British Literature: Traditions and Change

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24 Translated by Burton Raffel Unit 1

from

Beowulf

translated by Burton Raffel

Beowulf begins as the monster Grendel approaches the

mead1 hall of Hrothgar, the Danish king. After an evening

of drinking and celebration, Hrothgar’s warriors fall into a

heavy sleep, unaware of the danger that lurks outside.

1 mead: fermented, alcoholic drink made from honey

GrendelA powerful monster, living down

In the darkness, growled in pain, impatientAs day after day the music rangLoud in that hall, the harp’s rejoicingCall and the poet’s clear songs, sungOf the ancient beginnings of us all, recallingThe Almighty making the earth, shaping These beautiful plains marked off by oceans,Then proudly setting the sun and moonTo glow across the land and light it;The corners of the earth were made lovely with trees And leaves, made quick with life, with each Of the nations who now move on its face. And thenAs now warriors sang of their pleasure:So Hrothgar’s men lived happy in his hallTill the monster stirred, that demon, that fiend,Grendel, who haunted the moor,2 the wildMarshes, and made his home in a hell Not hell but earth. He was spawned in that slime,spawned: produced;

created

2 moor: stretch of desolate land

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25The Anglo-Saxon Period Beowulf: “Grendel”

20 Conceived by a pair of those monsters born Of Cain, murderous creatures banished By God, punished forever for the crimeOf Abel’s death.3 The Almighty droveThose demons out, and their exile was bitter,

3 Cain and Abel: sons of Adam and Eve; in Genesis, the first book of the Bible, Cain murders Abel.

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Shut away from men; they splitInto a thousand forms of evil—spirits And fiends, goblins, monsters, giants,A brood forever opposing the Lord’s Will, and again and again defeated.

Then, when darkness had dropped, GrendelWent up to Herot, wondering what the warriorsWould do in that hall when their drinking was done.He found them sprawled in sleep, suspectingNothing, their dreams undisturbed. The monster’s Thoughts were as quick as his greed or his claws:He slipped through the door and there in the silence Snatched up thirty men, smashed them Unknowing in their beds and ran out with their bodies,The blood dripping behind him, backTo his lair, delighted with his night’s slaughter. At daybreak, with the sun’s first light, they sawHow well he had worked, and in that gray morning Broke their long feast with tears and laments For the dead. Hrothgar, their lord, sat joyless

lair: hideout

In Herot, a mighty prince mourningThe fate of his lost friends and companions,Knowing by its tracks that some demon had torn His followers apart. He wept, fearingThe beginning might not be the end. And that nightGrendel came again, so setOn murder that no crime could ever be enough,No savage assault quench his lustFor evil. Then each warrior tried To escape him, searched for rest in differentBeds, as far from Herot as they could find,Seeing how Grendel hunted when they slept.Distance was safety; the only survivorsWere those who fled him. Hate had triumphed. So Grendel ruled, fought with the righteous,One against many, and won; so HerotStood empty, and stayed deserted for years,

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27The Anglo-Saxon Period Beowulf: “Grendel”

Twelve winters of grief for Hrothgar, kingOf the Danes, sorrow heaped at his doorBy hell-forged hands. His misery leaped The seas, was told and sung in allMen’s ears: how Grendel’s hatred began,How the monster relished his savage warOn the Danes, keeping the bloody feudAlive, seeking no peace, offeringNo truce, accepting no settlement, no priceIn gold or land, and paying the livingFor one crime only with another. No oneWaited for reparation from his plundering claws:That shadow of death hunted in the darkness,

reparation: making amends for a wrong

Stalked Hrothgar’s warriors, oldAnd young, lying in waiting, hiddenIn mist, invisibly following them from the edgeOf the marsh, always there, unseen.

So mankind’s enemy continued his crimes,Killing as often as he could, comingAlone, bloodthirsty and horrible. Though he lived In Herot, when the night hid him, he neverDared to touch king Hrothgar’s gloriousThrone, protected by God—God,Whose love Grendel could not know. But Hrothgar’s Heart was bent. The best and most noble Of his council debated remedies, satIn secret sessions, talking of terror And wondering what the bravest of warriors could do.And sometimes they sacrificed to the old stone gods,Made heathen4 vows, hoping for Hell’s Support, the Devil’s guidance in driving Their affliction off. That was their way,And the heathen’s only hope, Hell

4 heathen: pagan, not Christian

Always in their hearts, knowing neither GodNor His passing as He walks through our world, the LordOf Heaven and earth; their ears could not hear

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His praise nor know His glory. Let themBeware, those who are thrust into danger,Clutched at by trouble, yet can carry no solace In their hearts, cannot hope to be better! HailTo those who will rise to God, drop offTheir dead bodies and seek our Father’s peace!

The Coming of BeowulfSo the living sorrow of Healfdane’s son5

Simmered, bitter and fresh, and no wisdomOr strength could break it: that agony hung On king and people alike, harshAnd unending, violent and cruel, and evil.

In his far-off home Beowulf, Higlac’s6

5 Healfdane’s son: Hrothgar was Healfdane’s second son and took the throne upon his death.

6 Higlac: king of Geatland

Follower and the strongest of the Geats—greaterAnd stronger than anyone anywhere in this world—Heard how Grendel filled nights with horrorAnd quickly commanded a boat fitted out,Proclaiming that he’d go to that famous king,Would sail across the sea to Hrothgar,Now when help was needed. NoneOf the wise ones regretted his going, muchAs he was loved by the Geats: the omens were good,And they urged the adventure on. So Beowulf

omens: events that signify evil or good by their occurrence Chose the mightiest men he could find,

The bravest and best of the Geats, fourteenIn all, and led them down to their boat;He knew the sea, would point the prow Straight to that distant Danish shore. . . .

prow: pointed, front part of a boat that rises out of the water

The Battle with Grendel Out from the marsh, from the foot of mistyHills and bogs, bearing God’s hatred,Grendel came, hoping to killAnyone he could trap on this trip to high Herot.

