Breadwinner Moms - Social & Demographic Trends · Breadwinner Moms Mothers Are the Sole ... 3 See...

May 29, 2013

Breadwinner Moms Mothers Are the Sole or Primary Provider in Four-in-Ten Households with

Children; Public Conflicted about the Growing Trend

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1615 L St., N.W., Suite 700

Washington, D.C. 20036

Media Inquiries:

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www.pewresearch.org

1

PEW SOCIAL & DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS

www.pewsocialtrends.org

25.3

15.0

0

10

20

30

40

50

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Married mother/primary provider

Single mother

%

2011

40.4

10.8

7.3

3.5

Breadwinner Moms

Mothers Are the Sole or Primary Provider in Four-in-Ten Households with

Children; Public Conflicted about the Growing Trend

By Wendy Wang, Kim Parker and Paul Taylor

A record 40% of all households with children

under the age of 18 include mothers who are

either the sole or primary source of income for

the family, according to a new Pew Research

Center analysis of data from the U.S. Census

Bureau. The share was just 11% in 1960.

These “breadwinner moms” are made up of

two very different groups: 5.1 million (37%)

are married mothers who have a higher

income than their husbands, and 8.6 million

(63%) are single mothers.1

The income gap between the two groups is

quite large. The median total family income of

married mothers who earn more than their

husbands was nearly $80,000 in 2011, well

above the national median of $57,100 for all

families with children, and nearly four times

the $23,000 median for families led by a

single mother.2

The groups differ in other ways as well. Compared with all mothers with children under age 18,

married mothers who out-earn their husbands are slightly older, disproportionally white and

college educated. Single mothers, by contrast, are younger, more likely to be black or Hispanic,

and less likely to have a college degree.

1 Based on Pew Research Center analysis of 2011 American Community Survey, the unit of analysis is the household head; single

mothers who are not the head of household (e.g., single mothers living with parents) are not included in the count. Similarly,

married couples in which neither of the spouses is a household head are not included in the analysis. 2 The income gap between the two groups remains when using personal income as the measure. The median personal income of

married mothers who out-earn their husbands was $50,000 in 2011, compared with $20,000 for single moms. Both personal and

family income was self-reported. There is a small difference between the median personal income of single mothers and their

family income. It could be due to financial contributions of other adult family members such as a cohabiting partner or a parent.

Mother as the Sole or Primary

Provider: 1960-2011

% based on households with children under age 18

Note: Single mothers include mothers who are never married, divorced, widowed, separated, or married but the spouse is not in the household.

Source: Pew Research Center analysis of the Decennial Census and American Community Surveys (ACS) Integrated Public Use Microdata Sample (IPUMS) files

PEW RESEARCH CENTER

2

BREADWINNER MOMS


28

50

74

67

35

19

Harder Easier

Families to earn enough to live comfortably

Marriages to be successful

Parents to raise children

34

76

51

8 11

13

Depends Better off with mother home

Better off with father home

Just as well off if mother works

Just as well off if father works

The growth of both groups of mothers is tied to

women’s increasing presence in the workplace.

Women make up almost of half (47%) of the

U.S. labor force today, and the employment

rate of married mothers with children has

increased from 37% in 1968 to 65% in 2011.3

The impact the recession may have had on this

trend is unclear.4 However, a Pew Research

Center survey conducted in November 2012

found that mothers’ views about whether and

how much they would like to work had

changed significantly since 2007 (before the

recession officially began). The share of

mothers saying their ideal situation would be

to work full time increased from 20% in 2007

to 32% in 2012. And the share saying they

would prefer not to work at all fell from 29% to

20%.

A new Pew Research Center survey finds that

the public remains of two minds about the

gains mothers have made in the workplace–

most recognize the clear economic benefits to

families, but many voice concerns about the

toll that having a working mother may take on

children or even marriage. About three-

quarters of adults (74%) say the increasing

number of women working for pay has made it

harder for parents to raise children, and half

say that it has made marriages harder to

succeed. At the same time, two-thirds say it has

made it easier for families to live comfortably.

3 See Kim Parker and Wendy Wang, “Modern Parenthood: Roles of Moms and Dads Converge as They Balance Work and Family,”

Pew Research Center Social & Demographic Trends project, March 14, 2013. 4 Trend analysis is based on Decennial Census data. There may be fluctuations within each 10-year period which are not reflected

in the chart on p.1.

Women, Work and Families

% saying the increasing number of women working

for pay outside the home has made it easier/harder

for …

Note: “Hasn’t made much difference” and “Don’t know/Refused” responses not shown.

Source: Pew Research Center survey, conducted April 25-28, 2013, N=1,003.

PEW RESEARCH CENTER

The Public Differs in Role of

Fathers and Mothers

% saying children are …

Note: The questions were asked separately for mothers and fathers. Responses of “Just as well if mother/father works” and “Depends” are not shown.


PEW RESEARCH CENTER

http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/03/14/modern-parenthood-roles-of-moms-and-dads-converge-as-they-balance-work-and-family/

3



64

71

19

19

13

8

2013

2007

Big problem Small problem Not a problem

64

67

56

42

65

74

78

51

65

All

White

Non-white

18-29

30-49

50+

Rep

Dem

Ind

While the vast majority of Americans (79%)

reject the idea that women should return to

their traditional roles, 5 the new Pew Research

survey finds that the public still sees mothers

and fathers in a different light when it comes to

evaluating the best work-family balance for

children.

About half (51%) of survey respondents say

that children are better off if a mother is home

and doesn’t hold a job, while just 8% say the

same about a father.

On the topic of single mothers, most

Americans (64%) say that this growing trend is

a “big problem”; however, the share who feel

this way is down from 71% in 2007. Also,

young adults are less concerned than older

adults about the trend. About four-in-ten

adults under age 30 (42%) view it as a big

problem, compared with 65% of those in their

30s and 40s and 74% of adults who are 50 and

older.

