Substance Related Disorders Brian Smart, M.D. Harborview Medical Center.
Brian Disorders
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Transcript of Brian Disorders
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Development of Physiological Influences
• The brain
• Nerve function
• Visual perception
• Brain localization
• Psychophysics
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A. The Brain
• Australopithecus africanus
• Trephining
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Egyptians
• Threw away brain when mummifying
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Greek Doctors: Are There Animal Spirits in There?
• dissected brains and optic nerves; brain is organ of thought
• the soul is in the fourth ventricle and the "animal spirits" (intellectual, motor system) are in the brain itself (cerebrum)
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Galen’s Cell Doctrine
• Galen localized the mind to the ventricular system of the brain
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• First cell: imaginativa (imagination) and "fantasia" (fantasy)
• Second cell: "aestimativa" (judgment), "cognitativa" (thought) and "ratio" (reason)
• Third cell: "memorativa" (memory)
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Pre-Renaissance
• “Animal Spirits”
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Renaissance - da Vinci
• da Vinci’s system
• Anterior ventricle: 'intelletto' (intellect) and 'imprensiva’
• Middle ventricle: 'volonta' (will) and 'senso comune’
• Posterior ventricle: 'memoria' (memory)
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Renaissance - Descartes
• Agreed with Galen about ventricles
• Nerves are tubes with valves connected at one end to the ventricles (animal spirits) to muscles at the other end (hydraulic theory)
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B. Nerve function (electricity view)
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Whytt's (b. 1714) Reflex
• Reflexive contraction of pupil to light
• Reflexes were involuntary and depended on spinal cord
• Nervous tissue contained a sentient principle
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Galvani-Volta Debate
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• Luigi Galvani (b. 1737) claimed that he discovered animal electricity (electrical body fluid)
• Count Alessandro Volta (b. 1745) said that all that happened was that the frog conducted static electricity
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• "Galvanic skin response" – GSR
• Volta….. Volts, Voltage
• Giovanni Aldini provided basis for a novel written by a famous writer………...
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du Bois-Reymond (b. 1818)
• Discovered the action potential
• He or Galvani the "Father of Electrophysiology“?
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Sir Charles Bell (b. 1774)
• Experiments with rabbits
• Francois Magendie – experiments with puppies
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Bell-Magendie Law
• dorsal roots of spinal nerves bring in sensory information
• ventral roots carry motor fibers down to the muscles
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Johannes Muller (b. 1801)
• Directly aware only of the activity in our nerves, not external reality
• Doctrine of specific nerve energies - same stimulus applied to different sensory nerves results in different sensations
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C. Research on Visual Perception
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Hermann von Helmholtz (b. 1821)
• Medicine, physics, math, psychology, music, philosophy
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• "On the conservation of force“• Metabolism• Determined wavelength of ultraviolet light• Optics• Theory of velocity of air in open tubes
(acoustics)• Thermodynamics (Law of conservation of
energy)
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Contributions to Psychology
• Measuring the speed of the nerve impulse (REACTION TIME)
• Young-Helmholtz trichromatic color theory
• Place theory of pitch perception
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Ewald Hering (b. 1834)
• Opponent-process theory of color perception
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Hering Illusions
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Hering bow
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Jan Purkinje (b. 1787)
• Shift from cone to rod vision in twilight
• Purkinje effect in stars - red source will cease to be visible before the yellow or white source
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D. Brain Localization
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Phrenology
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Franz Gall (b. 1758); his pupil Spurzheim
• The mysterious “Miss Leisler”
• "Neither sin nor friends will ever leave me."
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Gall’s Work on Nervous System
• Nervous system is like a tree
• Distinction between gray matter (neurons) and white matter (axons)
• CNS fibers terminate in the cortex, not the medulla
• Identified origins of cranial nerves I-VIII
• Pyramidal tracts crossing brain hemispheres
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Gall’s Claim:
• Mental activities localized in the cortex
• Wanted to develop a functional anatomy and physiology of the brain, as well as a revised psychology of personality
• Led to theories concerning localization and cranioscopy
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The System of Organology
• Brain is organ of the mind
• Brain is a collection of organs representing various propensities, sentiments, faculties
• Size of each organ indicates its power
• Skull conforms to brain's shape
• Mind's functions located in different places in the brain
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How Many Faculties of Mind?
• Gall sez 27• Spurzheim sez 37
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Napoleon’s & Descartes’ Heads
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Phrenology taken over by Quacks
• Employment• Marriage prospects• Children's prospects• 1920's - “The
Psychograph”
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Problems with Phrenology
• Arbitrary choice of faculties
• Observations not fitting in explained away
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Contributions of Phrenology
• Established brain as the source of mind
• Mental functions localized in the brain
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Pierre Flourens (b. 1794)
• "An Examination of Phrenology" 1824
• Ablation technique- removal of one of six separate areas of brain
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6 Different Brain Functions
• Cerebral hemispheres - willing, judging, memory, seeing, hearing
• Cerebellum - motor coordination• Medulla oblongata - mediation of sensory/motor
functions• Corpora quadrigemina (inferior/superior colliculi)
- vision• Spinal cord - conduction• Nerves - excitation
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Flourens vs. Gall
• Flourens’ approach reflected localization, but he stressed the common action of the various parts
• Emphasis on the common unity of the entire system
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“Recovery of Function”
• Also observed recovery of mental function over time - forerunner of "neural plasticity"
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Brain Localization: The Story of Phineas Gage
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• Sept. 13, 1848 - Vermont - a deadly day for Phineas
• Iron rod entered under left cheek, exited through top of head, landed 30 yards away.
• Dr. John Harlow
• MRI analysis by Damasio shows damage in ventromedial region on left side of brain
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http://www.offoffoff.com/theater/2002/phineasgage.php3
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Language Localization in Brain
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Paul Broca (b. 1824)
• Patient named Leborgne
• Autopsy showed lesion to 3rd convolution of left frontal lobe
• Concluded this area important for speech articulation
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Broca’s Brain!
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Karl Wernicke (b. 1848)
• Damage in top left temporal lobe causes poor language comprehension (Receptive aphasia)
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Psychophysics – the Beginning of Psychology?
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Ernst Weber (b. 1795)
• Investigated 2-point thresholds for touch
• Jnd's investigated for various stimuli
• Jnd's vary by a constant ratio called “Weber Fraction”
• First to quantitatively measure the mind?
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Gustav Fechner (b. 1801)
• "Elements of Psychophysics" 1860
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• The term “Psychophysics” coined - science of studying the relation between the physical and the mental (stimulus and sensation)
• Fechner's Law• Devleoped: method of limits, method of
constant stimuli, method of average error (adjustment)