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29The Anglo-Saxon Period Beowulf: “The Battle with Grendel”

He moved quickly through the cloudy night,Up from his swampland, sliding silentlyToward that gold-shining hall. He had visited Hrothgar’sHome before, knew the way—But never, before nor after that night,Found Herot defended so firmly, his receptionSo harsh. He journeyed, forever joyless,Straight to the door, then snapped it open,Tore its iron fasteners with a touchAnd rushed angrily over the threshold.He strode quickly across the inlaidFloor, snarling and fierce: his eyesGleamed in the darkness, burned with a gruesomeLight. Then he stopped, seeing the hallCrowded with sleeping warriors, stuffedWith rows of young soldiers resting together.And his heart laughed, he relished the sight,Intended to tear the life from those bodiesBy morning; the monster’s mind was hotWith the thought of food and the feasting his bellyWould soon know. But fate, that night, intendedGrendel to gnaw the broken bonesOf his last human supper. Human Eyes were watching his evil steps,Waiting to see his swift hard claws.Grendel snatched at the first GeatHe came to, ripped him apart, cutHis body to bits with powerful jaws,Drank the blood from his veins and boltedHim down, hands and feet; deathAnd Grendel’s great teeth came together,Snapping life shut. Then he stepped to anotherStill body, clutched at Beowulf with his claws,Grasped at a strong-hearted wakeful sleeper—And was instantly seized himself, clawsBent back as Beowulf leaned up on one arm. That shepherd of evil, guardian of crime,Knew at once that nowhere on earth

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Had he met a man whose hands were harder;His mind was flooded with fear—but nothing Could take his talons and himself from that tightHard grip. Grendel’s one thought was to runFrom Beowulf, flee back to his marsh and hide there:This was a different Herot than the hall he had emptied.But Higlac’s follower remembered his finalBoast and, standing erect, stopped The monster’s flight, fastened those clawsIn his fists till they cracked, clutched GrendelCloser. The infamous killer foughtFor his freedom, wanting no flesh but retreat,Desiring nothing but escape; his clawsHad been caught, he was trapped. That trip to HerotWas a miserable journey for the writhing monster!

The high hall rang, its roof boards swayed,And Danes shook with terror. DownThe aisles the battle swept, angryAnd wild. Herot trembled, wonderfully Built to withstand the blows, the strugglingGreat bodies beating at its beautiful walls;Shaped and fastened with iron, inside And out, artfully worked, the buildingStood firm. Its benches rattled, fellTo the floor, gold-covered boards gratingAs Grendel and Beowulf battled across them.Hrothgar’s wise men had fashioned HerotTo stand forever; only fire,They had planned, could shatter what such skill had put Together, swallow in hot flames such splendorOf ivory and iron and wood. SuddenlyThe sounds changed, the Danes started In new terror, cowering in their beds as the terribleScreams of the Almighty’s enemy sang In the darkness, the horrible shrieks of painAnd defeat, the tears torn out of Grendel’s Taut throat, hell’s captive caught in the arms Of him who of all the men on earthWas the strongest.

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That mighty protector of menMeant to hold the monster till its lifeLeaped out, knowing the fiend was no use To anyone in Denmark. All of Beowulf’s Band had jumped from their beds, ancestralSwords raised and ready, determinedTo protect their prince if they could. Their courageWas great but all wasted: they could hack at GrendelFrom every side, trying to openA path for his evil soul, but their pointsCould not hurt him, the sharpest and hardest ironCould not scratch at his skin, for that sin-stained demonHad bewitched all men’s weapons, laid spellsThat blunted every mortal man’s blade.And yet his time had come, his daysWere over, his death near; downTo hell he would go, swept groaning and helplessTo the waiting hands of still worse fiends.Now he discovered—once the afflictorOf men, tormentor of their days—what it meantTo feud with Almighty God: GrendelSaw that his strength was deserting him, his clawsBound fast, Higlac’s brave follower tearing at His hands. The monster’s hatred rose higher,But his power had gone. He twisted in pain,And the bleeding sinews deep in his shoulderSnapped, muscle and bone splitAnd broke. The battle was over, BeowulfHad been granted new glory: Grendel escaped,

sinews: tendons or ligaments

But wounded as he was could flee to his den,His miserable hole at the bottom of the marsh,Only to die, to wait for the endOf all his days. And after that bloodyCombat the Danes laughed with delight.He who had come to them from across the sea,Bold and strong-minded, had driven afflictionOff, purged Herot clean. He was happy,Now, with that night’s fierce work; the DanesHad been served as he’d boasted he’d serve them; Beowulf,

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A prince of the Geats, had killed Grendel,Ended the grief, the sorrow, the suffering Forced on Hrothgar’s helpless peopleBy a bloodthirsty fiend. No Dane doubtedThe victory, for the proof, hanging highFrom the rafters where Beowulf had hung it, was the monster’s Arm, claw and shoulder and all.

And then, in the morning, crowds surroundedHerot, warriors coming to that hall

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From faraway lands, princes and leadersOf men hurrying to behold the monster’sGreat staggering tracks. They gaped with no senseOf sorrow, felt no regret for his suffering,Went tracing his bloody footprints, his beaten And lonely flight, to the edge of the lakeWhere he’d dragged his corpselike way, doomedAnd already weary of his vanishing life.The water was bloody, steaming and boilingIn horrible pounding waves, heatSucked from his magic veins; but the swirling Surf had covered his death, hiddenDeep in murky darkness his miserableEnd, as hell opened to receive him.

Then old and young rejoiced, turned backFrom that happy pilgrimage, mounted their hard-hooved pilgrimage: long

journey made to visit a sacred place or pay homage

Horses, high-spirited stallions, and rode themSlowly toward Herot again, retellingBeowulf’s bravery as they jogged along.And over and over they swore that nowhere On earth or under the spreading skyOr between the seas, neither south nor north,Was there a warrior worthier to rule over men.(But no one meant Beowulf’s praise to belittleHrothgar, their kind and gracious king!)

And sometimes, when the path ran straight and clear,

They would let their horses race, redAnd brown and pale yellow backs streamingDown the road. And sometimes a proud old soldierWho had heard songs of the ancient heroesAnd could sing them all through, story after story,Would weave a net of words for Beowulf’sVictory, tying the knot of his versesSmoothly, swiftly, into place with a poet’sQuick skill, singing his new song aloudWhile he shaped it, and the old songs as well. . . .