The public’s opinions about unmarried

mothers also differ by party affiliation and

race. Republicans (78%) are more likely than

Democrats (51%) or independent voters (65%)

to say that the growing number of children

born to unwed mothers is a big problem.

Whites are more likely than non-whites to view

it as a big problem (67% vs. 56%). The views of

men and women on this issue are the same.

Data for this report are mainly from Pew

Research analysis of multiple years of Census Bureau data as well as a recent Pew Research

5 Based on a 2012 Pew Research Center survey. For more details, see ”Partisan Polarization Surges in Bush, Obama Years:

Trends in American Values 1987-2012,” Pew Research Center for the People & the Press, June 4, 2012

Public Somewhat Less Concerned

About Rising Share of Single Moms

% saying the growing number of children born to

unmarried mothers is a …


Note: “Don’t know/Refused” responses not shown.

PEW RESEARCH CENTER

Views about Unmarried Mothers


unmarried mothers is a “big problem”


PEW RESEARCH CENTER

http://www.people-press.org/2012/06/04/partisan-polarization-surges-in-bush-obama-years/


4

BREADWINNER MOMS


survey conducted by landline and cellular telephone April 25-28, 2013, among a nationally

representative sample of 1,003 adults living in the continental United States. More detailed

information about the data sources can be found in Appendix 2.

Other Key Findings

Both groups of breadwinner mothers, married and single, have grown in

size in the past five decades. Of all households with children younger than 18, the

share of married mothers who out-earn their husbands has gone up from 4% in 1960 to

15% in 2011, nearly a fourfold increase. During the same period, the share of families

led by a single mother has more than tripled (from 7% to 25%).

The total family income is higher when the mother, not the father, is the

primary breadwinner. In 2011, the median family income was nearly $80,000 for

couples in which wife is the primary breadwinner, about $2,000 more than it was for

couples in which husband is the primary breadwinner, and $10,000 more than for

couples in which spouses’ income is the same.

Married mothers are increasingly better educated than their husbands.

Even though a majority of spouses have a similar educational background, the share of

couples in which the mother has attained a higher education than her spouse has gone

up from 7% in 1960 to 23% in 2011. In two-parent families today, 61% have a mother

whose education level is similar to her husband’s, 23% have a mother who is better

educated than her husband, and 16% have a father who is better educated than his wife.

Most people reject the idea that it is bad for a marriage if a wife out-earns

her husband. When asked if they agree or disagree that it is generally better for a

marriage if a husband earns more than his wife, some 28% of survey respondents say

they agree and 63% disagree. When a similar question was asked in 1997, 40% said

they agreed. In the new survey, adults with a high school diploma or less were twice as

likely as those with a college degree (35% vs. 18%) to say it is generally better for a

marriage if a husband out-earns a wife. There were no significant differences between

men and women on this question.

Today’s single mothers are much more likely to be never married than

were single mothers in the past. The share of never married mothers among all

single mothers has increased from 4% in 1960 to 44% in 2011. During the same period,

5



the share of single mothers who had children from previous marriages has gone down

from 82% to 50%.

Never married mothers have a distinctive profile. Compared with single

mothers who are divorced, widowed or separated, never married mothers are

significantly younger, disproportionally non-white, and have lower education and

income. Close to half of never married mothers in 2011 (46%) are ages 30 and younger,

six-in-ten are either black (40%) or Hispanic (24%), and nearly half (49%) have a high

school education or less. Their median family income was $17, 400 in 2011, the lowest

among all families with children.

6

BREADWINNER MOMS


28

50

74

67

35

19

Harder Easier

Families to earn enough to live comfortably



PUBLIC VIEWS ON CHANGING GENDER ROLES

The public has mixed views about the changing role of women in the workplace and the impact

this has had on family life. Today women make up almost half of the U.S. labor force, and in

2012 nearly as many working-aged women (68%) as men (79%) were in the labor force.6 Most

Americans applaud these trends, and very few would favor a return to more traditional gender

roles. In a 2012 Pew Research survey, only 18% of all adults agreed that “women should return

to their traditional roles in society.” Fully eight-in-ten adults (79%) rejected this idea.7

When it comes to mothers of young children, the public is more conflicted. Relatively few

(21%) think the trend toward more mothers of young children working outside the home is a

good thing for our society8, and only 16% say having a mother who works full time is the ideal

situation for a young child.9

A new Pew Research Center

survey, conducted April 25-

28, 2013, finds that the

public remains of two minds

about the gains women have

made in the workplace–most

recognize the clear economic

benefits to families, but at

the same time many voice

concerns about the toll

having a working mother

may take on children.

Respondents in the new poll

were asked how the

increasing number of women

working for pay outside the home has affected different dimensions of family life. Fully two-

thirds (67%) say this change has made it easier for families to earn enough money to live

6 Based on Pew Research Center tabulations of Bureau of Labor Statistics data. For a more detailed discussion of trends in women

in the labor force, see Ibid. “Modern Parenthood: Roles of Moms and Dads Converge as They Balance Work and Family Life.” 7 See Ibid. “Partisan Polarization Surges in Bush, Obama Years: Trends in American Values 1987-2012.” 8 See Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends project, “The Decline of Marriage and Rise of New Families,” Nov. 8,

2012. 9 See Ibid. “Modern Parenthood: Roles of Moms and Dads Converge as They Balance Work and Family Life.”

Women, Work and Families

% saying the increasing number of women working for pay outside the

home has made it easier/harder for …

Note: “Hasn’t made much difference” and “Don’t know/Refused” responses not shown.


PEW RESEARCH CENTER



http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2010/11/18/the-decline-of-marriage-and-rise-of-new-families/


7



60

36

18

78

54

30

18-29 30 and older



Families to earn enough to live

comfortably

comfortably. About three-in-ten (28%) say this change has made it harder for families to earn

enough, and 2% say it hasn’t made much difference in this regard.

