146138.htmlHolberg International Memorial Prize 2013: Bruno Latour. Citation of the Holberg Prize Academic Committee, Holberg Prize"Den uforstelige Latour". Aftenposten. 24 April 2013. p. 7 Debatt. "Sprsmlet er om han fortjener prisen.""Den uforstelige Latour". Aftenposten. 24 April 2013. p. 7 Debatt. "Hvis statuttene

hadde brukt ny kunnskap som hovedkriterium, i stedet for ett av flere kriterier, ville han etter min mening ha vrt fullstendig ukvalifisert."Gross, Paul R. and Levitt, Norman (1997). Higher Superstition: The Academic Left andIts Quarrels with Science. Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 58Searle, John R. (2009) "Why Should You Believe It?" The New York Review of Books, 24 September 2009.Wheeler, Will. Bruno Latour: Documenting Human and Nonhuman Associations Critical Theory for Library and Information Science. Libraries Unlimited, 2010, p. 190.Latour, Bruno. We Have Never Been Modern Trans. Catherine Porter. Harvard University Press, 1993, p. 47, 134.Latour, Bruno. We Have Never Been Modern Trans. Catherine Porter. Harvard University Press, 1993, p. 47, 114.Latour, Bruno. "We Have Never Been Modern" Trans. Catherine Porter. Harvard University Press, 1993, p. 69.Latour, Bruno. We Have Never Been Modern Trans. Catherine Porter. Harvard University Press, 1993, p. 47.Latour, Bruno. We Have Never Been Modern Trans. Catherine Porter. Harvard University Press, 1993, p. 48.Latour, Bruno. We Have Never Been Modern Trans. Catherine Porter. Harvard University Press, 1993, p. 138.Latour, Bruno. We Have Never Been Modern Trans. Catherine Porter. Harvard University Press, 1993, p. 140.Latour, Bruno. We Have Never Been Modern Trans. Catherine Porter. Harvard University Press, 1993, p. 79.Wheeler, Will. Bruno Latour: Documenting Human and Nonhuman Associations Critical Theory for Library and Information Science. Libraries Unlimited, 2010, p. 192.Jacob, Margaret C (1998). "Latour's Version of the Seventeenth Century," pp. 240-254 in A House Built on Sand: Exposing Postmodernist Myths About Science, Noretta Koertge (editor), NY:Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195117255[1][2]Latour, Bruno. (2004) "Why Has Critique Run out of Steam? From Matters of Fact to Matters of Concern". Critical Inquiry, Vol. 30, No. 2., Winter 2004, pp. 225-248

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