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34 After You Read Beowulf: “Grendel,” “The Coming of Beowulf,” and “The Battle with Grendel”

After You Read Beowulf: “Grendel,” “The Coming of Beowulf,” and “The Battle with Grendel”

Literary Lens: Epic What characteristics of an epic did you find in Beowulf? Make a chart like the one below. Write the characteristics of an epic in the left column and examples from the text in the right column. Circle the elements you felt were the most powerful.

Characteristics of an Epic Examples from Beowulf

Explore Context: Pagan and Christian Beliefs and TraditionsHow are Christianity and paganism portrayed in Beowulf? Write a paragraph about the conflict between Christian beliefs and pagan beliefs. Use evidence from the poem to support your answer.

Apply and Create: Epic MovieWorking with a partner, choose one of the excerpts from Beowulf and rewrite it as a scene for a present-day movie version of the poem. To get started, think about elements in an epic movie you have seen. You will need to create dialogue, provide stage directions for your characters, and describe the sets and action. Then act out your scene for the class or another group.

Read Critically

Reread the following passage from Beowulf. Answer the questions and support your answers with details from the passage.

At daybreak, with the sun’s first light, they sawHow well he had worked, and in that gray morning Broke their long feast with tears and laments For the dead. Hrothgar, their lord, sat joylessIn Herot, a mighty prince mourningThe fate of his lost friends and companions,Knowing by its tracks that some demon had torn His followers apart. He wept, fearingThe beginning might not be the end. And that nightGrendel came again, so setOn murder that no crime could ever be enough,No savage assault quench his lust

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35After You Read Beowulf: “Grendel,” “The Coming of Beowulf,” and “The Battle with Grendel”

For evil. Then each warrior tried To escape him, searched for rest in differentBeds, as far from Herot as they could find,Seeing how Grendel hunted when they slept.Distance was safety; the only survivorsWere those who fled him. Hate had triumphed.

So Grendel ruled, fought with the righteous,One against many, and won; so HerotStood empty, and stayed deserted for years,Twelve winters of grief for Hrothgar, kingOf the Danes, sorrow heaped at his doorBy hell-forged hands. His misery leaped The seas, was told and sung in allMen’s ears: how Grendel’s hatred began,How the monster relished his savage warOn the Danes, keeping the bloody feudAlive, seeking no peace, offeringNo truce, accepting no settlement, no priceIn gold or land, and paying the livingFor one crime only with another. . . .

1. Based on Grendel’s actions and Hrothgar’s response, what conclusions can you draw about Grendel and Hrothgar?

2. Why does Hrothgar fear that “The beginning might not be the end”? Is he right? Cite examples to support your answer.

3. Reread the last nine lines. How do they foreshadow, or hint at, what happens next? What other lines are examples of foreshadowing?

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36 Before You Read Beowulf: “Grendel’s Mother” and “The Battle with Grendel’s Mother”

Before You Read Beowulf: “Grendel’s Mother” and “The Battle with Grendel’s Mother”

Like other Old English poems, Beowulf was passed orally from generation to generation and chanted for audiences by scops, or oral poets (see page 19). Scops did not simply memorize stories and songs, they often improvised on them—creating new verses to combine with the old. Experimenting with the repetition and alliteration of words and phrases, as well as the poem’s rhythm, allowed scops to create new verses while maintaining the original story line. Although manuscripts of Beowulf were eventually created, the only surviving Anglo-Saxon manuscript was written around 1000 a.d. This copy was nearly destroyed in a fire in 1731, and several lines of the poem were lost. While Beowulf is now the most famous Anglo-Saxon heroic epic, it was not published until 1815. Most of England’s greatest authors, including Chaucer and Shakespeare, never read it.

Literary LensElEgy or Epic NarrativE There is some debate, but many scholars classify Beowulf as a heroic elegy, a poem celebrating the life and death of a heroic figure. Others feel it is an epic narrative, a long poem in the oral tradition telling of a hero’s deeds. Beowulf certainly has characteristics of both.

allitEratioN Beowulf ’s poet uses alliteration, or the repetition of sounds at the beginning of words, to create a musical effect and emphasize ideas. In his translation, Burton Raffel uses alliteration to preserve the poem’s sound and style.

rhythm aNd rEpEtitioN In the original poem, rhythm was created by a pause in each line called a caesura. This pause is shown as a space that divides the line. Translator Raffel uses punctuation to create pauses and rhythm. Repetition, or the recurrence of sounds, is used to emphasize ideas and to give a sense of unity to a poem.

The Poet’s LanguageBeowulf, composed orally in Old English, was later written down—possibly recited by a poet to a scribe—in that same language. Beginning in the Middle Ages, monks began translating the poem into Latin, which was the language of scholars and the Church. Modern versions of the poem are often translated from the Latin versions. Not surprisingly, many of the original poetic qualities of the poem—the repetition, alliteration, rhythm, and improvisation—have been lost in translation.

Think Critically Before you read the excerpts that follow, use critical thinking to deepen your understanding.

1. How do you think listening to the poem would be different from reading it?

2. Relate what you read about the Anglo-Saxons on pages 16–21 with what you’ve read of the poem so far. What values and traditions do the characters share with the Anglo-Saxons?

3. Based on what you have read so far, do you think Beowulf is an epic narrative or a heroic elegy?

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37The Anglo-Saxon Period Beowulf: “Grendel’s Mother”

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Grendel’s MotherSo she reached Herot,Where the Danes slept as though already dead;Her visit ended their good fortune, reversed The bright vane1 of their luck. No female, no matter

1 vane: banner originally used to show archers the direction of the wind

How fierce, could have come with a man’s strength,Fought with the power and courage men fight with,Smashing their shining swords, their bloody,Hammer-forged blades onto boar-headed helmets,2

Slashing and stabbing with the sharpest of points.

2 boar-headed helmets: Helmets often depicted various symbolic animals; this one depicted the

image of a boar.