While this trend may be beneficial for family finances, the public thinks having more women in

the workplace has not had a positive effect on child rearing and even marriage. Roughly three-

quarters of adults (74%) say the increasing number of women working for pay has made it

harder for parents to raise children. Only 19% say this has made it easier to raise children, and

2% say it hasn’t made much difference.

Half of all adults say the trend toward more women working has made it harder for marriages

to be successful. Only about one-third (35%) say this change has made it easier for marriages

to be successful, and 5% say it hasn’t made much difference.

These attitudes have changed somewhat over the past decade and a half. In a survey conducted

by the Washington Post, the Kaiser Family Foundation and Harvard University in 1997, most

adults saw the economic benefits of having more women in the workplace: 60% said this trend

made it easier for families to earn enough money to live comfortably. That share is even higher

today (67%).

Compared with current attitudes, the public

had a more negative assessment in 1997 of the

effect this trend was having on children and

marriage. Fully 82% said having more women

working for pay outside the home made it

harder for parents to raise children (compared

with 74% today), and 67% said this trend made

it harder for marriages to be successful (vs.

50% today).

There is no significant gender gap in views

about how having more women in the

workplace affects marriage and child rearing.

However, men are more likely than women to

see the economic benefits of this trend.

There are significant differences of opinion

across age groups. Young adults (those ages

Young Adults Differ in Views about

Working Women

% saying the increasing number of women working

for pay outside the home has made it harder for …


PEW RESEARCH CENTER

8

BREADWINNER MOMS


64

19

13

Big problem

Small problem

Not a problem

18-29) are less likely than older adults to see negative consequences from this trend and more

likely to see positive effects.

For example, while 78% of those adults ages 30 and older say having more women in the

workforce has made it harder for parents to raise children, only 60% of those ages 18-29 agree

with this assessment. Similarly, while more than half (54%) of adults ages 30 and older say the

rising share of women in the workplace has made it harder for marriages to be successful, only

36% of young adults agree. Not surprisingly, there are also large gaps by age in the incidence

levels of marriage and parenting. Among the survey respondents, only about one-quarter

(26%) of those ages 18-29 reported having a child under age 18. This compares with 66% of

those ages 30-49. Roughly one-in-five (19%) of those under age 30 said they were married,

compared with more than half (58%) of those ages 30 and older.

When it comes to earning enough money to live comfortably, young adults (79%) are more

likely than those ages 30 and older (64%) to say having more women working outside the

home has made this easier to accomplish.

The Rising Share of Single Mothers

When it comes to the rising share of single

mothers, the public takes a mostly negative

view. About six-in-ten adults (64%) say the

growing number of children born to unmarried

mothers is a big problem. An additional 19%

say this is a small problem, and 13% say this is

not a problem at all.

Opinions on this issue have softened somewhat

in recent years. In a 2007 Pew Research

survey, 71% of adults said the rising share of

single mothers was a big problem, and only 8%

said it wasn’t a problem at all.10

In the current survey, whites are more likely

10 See Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends project, “Fewer Mothers Prefer Full-time Work: From 1997 to 2007,”

July 12, 2007.

Public Has Concerns about Rise in

Unmarried Mothers


unmarried mothers is a …


PEW RESEARCH CENTER

http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2007/07/12/fewer-mothers-prefer-full-time-work/

9



51%

34%

13%

Better off with mother home

Just as well off if mother works

Depends (VOL.)

than non-whites to see this trend as a problem. Some 67% of whites compared with 56% of

non-whites say the growing number of children born to unmarried mothers is a big problem.11

Young adults have much different views on this issue than do middle-aged and older adults.

Only 42% of those ages 18-29 view the rising share of unmarried mothers as a big problem. By

contrast, 65% of those ages 30-49 say this is a big problem, as do 74% of those ages 50 and

older. Among young adults, most say this trend is either a small problem (35%) or not a

problem at all (19%).

What’s Best for Children?

In 2012, roughly two-thirds (65%) of women

with children younger than age 6 were either

employed or looking for work. This share is up

dramatically from 39% in 1975. While working

outside the home is now more the norm than

the exception for mothers of young children,

the public remains conflicted about this trend.

In the new Pew Research poll, 51% of the

adults surveyed said children are better off if

their mother is home and doesn’t hold a job,

while only 34% said children are just as well off

if their mother works. An additional 13% of

respondents volunteered that it “depends” on

the circumstances.12

A decade ago, the public felt even more

strongly that the best thing for children was to

have a mother who stayed home. In a 2003

CBS News/New York Times survey, 61% said

children are better off if their mother doesn’t

hold a job, while 29% said children were just as

well off if their mother worked.

There is a gender gap on this question: 45% of women say children are better off if their

mother is at home, and 38% say children are just as well off if their mother works. Among

11 Due to limitations in sample sizes, “non-whites” includes Hispanics (regardless of their race). 12 The question did not specify the age of the children.

Mother’s Role and Children’s

Wellbeing


Source: Pew Research Center survey, conducted April 25-28, 2013, n=511 (Form 1 respondents only). “Don’t know/Refused” responses shown but not labeled.

PEW RESEARCH CENTER

10

BREADWINNER MOMS


8%

11%

Better off with father home

Just as well off if father works

Depends (VOL.)

76%

men, 57% say children are better off if their mother is at home, while 29% say they are just as

well off if their mother works.

There is an age gap on this question as well. Again, young adults express a different set of

views than their older counterparts. Nearly half (46%) of those under age 30 say children are

just as well off if their mother works, while 37% say they are better off with a mother who stays

home. Among those ages 30 and older, the balance of opinion is just the opposite: 55% say

children are better off if their mother is home, and 31% say they are just as well off with a

working mother.

The public is not conflicted at all about

whether fathers should work or stay home with

their children. Fully 76% say children are just

as well off if their father works, while only 8%

say children are better off if their father is

home and doesn’t hold a job. An additional 11%

say it depends on the situation.