The soldiers raised their shields and drewThose gleaming swords, swung them aboveThe piled-up benches, leaving their mail3 shirtsAnd their helmets where they’d lain when the terror took hold of them.To save her life she moved still faster,

3 mail: type of armor made from tiny steel rings, woven together into a fabric

Took a single victim and fled from the hall,Running to the moors, discovered, but her supperAssured, sheltered in her dripping claws.She’d taken Hrothgar’s closest friend,The man he most loved of all men on earth;She’d killed a glorious soldier, cutA noble life short. No Geat could have stopped her:Beowulf and his band had been given betterBeds; sleep had come to them in a differentHall. Then all Herot burst into shouts:She had carried off Grendel’s claw. SorrowHad returned to Denmark. They’d traded deaths,Danes and monsters, and no one had won,Both had lost!

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The Battle with Grendel’s MotherHe leaped into the lake, would not wait for anyone’sAnswer; the heaving water covered himOver. For hours he sank through the waves;At last he saw the mud of the bottom.And all at once the greedy she-wolfWho’d ruled those waters for half a hundredYears discovered him, saw that a creatureFrom above had come to explore the bottomOf her wet world. She welcomed him in her claws,Clutched at him savagely but could not harm him,Tried to work her fingers through the tightRing-woven mail on his breast, but toreAnd scratched in vain. Then she carried him, armorAnd sword and all, to her home; he struggledTo free his weapon, and failed. The fightBrought other monsters swimming to seeHer catch, a host of sea beasts who beat at His mail shirt, stabbing with tusks and teethAs they followed along. Then he realized, suddenly,That she’d brought him into someone’s battle-hall,

And there the water’s heat could not hurt him,Nor anything in the lake attack him throughThe building’s high-arching roof. A brilliantLight burned all around him, the lakeItself like a fiery flame. Then he sawThe mighty water witch, and swung his sword,His ring-marked blade, straight at her head;The iron sang its fierce song,Sang Beowulf’s strength. But her guestDiscovered that no sword could slice her evilSkin, that Hrunting could not hurt her, was uselessNow when he needed it. They wrestled, she rippedAnd tore and clawed at him, bit holes in his helmet, And that too failed him; for the first time in years

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39The Anglo-Saxon Period Beowulf: “The Battle with Grendel’s Mother”

Of being worn to war it would earn no glory;It was the last time anyone would wear it. But BeowulfLonged only for fame, leaped backInto battle. He tossed his sword aside,Angry; the steel-edged blade lay whereHe’d dropped it. If weapons were useless he’d useHis hands, the strength in his fingers. So fameComes to the men who mean to win itAnd care about nothing else! He raisedHis arms and seized her by the shoulder; angerDoubled his strength, he threw her to the floor.She fell, Grendel’s fierce mother, and the Geats’Proud prince was ready to leap on her. But she rose At once and repaid him with her clutching claws,Wildly tearing at him. He was weary, that best And strongest of soldiers; his feet stumbledAnd in an instant she had him down, held helpless.Squatting with her weight on his stomach, she drew A dagger, brown with dried blood, and preparedTo avenge her only son. But he was stretched On his back, and her stabbing blade was blunted

avenge: to inflict harm in return for an injury or wrongdoing

By the woven mail shirt he wore on his chest.The hammered links held; the pointCould not touch him. He’d have traveled to the bottom of the earth,Edgetho’s son, and died there, if that shiningWoven metal had not helped—and HolyGod, who sent him victory, gave judgmentFor truth and right, Ruler of the Heavens,Once Beowulf was back on his feet and fighting. Then he saw, hanging on the wall, a heavySword, hammered by giants, strongAnd blessed with their magic, the best of all weaponsBut so massive that no ordinary man could liftIts carved and decorated length. He drew itFrom its scabbard, broke the chain on its hilt,And then, savage, now, angry

scabbard: sheath for a sword

hilt: handle of a sword

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And desperate, lifted it high over his headAnd struck with all the strength he had left,Caught her in the neck and cut it through,Broke bones and all. Her body fellTo the floor, lifeless, the sword was wetWith her blood, and Beowulf rejoiced at the sight.The brilliant light shone, suddenly,As though burning in that hall, and as bright as Heaven’s Own candle, lit in the sky. He lookedAt her home, then following along the wallWent walking, his hands tight on the sword,His heart still angry. He was hunting anotherDead monster, and took his weapon with himFor final revenge against Grendel’s viciousAttacks, his nighttime raids, overAnd over, coming to Herot when Hrothgar’sMen slept, killing them in their beds,Eating some on the spot, fifteenOr more, and running to his loathsome moorWith another such sickening meal waitingIn his pouch. But Beowulf repaid him for those visits,

Found him lying dead in his corner,Armless, exactly as that fierce fighterHad sent him out from Herot, then struck offHis head with a single swift blow. The body Jerked for the last time, then lay still. The wise old warriors who surrounded Hrothgar,Like him staring into the monsters’ lake,Saw the waves surging and bloodSpurting through. They spoke about Beowulf,All the graybeards, whispered togetherAnd said that hope was gone, that the heroHad lost fame and his life at once, and would never Return to the living, come back as triumphantAs he had left; almost all agreed that Grendel’s Mighty mother, the she-wolf, had killed him.The sun slid over past noon, went further

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41The Anglo-Saxon Period Beowulf: “The Battle with Grendel’s Mother”

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Down. The Danes gave up, leftThe lake and went home, Hrothgar with them.The Geats stayed, sat sadly, watching,Imagining they saw their lord but not believingThey would ever see him again. —Then the swordMelted, blood-soaked, dripping downLike water, disappearing like ice when the world’s Eternal Lord loosens invisibleFetters4 and unwinds icicles and frostAs only He can, He who rulesTime and seasons, He who is trulyGod. The monsters’ hall was full of

4 fetters: chains or shackles placed on the ankles

Rich treasures, but all that Beowulf took Was Grendel’s head and the hilt of the giants’Jeweled sword; the rest of that ring-marked Blade had dissolved in Grendel’s steaming Blood, boiling even after his death.And then the battle’s only survivorSwam up and away from those silent corpses;The water was calm and clean, the wholeHuge lake peaceful once the demons who’d lived in it were dead. Then that noble protector of all seamenSwam to land, rejoicing in the heavyBurdens he was bringing with him. HeAnd all his glorious band of GeatsThanked God that their leader had come back unharmed;They left the lake together. The GeatsCarried Beowulf’s helmet, and his mail shirt.Behind them the water slowly thickenedAs the monsters’ blood came seeping up.They walked quickly, happily, acrossRoads all of them remembered, leftThe lake and the cliffs alongside it, brave menStaggering under the weight of Grendel’s skull,Too heavy for fewer than four of them to handle—

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Two on each side of the spear jammed through it—Yet proud of their ugly load and determined That the Danes, seated in Herot, should see it.Soon, fourteen Geats arrivedAt the hall, bold and warlike, and with Beowulf,Their lord and leader, they walked on the mead-hallGreen. Then the Geats’ brave prince enteredHerot, covered with glory for the daringBattles he had fought . . .

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43After You Read Beowulf: “Grendel’s Mother” and “The Battle with Grendel’s Mother”

After You Read Beowulf: “Grendel’s Mother” and “The Battle with Grendel’s Mother”

Literary Lens: Alliteration, Rhythm, and RepetitionThe alliteration, rhythm, and repetition in Beowulf allowed scops to create original verse and still remember the story line. Raffel maintains these literary elements in his translation. Create a graphic organizer like the one below on a separate sheet of paper. Then complete the organizer with examples of each type of element from Beowulf.

Explore Context: Warrior SocietyThe Anglo-Saxons were warriors and lived by a code of honor. Review what you learned about their culture and society (page 18), and write a paragraph demonstrating how this code is reflected in the poem. Provide examples of the characters’ actions or beliefs that express the Anglo-Saxon culture and code of honor.

Apply and Create: Become a ScopBeowulf was originally chanted. Today, we generally read the poem. However, Benjamin Bagby has become a modern scop and enthralls his audiences with his performance of the epic—in the original Anglo-Saxon language. See a clip of his performance at www.bagbybeowulf.com/. Choose a short excerpt from the poem, and prepare to become a scop. Read the excerpt several times to get a feel for the rhythm and story. Underline words you will emphasize, and mark places where you will pause for effect. Practice chanting the excerpt to a partner. Then perform it for a small group or your class.

Read Critically

Reread the following excerpt from Beowulf. Answer the questions and support your answers with details from the passage.

For final revenge against Grendel’s viciousAttacks, his nighttime raids, over

And over, coming to Herot when Hrothgar’sMen slept, killing them in their beds,Eating some on the spot, fifteenOr more, and running to his loathsome moorWith another such sickening meal waiting

www.bagbybeowulf.com

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44 After You Read Beowulf: “Grendel’s Mother” and “The Battle with Grendel’s Mother”

In his pouch. But Beowulf repaid him for those visits,Found him lying dead in his corner,Armless, exactly as that fierce fighterHad sent him out from Herot, then struck offHis head with a single swift blow. The body

Jerked for the last time, then lay still. The wise old warriors who surrounded Hrothgar,Like him staring into the monsters’ lake,Saw the waves surging and bloodSpurting through. They spoke about Beowulf,

All the graybeards, whispered togetherAnd said that hope was gone, that the heroHad lost fame and his life at once, and would never Return to the living, come back as triumphantAs he had left; almost all agreed that Grendel’s

Mighty mother, the she-wolf, had killed him.The sun slid over past noon, went furtherDown. The Danes gave up, leftThe lake and went home, Hrothgar with them.The Geats stayed, sat sadly, watching,

Imagining they saw their lord but not believingThey would ever see him again.

—Then the swordMelted, blood-soaked, dripping downLike water, disappearing like ice when the world’s

Eternal Lord loosens invisibleFetters and unwinds icicles and frostAs only He can, He who rulesTime and seasons, He who is trulyGod. The monsters’ hall was full of

Rich treasures, but all that Beowulf took Was Grendel’s head and the hilt of the giants’Jeweled sword; . . .

1. Why does Beowulf search for Grendel and cut off his head?

2. The Geats never leave the lake. Compare their actions with those of the Danes. What conclusions can you draw about them from their actions?

3. Based on Beowulf’s actions, do you think he is a true hero? Explain using examples from the passage.

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Before You Read Beowulf: “The Battle with the Dragon” and “The Death of Beowulf”

Though the original manuscript was created around 1000 a.d., Beowulf wasn’t read or understood until 1705, when a librarian cataloged it. This sole copy, badly damaged by fire, was virtually unknown until a Danish historian commissioned a copy to be made in 1786. He then made a copy for himself, and in 1815 he published the first copy of Beowulf in Old English and Latin. By the time it was first published in English in 1833, the epic was considered a historical record.

By the twentieth century, the original manuscript had greatly deteriorated, and thousands of words and letters were lost as the burned edges of the manuscript crumbled. In 1993, Anglo-Saxon experts Kevin Kiernen and Paul Szarmach began using electronic photography and digital reproduction to study the original manuscript. Their work, known as The Electronic Beowulf, allows scholars to study the original manuscript without touching and further damaging it. The digital reproduction has also recovered some of the words that had been invisible to previous scholars. See examples of scanned images by visiting www.uky.edu/~kiernan/eBeowulf/main.htm.

Literary LensForEshadowiNg Writers use foreshadowing, hints about what will happen next or how the narrative will end, to add suspense to the plot and to draw the reader into the story.

thEmE A work’s theme is its main message. Many works contain universal themes—themes that apply to all times, cultures, or places. Beowulf’s theme can be determined by noting what the characters say and do and how they change.

protagoNist aNd aNtagoNist The main character of a literary work is often a hero, such as Beowulf. This character is called the protagonist, and is usually the person the reader identifies with most strongly. Opposing the protagonist is the antagonist, the character (or force) that stands in the hero’s way. Grendel and his mother were the antagonists in your previous reading of Beowulf. In the upcoming excerpt, Beowulf is about to meet the antagonist who will be his ruin. Be aware of the ways in which this next antagonist is portrayed.

The Poet’s LanguageOld English did not consist of many words, and the same word could have a different meaning depending on how long the vowel was held. To create new words or denote shades of meaning, nouns and verbs were joined with other words or word parts. These imaginative compound nouns, called kennings, can be found in Beowulf. The poet also used words not found in any other Old English manuscripts. Though the poet may have heard these words, some scholars believe they are his own creation. Others theorize that because it contains conventions and spellings from two different dialects, Beowulf may have been created by two different people.