Views on whether fathers should work or stay

at home do not differ by gender or age. Equal

shares of men and women (76%) say children

are just as well off if their father works.

Similarly, 74% of young adults and 77% of

those ages 30 and older agree that having a

father who works outside the home is not

harmful to children.13

13 The two questions: “Do you think children are better off if their mother is home …” and “Do you think children are better off if

their father is home …” were rotated by form in the survey. Half of the sample was asked about mothers first, while the other half

was asked about fathers first. The rotation was put in place to avoid having all respondents make a direct comparison between

mothers and fathers. The percentages reported here for mothers are based only on Form 1 respondents (who were asked about

mothers first), because that form was more comparable to the 2003 CBS News/New York Times trend. The percentages for

fathers are based on the full sample, to avoid any bias that might be introduced by question ordering.

Father’s Role and Children’s

Wellbeing


Source: Pew Research Center survey, conducted April 25-28, 2013, N=1,003. “Don’t know/Refused” responses shown but not labeled.

PEW RESEARCH CENTER

11



63

58

28

40

Disagree Agree

2013

1997

What’s Best for Marriage?

These days, in most two-parent households (59%), both the mother and the father work

outside the home.14 In a majority of those households, the father has a higher income than the

mother, but for a growing share of these couples, the mother out-earns the father.

In the new Pew Research survey, respondents were asked whether they agreed or disagreed

that it’s generally better for a marriage if the husband earns more money than his wife. About

three-in-ten adults (28%) said they agree with this statement, while 63% said they disagree.

When the same question was asked in 1997, a significantly higher share of adults (40%) agreed

that it’s best for a marriage if a husband out-earns his wife, while 58% disagreed.15

In the current poll, similar shares of men (62%) and women (63%) reject the notion that it’s

best for a marriage if the husband out-earns

his wife. And solid majorities of younger and

middle-aged adults express the same view.

Adults ages 65 and older are somewhat more

conflicted about this. Among that age group,

some 37% agree that it’s better for a marriage

if the husband earns more money than his

wife, and 51% disagree.

College graduates are among the least likely to

agree that it’s better for a marriage if the

husband out-earns his wife—only 18% support

this view. Fully 75% of college graduates

disagree with this notion. Among those with a

high school diploma or less, roughly one-third

(35%) agree that it’s better for a marriage if

the husband has a higher income, while 54%

disagree.

14 Based on Pew Research analysis of American Community Survey 2011. See Appendix 1 for historical data. Some two-parent

households are headed by same-sex couples (rather than a mother and a father). The Pew Research Survey does not allow for

analysis of same-sex couples, because respondents are not asked about their sexual orientation. 15 In the 1997 survey, this question was asked in a somewhat different context. The statement was part of a list of items and was

asked near the end of long survey with many questions about work, gender and family. Comparisons to the 1997 findings should

be made with caution.

Does It Matter Who Earns More?

% saying they agree/disagree that “It’s generally

better for a marriage if the husband earns more than

his wife”

Source: For 2013, Pew Research Center survey, conducted April 25-28, 2013, N=1,003. For 1997, Washington Post/Kaiser Family Foundation/Harvard survey, conducted Aug 14-Sept 7, 1997, N=1,202.

Notes: Trend should be interpreted with caution, due to differences in question order and context. “Don’t know/Refused” responses not shown.

PEW RESEARCH CENTER

12

BREADWINNER MOMS


3.8

22.5

94.8

74.9

0

20

40

60

80

100

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2011

Father makes more

Mother makes more

MARRIED MOTHERS WHO OUT-EARN THEIR HUSBANDS

Married mothers are more likely than before

to be the primary provider in the family.

Among married couples with children, the

proportion in which the wife’s income tops her

husband’s has increased from about 4% in

1960 to 23% in 2011.16 By contrast, the share of

couples in which the husband makes more

than his wife has fallen about 20 percentage

points, from 95% in 1960 to 75% in 2011. 17

One factor directly related to mothers’ rising

income is their increased employment rate.

The share of employed married mothers has

increased dramatically since the 1960s, which

results in more families with two working

parents.18 In 2011, nearly six-in-ten married

couples with children had two incomes, up

from a quarter in 1960. The share in which the

father is the breadwinner and mother is the

homemaker, by contrast, has fallen from about

70% in 1960 to 31% in 2011.

Rising education levels among women can also contribute to the increased share of married

mothers who out-earn their husbands. Even though most people are married to someone with

a similar educational background, the number of couples in which the wife is better educated

than her husband has increased. Among all married couples with children in 1960, about 16%

had a husband who was better educated than his wife and the opposite was true for 7% of

couples. About five decades later, the pattern has flipped: In about 23% of couples, it is the

16 The unit of analysis is the household head, therefore married couples in which neither spouse is the head of household are not

included. For more details, please see Appendix 2. 17 Total personal income in the census includes each respondent’s total pre-tax personal income or losses from all sources for the

previous year. For the American Community Survey, the reference period was the past 12 months. Each person has an income,

regardless of his or her employment status. The value of income could be zero or negative. 18 Employment status in the Census/ACS data is measured for the previous week. For more information on mothers’ employment

status, see Ibid. “Modern Parenthood: Roles of Moms and Dads Converge as They Balance Work and Family.”

Who Makes More in the Family?

1960-2011

% based on married couples with children under age

18

Note: The category of father and mother having the same income not shown.


PEW RESEARCH CENTER


13



15.6

16.5

6.8

22.7

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Mother more educated than father

Father more educated than mother

2011

Same education

wife who has attained a higher education level

than her husband, and among 17% of families

the husband is better educated than the wife.19

The higher education of mothers relative to

their spouses is correlated with the higher

incidence of mothers who out-earn their

husbands. In 2011, among couples in which

the wife has more education than the husband,

38% of wives have higher income than their

husbands. When the spouses have the same

education, some 23% of wives make more

money than their husbands. And when the

husband has higher education, only 14% of

mothers make more than their husbands.