Think Critically Before you read, use critical thinking to deepen your understanding.

1. Based on other heroic episodes you’ve read or seen, how do you think Beowulf will react to his next challenge?

2. How might the poet create suspense in Beowulf’s last battle?

3. Compare Beowulf to accounts you have read about real historical figures. Can you understand why scholars consider Beowulf a historical record? Why or why not?

45Before You Read Beowulf: “The Battle with the Dragon” and “The Death of Beowulf ”

http://www.uky.edu/~kiernan/eBeowulf/main.htm

http://www.uky.edu/~kiernan/eBeowulf/main.htm

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5


The Battle with the Dragon

Beowulf and his men are honored by the Danes and then

return home to Geatland. Beowulf becomes king and rules

for many years. When a dragon threatens his kingdom,

Beowulf, though old, prepares to kill the beast.

Vomiting fire and smoke, the dragonBurned down their homes. They watched in horrorAs the flames rose up: the angry monsterMeant to leave nothing alive. And the signsOf its anger flickered and glowed in the darkness,Visible for miles, tokens of its hateAnd its cruelty, spread like a warning to the GeatsWho had broken its rest. Then it hurried backTo its tower, to its hidden treasure, before dawn

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47The Anglo-Saxon Period Beowulf: “The Battle with the Dragon”

Could come. It had wrapped its flames aroundThe Geats; now it trusted in stoneWalls, and its strength, to protect it. But they would not.Then they came to Beowulf, their king, and announcedThat his hall, his throne, the best of buildings,Had melted away in the dragon’s burningBreath. Their words brought misery, Beowulf’sSorrow beat at his heart: he accusedHimself of breaking God’s law, of bringingThe Almighty’s anger down on his people.Reproach pounded in his breast, gloomyAnd dark, and the world seemed a different place.But the hall was gone, the dragon’s moltenBreath had licked across it, burned itTo ashes, near the shore it had guarded. The Geats

reproach: blame; disgrace

Deserved revenge; Beowulf, their leaderAnd lord, began to plan it, orderedA battle-shield shaped of iron, knowing thatWood would be useless, that no linden shield5

Could help him, protect him, in the flaming heat

1 linden shield: shield made out of a pale, soft wood often used in carving and furniture

Of the beast’s breath. That noble princeWould end his days on earth, soon,Would leave this brief life, but would take the dragonWith him, tear it from the heaped-up treasureIt had guarded so long. And he’d go to it alone,Scorning to lead soldiers against suchAn enemy: he saw nothing to fear, thought nothingOf the beast’s claws, or wings, or flamingJaws—he had fought, before, against worseOdds, had survived, been victorious, in harsher

scorning: refusing with contempt

Battles, beginning in Herot, Hrothgar’sUnlucky hall. He’d killed GrendelAnd his mother, swept that murdering tribeAway. And he’d fought in Higlac’s warWith the Frisians,6 fought at his lord’s side

2 Frisians: inhabitants of Frisia, an ancient region in northwestern Europe

Till a sword reached out and drank Higlac’s

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Blood, till a blade swung in the rushOf battle killed the Geats’ great king.Then Beowulf escaped, broke through FrisianShields and swam to freedom, savingThirty sets of armor from the scavengingFranks, river people who robbedThe dead as they floated by. BeowulfOffered them only his sword, endedSo many jackal lives that the fewjackal: wild dog

Who were able skulked silently home, gladTo leave him. So Beowulf swam sadly backTo Geatland, almost the only survivorOf a foolish war. Higlac’s widowBrought him the crown, offered him the kingdom,Not trusting Herdred, her son and Higlac’s,To beat off foreign invaders. But BeowulfRefused to rule when his lord’s own sonWas alive, and the leaderless Geats could chooseA rightful king. He gave HerdredAll his support, offering an openHeart where Higlac’s young son could seeWisdom he still lacked himself: warmthAnd good will were what Beowulf brought his new king. But Swedish exiles came, seekingexiles: people banished

from their native land Protection; they were rebels against Onela,Healfdane’s son-in-law and the best ring-giver7

His people had ever known. And OnelaCame too, a mighty king, marchedOn Geatland with a huge army; Herdred

3 ring-giver: A king was often called a ring-giver because he was expected to be generous and dish

out spoils of war to his thanes.

Had given his word and now he gaveHis life, shielding the Swedish strangers.Onela wanted nothing more:When Herdred had fallen that famous warriorWent back to Sweden, let Beowulf rule! “The gifts that Higlac gave me, And the land, I earned with my sword, as fate

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Allowed: he never needed DanesOr Goths or Swedes, soldiers and alliesBought with gold, bribed to his side.My word was better, and always his.In every battle my place was in front,Alone, and so it shall be forever,As long as this sword lasts, serves meIn the future as it has served me before. SoI killed Dagref, the Frank, who brought deathTo Higlac, and who looted his corpse: Higd’sNecklace, Welthow’s treasure, neverCame to Dagref’s king. The thiefFell in battle, but not on my blade.He was brave and strong, but I swept him in my arms,Ground him against me till his bones broke,Till his blood burst out. And now I shall fightFor this treasure, fight with both hand and sword.” And Beowulf uttered his final boast: “I’ve never known fear; as a youth I foughtIn endless battles. I am old, now,But I will fight again, seek fame still,If the dragon hiding in his tower daresTo face me.” Then he said farewell to his followers,Each in his turn, for the last time: “I’d use no sword, no weapon, if this beastCould be killed without it, crushed to deathLike Grendel, gripped in my hands and tornLimb from limb. But his breath will be burningHot, poison will pour from his tongue.I feel no shame, with shield and swordAnd armor, against this monster: when he comes to meI mean to stand, not run from his shootingFlames, stand till fate decidesWhich of us wins. My heart is firm,My hands calm: I need no hotWords. Wait for me close by, my friends.We shall see, soon, who will survive