Despite the fact that mothers are generally

more educated than their husbands today, a

majority of fathers still earn more than their

wives. The share of couples in which the

husband’s income exceeds the wife’s was about

75% in 2011. This in part reflects different

employment rates between married parents:

about 65% of married mothers were employed in 2011, compared with about 90% of fathers.

But it also reflects different earning patterns among men and women. Even in dual income

families in which both fathers and mothers are working, 70% of these families consist of

fathers who earn more than mothers.20

Characteristics of Married Mothers Who Out-earn their Husbands

Married mothers who out-earn their husbands are a highly educated group. Nearly half (49%)

have a college degree or higher. This share is significantly higher than it is among women

whose husbands are the primary breadwinners (37%) and among those who make the same

level of income as their husbands (39%).

19 When comparing education level between fathers and moms, education is measured in three categories: high school or less,

some college, and college or more. 20 One possible reason is that women with young children are more likely to work part time than their partners. Among dual

income families, fathers on average spend 42 hours at paid work, while mothers spend 31 hours at paid work. For more

information, see Ibid. “Modern Parenthood: Roles of Moms and Dads Converge as They Balance Work and Family.”

Mothers Are Increasingly More

Educated than Fathers

% based on married couples with children under age

18

Note: Education is measured in three categories: High school or less, some college, college or more. The combined category of father and mother having the same education not shown.


PEW RESEARCH CENTER


14

BREADWINNER MOMS


About 65% of married

mothers who out-earn their

husbands are white; this

share is higher than the

average of all mothers (60%),

but slightly lower than it is

among married mothers

whose husbands make more

(67%).

Married black mothers are

more likely to be the primary

breadwinner than to be

mothers whose husbands

have a higher income. The

share of black mothers

among those who out-earn

their husbands is 10%,

compared with 6% among

couples where the husband is

the primary breadwinner.

Compared with married

mothers whose income is less than or equal to that of their husbands, mothers who out-earn

their husbands are somewhat older. About 14% of them are ages 30 or younger, and a majority

(67%) are in their 30s through age 46, an additional 19% are ages 47 to 65. By contrast, about

17% of mothers in the other two groups are ages 30 or younger, and their shares of adult ages

47 to 65 are lower. In addition, children of mothers who out-earn their husbands are slightly

older than those in other type of families. The average age of youngest child is 7.6 for mothers

who are the primary breadwinner, 7.2 for families in which fathers are the primary

breadwinner, and 7.3 for families with both parents equally contributing to the family income.

A Comparison of Married Mothers

% based on mothers with children under age 18

All Mothers Husbands earn more

Same as husbands

Out-earn husbands

Age % % % %

15-30 19.1 16.8 17.4 13.9

31-46 63.9 65.6 65.9 66.8

47-65 17.0 17.6 16.7 19.4

Race

White 60.3 66.6 58.8 64.9

Black 12.4 5.5 7.6 10.2

Hispanic 18.9 18.7 21.3 14.8

Asian 6.1 7.2 10.6 7.9

Education

College or more 33.5 36.6 38.6 48.5

Some college 33.7 31.7 29.9 29.8

HS grad or less 32.8 31.7 31.5 21.7

Note: Mothers ages 66 and older not shown. Asians include Pacific islanders. Whites, blacks and Asians include only non-Hispanics. Hispanics are of any race.

Source: Pew Research Center analysis of 2011 American Community Survey Integrated Public Use Microdata Sample (IPUMS) files

PEW RESEARCH CENTER

15



$79,800

$78,000

$70,000

Mother makes more

Father makes more

Same income

Among married couples with children, the total

family income is highest when the mother, not

the father, is the primary provider. In 2011, the

median family income is nearly $80,000 for

couples in which wife is the primary

breadwinner, about $2,000 more than it is for

couples in which husband is the primary

breadwinner and $10,000 more than it is for

couples in which the spouses’ incomes are

identical.

This is related to the employment

arrangements between the couples. In families

where the mother out-earns the father, about

seven-in-ten (71%) have two working parents

and 22% consist of couples in which the

mother is the sole earner of the family.

However, when the father out-earns the mother, he is more likely to be the sole breadwinner.

In about four-in-ten of these families (41%), only the father is employed, while in 54% of these

families, both the mother and the father are employed.

Family Income by Who Provides

More

Median family income for married couples with

children in 2011

Note: Based on all two-parent families with own child(ren) under age 18 in the household.

Source: Pew Research Center analysis of 2011 American Community Survey (ACS) Integrated Public Use Microdata Sample (IPUMS) files

PEW RESEARCH CENTER

16

BREADWINNER MOMS


67%

30%

3%

Wife makes more

Husband makes more

Same

Income

16%

26%

57% Wife

Husband

Same

Education

Income and Education among Newlyweds

The rise of married mothers who out-earn

their husbands is a part of a broader trend of

wives’ increasing economic power relative to

their husbands. Today, in nearly one-quarter

of married couples with or without children

(24%) the wife is the primary breadwinner.21

The share of “breadwinner wives” is even

higher among recently married couples. In

2011, three-in-ten newlywed couples consisted

of a bride whose income was higher than that

of her husband.

Today’s newlywed women are generally better

educated than their husbands. In 2011, the

wife’s education level was higher than the

husband’s in 26% of newlywed couples. In

only 16% of couples did the husband’s

educational attainment exceed that of his wife.

For a majority of newlyweds (57%), the

husband and the wife had a similar level of

education.

Despite these education gains for women, even

among newlywed couples, the most common

situation remains for the groom to earn more

than the bride (67% of couples fell into this

category in 2011).

21 An earlier Pew Research Center report showed that among native-born 30- to 44-year-olds in 2007, 22% of husbands had

wives whose income was higher than theirs. See Richard Fry and D’Vera Cohn, “Women, Men and the New Economics of

Marriage,” Pew Research Center Social & Demographic Trends project, Jan. 19, 2010.

Newlyweds in 2011: Which Spouse

Has More …

Source: Pew Research Center analysis of the American Community Surveys (ACS) 2011 Integrated Public Use Microdata Sample (IPUMS) files

PEW RESEARCH CENTER

http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2010/01/19/women-men-and-the-new-economics-of-marriage/

http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2010/01/19/women-men-and-the-new-economics-of-marriage/

17



1.4

12.8

11.2

0

10

20

30

40

50

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Divorced, separated, widowed

%

25.3

Never married

2011

SINGLE MOTHERS

Single mothers are made up of two major

groups: one consists of mothers with children

from a previous marriage, and the other

consists of mothers who have never been

married.22 There is also a small group of

mothers who are married but whose spouses

are not living in the household. In the past five

decades, the share of never married mothers

among all families with children has increased

from less than 1% to 11%. The share of mothers

who are divorced, separated or widowed

increased in the 1960s and 1970s and has

remained relatively stable since 1980, hovering

around 12% to 13% in the past three decades.

These patterns are tied to broader long-term

trends in non-marital births and divorce.

According to the data from the National Center

for Health Statistics, the share of births to

unmarried women rose to 41% in 2010 from

5% in 1960. At the same time, the divorce rate

rose sharply in the 1960s and 1970s and has

declined since 1980.23 A recent Census Bureau report shows that in 2011, 36% of mothers who

gave birth in the preceding year were unmarried. And a majority of these women (87%) had

never been married.24

22 By definition, single mothers do not have a partner to help in raising their children, and therefore they become the sole

provider for the family by default. In some cases, these mothers may live with an unmarried partner who could potentially

contribute to their household income. The American Community Survey doesn’t have direct measures about respondents’

unmarried partner. According to demographic data from the American Time Use survey of 2003-2011, among parents ages 18 to

64 with children under ages 18 at home, about 4% live with a partner. For more details, see Ibid. “Modern Parenthood: Roles of

Moms and Dads Converge as They Balance Work and Family.” 23 See Ibid. “The Decline of Marriage and Rise of New Families.” For updated rate of births to unmarried women, see “Births: Final

Data for 2010,” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Vital Statistics Report, Aug. 28, 2012. 24 See Rachel M. Shattuck and Rose M. Kreider, “Social and Economic Characteristics of Currently Unmarried Women with a

Recent Birth: 2011,” American Community Survey Reports, U.S. Census Bureau, May 2013.

Single Mothers, 1960-2011

% based on households with children under age 18

Note: Single mothers who are married but the spouse is not in the household are shown but not labeled.


PEW RESEARCH CENTER



http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2010/11/18/the-decline-of-marriage-and-rise-of-new-families/

http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr61/nvsr61_01.pdf

http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr61/nvsr61_01.pdf

http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-21.pdf

http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-21.pdf

18

BREADWINNER MOMS


82%

14%

4%

Never Married

Divorced, separated, widowed

Spouse absent

1960

6%

50% 44%

Divorced, Separated,Widowed

Never Married

2011 Spouse absent

As a result, today’s single

mothers are much more

likely to be never married

than their counterparts in

the past. In 1960, of all single

mothers, more than eight-in-

ten (82%) were divorced,

separated or widowed. An

additional 14% were married,

but their spouses were not

living in the household. Only

4% of all single mothers had

never been married.

The makeup of this group

has changed dramatically

since the 1960s. By 2011, the

share of single mothers who

had never been married had

reached to 44%, while half of

all single mothers were

divorced, separated or

widowed.

Characteristics of

Single Mothers

Compared with all mothers

with children under age 18,

single mothers overall are

younger, black or Hispanic,

and less likely to have a

college degree.

However, there are

significant differences

between single mothers who

have never married and

A Comparison of Single Mothers


All mothers All single mothers

Never married

Divorced,

separated, widowed

Age % % % %

15-30 19.1 26.8 45.5 11.0

31-46 63.9 58.7 48.5 67.1

47-65 17.0 14.5 6.0 21.9

Race

White 60.3 45.3 31.5 58.1

Black 12.4 27.5 40.1 17.2

Hispanic 18.9 21.7 23.5 19.3

Asian 6.1 2.3 1.3 2.6

Education

College or more 33.5 18.0 11.4 23.3

Some college 33.7 40.4 39.7 41.6

HS grad or less 32.8 41.6 49.0 35.1

Note: Mothers ages 66 and older are not shown. Asians include Pacific islanders. Whites, blacks and Asians include only non-Hispanics. Hispanics are of any race.


PEW RESEARCH CENTER

The Makeup of Single Mothers, 1960-2011

Among all single mothers with children under age 18

Note: Separated and widowed mothers are included in divorced, etc.


PEW RESEARCH CENTER

19



$57,100

$29,000

$17,400

All households with children

Divorced, Separated,Widowed

Never married

those who have children from previous marriages. Never married mothers are significantly

younger: About 46% of them are ages 30 or younger; and nearly half are in their 30s and 40s.

By contrast, only 11% of divorced, separated or widowed mothers are ages 30 or younger. A

majority of them are in their 30s through age 46 (67%), and about 22% are ages 47 to 65.

Never married mothers are disproportionally racial and ethnic minorities. As of 2011, about

40% of never married mothers were black (compared with 12% of all mothers), 24% were

Hispanic (compared with 19% of all mothers), and 32% were white (compared with 60% of all).

There is much less of a racial skew among mothers who are divorced, separated or widowed;

17% of them were black, 19% were Hispanic and 58% were white.

The two groups of single mothers also differ by

education. Nearly half of never married

mothers (49%) have a high school education or

less, compared with 35% among mothers who

are divorced, widowed or separated. The share

of college graduates is higher among divorced

mothers (23%) than among never married

mothers (11%).