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This bloody battle, stand when the fightingIs done. No one else could doWhat I mean to, here, no man but meCould hope to defeat this monster. No oneCould try. And this dragon’s treasure, his goldAnd everything hidden in that tower, will be mineOr war will sweep me to a bitter death!” Then Beowulf rose, still brave, still strong,And with his shield at his side, and a mail shirt on his breast,Strode calmly, confidently, toward the tower, underThe rocky cliffs: no coward could have walked there!And then he who’d endured dozens of desperateBattles, who’d stood boldly while swords and shieldsClashed, the best of kings, sawHuge stone arches and felt the heatOf the dragon’s breath, flooding downThrough the hidden entrance, too hot for anyoneTo stand, a streaming current of fireAnd smoke that blocked all passage. And the Geats’Lord and leader, angry, loweredHis sword and roared out a battle cry,A call so loud and clear that it reached throughThe hoary8 rock, hung in the dragon’sEar. The beast rose, angry,Knowing a man had come—and then nothing

4 hoary: ancient; commanding respect

But war could have followed. Its breath came first,A steaming cloud pouring from the stone,Then the earth itself shook. BeowulfSwung his shield into place, held itIn front of him, facing the entrance. The dragonCoiled and uncoiled, its heart urging itInto battle. Beowulf’s ancient swordWas waiting, unsheathed, his sharp and gleamingBlade. The beast came closer; both of themWere ready, each set on slaughter. The Geats’Great prince stood firm, unmoving, prepared

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Behind his high shield, waiting in his shiningArmor. The monster came quickly toward him,Pouring out fire and smoke, hurryingTo its fate. Flames beat at the ironShield, and for a time it held, protectedBeowulf as he’d planned; then it began to melt,And for the first time in his life that famous princeFought with fate against him, with gloryDenied him. He knew it, but he raised his swordAnd struck at the dragon’s scaly hide.The ancient blade broke, bit intoThe monster’s skin, drew blood, but crackedAnd failed him before it went deep enough, helped himLess than he needed. The dragon leapedWith pain, thrashed and beat at him, spoutingMurderous flames, spreading them everywhere.And the Geats’ ring-giver did not boast of gloriousVictories in other wars: his weaponHad failed him, deserted him, now when he needed itMost, that excellent sword. Edgetho’sFamous son stared at death,Unwilling to leave this world, to exchange itFor a dwelling in some distant place—a journeyInto darkness that all men must make, as deathEnds their few brief hours on earth. Quickly, the dragon came at him, encouragedAs Beowulf fell back; its breath flared,And he suffered, wrapped around in swirlingFlames—a king, before, but nowA beaten warrior. None of his comradesCame to him, helped him, his brave and nobleFollowers; they ran for their lives, fledDeep in a wood. And only one of themRemained, stood there, miserable, remembering,As a good man must, what kinship should mean. His name was Wiglaf, he was Wexstan’s son And a good soldier; his family had been Swedish,Once. Watching Beowulf, he could see

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How his king was suffering, burning. RememberingEverything his lord and cousin had given him,Armor and gold and the great estatesWexstan’s family enjoyed, Wiglaf’sMind was made up; he raised his yellowShield and drew his sword—an ancientWeapon that had once belonged to Onela’sNephew, and that Wexstan had won, killingThe prince when he fled from Sweden, sought safetyWith Herdred, and found death. And Wiglaf’s fatherHad carried the dead man’s armor, and his sword. . . .—He’d never worn That armor, fought with that sword, until BeowulfCalled him to his side, led him into war.But his soul did not melt, his sword was strong;The dragon discovered his courage, and his weapon,When the rush of battle brought them together. And Wiglaf, his heart heavy, utteredThe kind of words his comrades deserved:“I remember how we sat in the mead-hall, drinkingAnd boasting of how brave we’d be when BeowulfNeeded us, he who gave us these swordsAnd armor: All of us swore to repay him,When the time came, kindness for kindness—With our lives, if he needed them. He allowed us to join him,Chose us from all his great army, thinking Our boasting words had some weight, believingOur promises, trusting our swords. He took usFor soldiers, for men. He meant to killThis monster himself, our mighty king,Fight this battle alone and unaided,As in the days when his strength and daring dazzledMen’s eyes. But those days are over and goneAnd now our lord must lean on youngerArms. And we must go to him, while angryFlames burn at his flesh, helpOur glorious king! By almighty God,

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53The Anglo-Saxon Period Beowulf: ”The Battle with the Dragon”

I’d rather burn myself than seeFlames swirling around my lord.And who are we to carry homeOur shields before we’ve slain his enemyAnd ours, to run back to our homes with BeowulfSo hard-pressed here? I swear that nothingHe ever did deserved an endLike this, dying miserably and alone,Butchered by this savage beast: We swore That these swords and armor were each for us all!” Then he ran to his king, crying encouragementAs he dove through the dragon’s deadly fumes: “Belovéd Beowulf, remember how you boasted,Once, that nothing in the world would everDestroy your fame: fight to keep it,Now, be strong and brave, my nobleKing, protecting life and fameTogether. My sword will fight at your side!”

The dragon heard him, the man-hating monster,And was angry; shining with surging flamesIt came for him, anxious to return his visit— . Then the monster charged again, vomitingFire, wild with pain, rushed outFierce and dreadful, its fear forgotten.Watching for its chance it drove its tusksInto Beowulf’s neck; he staggered, the bloodCame flooding forth, fell like rain.

And then when Beowulf needed him mostWiglaf showed his courage, his strengthAnd skill, and the boldness he was born with. IgnoringThe dragon’s head, he helped his lordBy striking lower down. The swordSank in; his hand was burned, but the shiningBlade had done its work, the dragon’sBelching flames began to flickerAnd die away. And Beowulf drewHis battle-sharp dagger: the bloodstained old king

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Still knew what he was doing. Quickly, he cutThe beast in half, slit it apart.It fell, their courage had killed it, two nobleCousins had joined in the dragon’s death.Yet what they did all men must doWhen the time comes! But the triumph was the lastBeowulf would ever earn, the endOf greatness and life together. The woundIn his neck began to swell and grow;He could feel something stirring, burningIn his veins, a stinging venom, and knewThe beast’s fangs had left it. He fumbledAlong the wall, found a slabOf stone, and dropped down; above him he sawHuge stone arches and heavy posts,Holding up the roof of that giant hall.Then Wiglaf’s gentle hands bathedThe bloodstained prince, his glorious lord,Weary of war, and loosened his helmet. Beowulf spoke, in spite of the swollen,Livid wound, knowing he’d unwoundHis string of days on earth, seenAs much as God would grant him; all worldlyPleasure was gone, as life would go,Soon: “I’d leave my armor to my son,Now, if God had given me an heir,A child born of my body, his lifeCreated from mine. I’ve worn this crownFor fifty winters: no neighboring peopleHave tried to threaten the Geats, sent soldiersAgainst us or talked of terror. My daysHave gone by as fate willed, waitingFor its word to be spoken, ruling as wellAs I knew how, swearing no unholy oaths,Seeking no lying wars. I can leaveThis life happy; I can die, here,