Even though single mothers as a whole have

the lowest income among all families with

children, never married single mothers are

particularly disadvantaged economically. In

2011, the median family income for never

married mothers was $17,400, only slightly

over the poverty threshold of $15,504 for

families with one adult and one child, but

below $18,123, the threshold for families with

one adult and two children.25

APPENDICES:

25 Based on 2011 Poverty Thresholds, U.S. Census Bureau.

Family Income of Two Types of

Single Mothers

Median family income in 2011

Note: Based on families with own child(ren) under age 18 in the household.


PEW RESEARCH CENTER

http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/data/threshld/index.html

20

BREADWINNER MOMS


24.6

58.6

69.7

31.2

1.6 6.7

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

Only father employed

Dual income

2011

Only mother employed

1. ADDITIONAL CHARTS

Employment Arrangements among

Couples, 1960-2011

% of married couples with children under age 18


PEW RESEARCH CENTER

21



$57,100

$79,800

$78,000

$70,000

$35,000

$23,000

Two Parent-Mother makes more

Two Parent-Father makes more

Two Parent-Same income

Single father

Single mother

All households with children under age 18

Family Income by Who Provides

More for the Family

Median family income in 2011

Note: Based on all families with own child(ren) under age 18 in the household.


PEW RESEARCH CENTER

22

BREADWINNER MOMS


A Comparison of Mothers in Different Family Arrangements


All Mothers

Married/

Husbands earn more

Married/

Earn same as husbands

Married/

Out-earn husbands Single Mothers

Age % % % % %

Millennials (15-30) 19.1 16.9 17.4 13.9 26.8

Gen X (31-46) 63.9 65.6 65.9 66.8 58.7

Boomers (47-65) 17.0 17.6 16.7 19.4 14.5

Race

White 60.3 66.6 58.8 64.9 45.3

Black 12.4 5.5 7.6 10.2 27.5

Hispanic 18.9 18.7 21.3 14.8 21.7

Asian 6.1 7.2 10.6 7.9 2.3

Education

College or more 33.5 36.6 38.6 48.5 18.0

Some college 33.7 31.7 29.9 29.8 40.4

HS grad or less 32.8 31.7 31.5 21.7 41.6

Note: Mothers ages 66 and older are not shown. The reference year for generations is 2011. The Millennial generation refers to those born after 1980; they are the first generation coming of age in the new millennium. Generation X covers people born from 1965 through 1980. Asians include Pacific islanders. Whites, blacks and Asians include only non-Hispanics. Hispanics are of any race.


PEW RESEARCH CENTER

23



6.2

24.3

0

10

20

30

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2011

Married Women Who Make More

than their Husbands, 1960-2011

% of all married couples


PEW RESEARCH CENTER

24

BREADWINNER MOMS


2. DATA & METHODOLOGY

Decennial Census and American Community Survey

Analysis of the characteristics of mothers, married couples and newlyweds are based on the

most recent American Community Survey (ACS) data (2011). The data set was obtained from

the IPUMS-USA database26 (http://www.ipums.org/) and constructed by the Pew Research

Center.

The analysis of historical trends is based on microdata from the Decennial Censuses of 1960,

1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000 and the American Community Surveys (ACS) of 2010 and 2011.

The microdata files were obtained from the IPUMS-USA database. Data are a 1% sample of the

U.S. population for the five decennial censuses and ACS.

Except for 1960, the data are limited to the head of the household ages 15 and older. The head

of household were ages 14 and older in 1960. The spousal information is attached to the

household head if that person’s marital status is “married, spouse present.”

The American Community Survey is a household survey developed by the U.S. Census Bureau

to replace the long form of decennial census program. It is collected throughout the year using

mailed questionnaires, telephone interviews, and visits from Census Bureau field

representatives to about 3 million household addresses annually.

Parents with children under age 18: This refers to people who have at least one “own”

child under age 18 in the household. “Own” children in the Census Bureau data are biological

children, stepchildren or adopted children.

Mothers who are the sole or primary provider (Breadwinner moms): The

breadwinner mothers consist of two groups of women with children under age 18: One is

married and their income is higher than their husband’s, and the other is single (including

women who are never married, divorced, separated, widowed, and married but with spouse

absent from the household). Because the information about personal earnings (includes wages

or income from own business or farm for the previous year) was not available for samples prior

to 1990, the total personal income (INCTOT), instead of total personal earned income

(INCEARN), was used to compare the earning power between the husbands and wives.

26 Steven Ruggles, J. Trent Alexander, Katie Genadek, Ronald Goeken, Matthew B. Schroeder and Matthew Sobek. Integrated

Public Use Microdata Series: Version 5.0 [Machine-readable database]. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 2010.

http://www.ipums.org/

25



According to the Census Bureau, total personal income (INCTOT) includes each respondent’s

total pre-tax personal income or losses from all sources for the previous year.

Married population: The currently married population is selected as individuals whose

marital status is “married, spouse present.” The spouse must be present in the data set to

ascertain his/her education and income information. In these data sets all married couples

consist of a man and a woman. The unit of analysis in this report is the head of the household,

the married couples in which neither of the spouses is a household head are not included in

this study. The IPUMS database includes linkages of spouse records and supplies “attached

variables” that place the value for the spouse’s variable on each record. However, for a married

person whose spouse is not in the household (married, spouse absent), the spousal information

is not available.

Newly married population: The newly married population is a subset of the currently

married population drawn from ACS 2011. Beginning in 2008, the ACS includes questions

related to date of marriage. One question asked respondents if they had been married (or

divorced or widowed) in the “past 12 months.”27 Those saying they had married are the basis

for the analyses of “newlyweds” and “new marriages” in this report.

Race and ethnicity: Unless otherwise noted, the terms “whites,” “blacks,” and “Asians”

exclude the non-Hispanic components of their populations.

Weighting: All estimates have been weighted to reflect the actual population.