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55The Anglo-Saxon Period Beowulf: “The Death of Beowulf ”

Knowing the Lord of all life has neverWatched me wash my sword in bloodBorn of my own family. BelovedWiglaf, go, quickly, findThe dragon’s treasure: we’ve taken its life,But its gold is ours, too. Hurry,Bring me ancient silver, preciousJewels, shining armor and gems,Before I die. Death will be softer,Leaving life and this people I’ve ruledSo long, if I look at this last of all prizes.”

The Death of Beowulf Then Wexstan’s son went in, as quicklyAs he could, did as the dying BeowulfAsked, entered the inner darknessOf the tower, went with his mail shirt and his sword.Flushed with victory he groped his way,A brave young warrior, and suddenly sawPiles of gleaming gold, preciousGems, scattered on the floor, cupsAnd bracelets, rusty old helmets, beautifully

flushed: reddened from emotion or exertion

Made but rotting with no hands to rubAnd polish them. They lay where the dragon left them;It had flown in the darkness, once, before fightingIts final battle. (So gold can easilyTriumph, defeat the strongest of men,No matter how deep it is hidden!) And he saw,Hanging high above, a goldenBanner, woven by the best of weaversAnd beautiful. And over everything he sawA strange light, shining everywhere,On walls and floor and treasure. NothingMoved, no other monsters appeared;He took what he wanted, all the treasuresThat pleased his eye, heavy platesAnd golden cups and the glorious banner,

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Loaded his arms with all they could hold.Beowulf’s dagger, his iron blade,Had finished the fire-spitting terrorThat once protected tower and treasuresAlike; the gray-bearded lord of the GeatsHad ended those flying, burning raidsForever. Then Wiglaf went back, anxiousTo return while Beowulf was alive, to bring himTreasure they’d won together. He ran,Hoping his wounded king, weakAnd dying, had not left the world too soon.Then he brought their treasure to Beowulf, and foundHis famous king bloody, gaspingFor breath. But Wiglaf sprinkled waterOver his lord, until the wordsDeep in his breast broke through and were heard.Beholding the treasure he spoke, haltingly: “For this, this gold, these jewels, I thankOur Father in Heaven. Ruler of the Earth—

haltingly: in a way that’s hesitant or wavering

For all of this, that His grace has given me,Allowed me to bring to my people while breathStill came to my lips. I sold my lifeFor this treasure, and I sold it well. TakeWhat I leave, Wiglaf, lead my people,Help them; my time is gone. HaveThe brave Geats build me a tomb,When the funeral flames have burned9 me, and build itHere, at the water’s edge, highOn this spit of land, so sailors can see

5 funeral flames have burned: Anglo-Saxons were often cremated, especially after Christianity was

brought to the region. Elaborate tombs were built to house the remains, and possessions were often

buried with the deceased.

This tower, and remember my name, and call itBeowulf’s tower, and boats in the darknessAnd mist, crossing the sea, will know it.” Then that brave king gave the goldenNecklace from around his throat to Wiglaf,

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57The Anglo-Saxon Period Beowulf: “The Death of Beowulf ”

Gave him his gold-covered helmet, and his rings,And his mail shirt, and ordered him to use them well: “You’re the last of all our far-flung family.Fate has swept our race away,Taken warriors in their strength and led themTo the death that was waiting. And now I follow them.” The old man’s mouth was silent, spokeNo more, had said as much as it could;He would sleep in the fire, soon. His soulLeft his flesh, flew to glory. . . . And when the battle was over Beowulf’s followersCame out of the wood, cowards and traitors,Knowing the dragon was dead. Afraid,While it spit its fires, to fight in their lord’sDefense, to throw their javelins and spears,They came like shamefaced jackals, their shieldsIn their hands, to the place where the prince lay dead,And waited for Wiglaf to speak. He was sittingNear Beowulf’s body, wearily sprinklingWater in the dead man’s face, tryingTo stir him. He could not. No one could have keptLife in their lord’s body, or turnedAside the Lord’s will: worldAnd men and all move as He orders,And always have, and always will. Then Wiglaf turned and angrily told themWhat men without courage must hear.Wexstan’s brave son stared at the traitors,His heart sorrowful, and said what he had to: “I say what anyone who speaks the truthMust say. . . . Too few of his warriors rememberedTo come, when our lord faced death, alone.And now the giving of swords, of goldenRings and rich estates, is over,Ended for you and everyone who sharesYour blood: when the brave Geats hearHow you bolted and ran none of your race

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Will have anything left but their lives. And deathWould be better for them all, and for you, than the kindOf life you can lead, branded with disgrace!”. . .

Then the Geats built the tower, as BeowulfHad asked, strong and tall, so sailorsCould find it from far and wide; workingFor ten long days they made his monument,Sealed his ashes in walls as straightAnd high as wise and willing handsCould raise them. And the riches he and WiglafHad won from the dragon, rings, necklaces,Ancient, hammered armor—allThe treasures they’d taken were left there, too,Silver and jewels buried in the sandyGround, back in the earth, againAnd forever hidden and useless to men.And then twelve of the bravest GeatsRode their horses around the tower,Telling their sorrow, telling storiesOf their dead king and his greatness, his glory,Praising him for heroic deeds, for a lifeAs noble as his name. So should all menRaise up words for their lords, warmWith love, when their shield and protector leavesHis body behind, sends his soulOn high. And so Beowulf’s followersRode, mourning their beloved leader,Crying that no better king had everLived, no prince so mild, no manSo open to his people, so deserving of praise.

British Literature: Traditions and Change

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