Public Opinion Survey

The survey findings presented in this report are based on an omnibus survey, conducted April

25 to 28, 2013, with a nationally representative sample of 1,003 adults living in the continental

United States. Telephone interviews were conducted by landline (500) and cell phone (503,

including 237 without a landline phone). The survey was conducted by Princeton Survey

Research Associates International (PSRAI). Interviews were done in English by Princeton Data

Source. Statistical results are weighted to correct known demographic discrepancies. The

margin of sampling error for the complete set of weighted data is plus or minus 3.5 percentage

points at the 95% confidence level.

27 Because each year’s ACS is an aggregation of 12 monthly samples, responses to this question cannot be assigned to a specific

year or set of months. Thus the marriages are reported as occurring in the “previous year.”

26

BREADWINNER MOMS


3. TOPLINE QUESTIONNAIRE

PEW SOCIAL & DEMOGRAPHIC TRENDS APRIL 2013 BREADWINNER MOTHERS OMNIBUS SURVEY

FINAL TOPLINE APRIL 25-28, 2013

TOTAL N=1,003

NOTE: ALL NUMBERS ARE PERCENTAGES. THE PERCENTAGES GREATER THAN ZERO BUT LESS THAN 0.5% ARE REPLACED BY AN ASTERISK (*). COLUMNS/ROWS MAY NOT TOTAL 100% DUE TO ROUNDING. UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED, ALL TRENDS REFERENCE SURVEYS FROM THE PEW RESEARCH CENTER. Now a few questions about marriage and family. ASK ALL: SD.1 In recent decades, the number of women working for pay outside the home has increased greatly. For each of the

following aspects of life, please tell me whether you think this change has made things easier or harder. (First/Next) [READ AND RANDOMIZE] [IF NECESSARY: Has the increase in the number of women working for pay outside the home made this easier or harder?]

a. For parents to raise children

Total

W. Post/ Kaiser/Harvard

Aug 199728 19 Easier 15 74 Harder 82 2 Hasn’t made much difference (VOL.) 1 5 Don’t know/Refused (VOL.) 1 (N=1,202)

b. For families to earn enough money to live comfortably

Total


Aug1997 67 Easier 60 28 Harder 37 2 Hasn’t made much difference (VOL.) 2 4 Don’t know/Refused (VOL.) 1

c. For marriages to be successful

Total


Aug 1997 35 Easier 26 50 Harder 67 5 Hasn’t made much difference (VOL.) 4

10 Don’t know/Refused (VOL.) 3

28 In 1997, the question stem was worded as follows. “In recent years, the number of women working for pay outside the home

has increased greatly …” The 1997 question included two additional items: “For women to lead satisfying lives,” and “For men to

lead satisfying lives.” All five items were randomized.

27



ASK ALL: EMPLOY Are you now employed full time, part time, or not employed?

Total

45 Employed full time 12 Employed part time 42 Not employed * Don't know/Refused (VOL.)

ASK ALL: M.1 Are you currently married, living with a partner, divorced, separated, widowed, or have you never been married?

(IF R SAYS “SINGLE,” PROBE TO DETERMINE WHICH CATEGORY IS APPROPRIATE)

Total

49 Married 7 Living with a partner 9 Divorced 3 Separated 7 Widowed

25 Never been married * Don't know/Refused (VOL.)

ASK ALL: P.1 Do you have any children under age 18? IF RESPONDENT VOLUNTEERS THAT THEY HAVE

STEPCHILDREN, ASK: Do you consider yourself (IF MORE THAN ONE: their/IF ONE: his or her) parent or guardian, or not? IF YES TO EITHER, ASK: How many children (OR, IF APPLICABLE: stepchildren) under age 18 do you have?

Total

31 Yes, have children under age 18 69 No, do not have children under age 18 * Don't know/Refused (VOL.)

ASK ALL: SD.2 Do you think children are better off if their [INSERT ITEM; ROTATE BY FORM] is home and doesn’t hold a job

or are the children just as well off if the [mother/father] works? a. Mother [FORM 1 ONLY: n=511] 29

Total

CBS News/ New York Times

Apr 2009

CBS News/ New York Times

Jul 2003 51 Better off with mother home 50 61 34 Just as well off if mother works 38 29 13 Depends (VOL.) 9 7 3 Don’t know/Refused (VOL.) 3 3 (N=973) (N=3,092)

29 The CBS/New York Times surveys from 2009 and 2003 did not include a companion question about fathers. In the current poll,

half of the sample (Form 1, n=511) was asked about mothers first, the other half of the sample (Form 2, n=492) was asked

about fathers first. Results shown here are from Form 1, which is more comparable to the CBS/New York Times trend.

28

BREADWINNER MOMS


SD.2 CONTINUED … b. Father

Total 8 Better off with father home

76 Just as well off if father works 11 Depends (VOL.) 6 Don’t know/Refused (VOL.)

ASK IF MARRIED OR LWP (M1=1,2): [n=570] E5 Is your (IF M1=1: spouse, IF M1=2: partner) now employed full time, part time or not employed?

Total

57 Full time 9 Part time

34 Not employed 1 Don't know/Refused (VOL.)

ASK ALL: SD.3 The number of children born to unmarried mothers in this country has been growing steadily. Would you say this is a

big problem, a small problem or not a problem at all?

Total

Feb 2007

64 Big problem 71 19 Small problem 19 13 Not a problem at all 8 4 Don’t know/Refused (VOL.) 2

ASK ALL: SD.4 Do you agree or disagree with the following statement: It’s generally better for a marriage if the husband earns more

money than his wife? REQUIRED PROBE: Is that strongly or just somewhat [INSERT: agree/disagree]?

Total

Trend for Comparison:30

W. Post/Kaiser/Harvard Aug 1997

14 Strongly agree 18 14 Somewhat agree 22 27 Somewhat disagree 22 36 Strongly disagree 36 9 Don’t know/Refused (VOL.) 2

30 In 1997, the statement was part of a list of nine items and came after a long series of questions on work, gender and family.

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