Bosch’s Vision and Roadmap Toward Fully Autonomous...
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Abstract High-performance driver assistance systems are already helping drivers reach their destinations more safely and comfortably. In the future, these systems will be able to analyze ever more complex traffic situations and act either independently or by supporting the driver. With each innovation, we move a step closer to the goal of accident-free and fully-automated driving. Future systems will evolve from “driver assistance” to fully automated driving, completely piloting a vehicle through highways and urban environments. With an increasing level of automation, automated functions will reduce the driver’s burden more and more, thereby creating space for productivity, communication or entertainment while driving. Bosch is developing technologies for an intelligent forward thinking vehicle—making the vision of injury and accident-free driving a reality. Automated driving will synchronize traffic flow, reducing travel times and fuel consumption. It reduces the driver’s burden by taking over dedicated driving tasks—in line with each individual’s needs—allowing all age ranges to be mobile and safe. Automated driving will allow the vehicle to become a part of the driver’s inter-connected home and work life, making time spent on the road more productive and eventful. Bosch is developing holistic mobility concepts and services, paving the way for personalized environmentally friendly travel.
Keywords Automated driving • Driver assistance • Autonomous driving • Radar • Video • Bosch
Bosch’s Vision and Roadmap Toward Fully Autonomous Driving
Jan Becker, Maria-Belen Aranda Colas, Stefan Nordbruch and Michael Fausten
G. Meyer and S. Beiker (eds.), Road Vehicle Automation, Lecture Notes in Mobility, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-05990-7_5, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
J. Becker (*) Robert Bosch LLC, 4005 Miranda Ave, Suite 200, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USAe-mail: [email protected]
M.-B. A. Colas · S. Nordbruch · M. Fausten Robert Bosch GmbH, Robert-Bosch-Allee 1, 74232 Abstatt, Germanye-mail: [email protected]
S. Nordbruch e-mail: [email protected]
M. Fausten e-mail: [email protected]
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1 Introduction
Capable driver assistance systems are already helping drivers to reach their des-tination more safely and comfortably. In the future, these systems will be able to recognize ever more complex traffic situations and to help drivers even more—or act independently. Bosch is developing a variety of pioneering driver assistance systems, and each innovation is bringing accident-free, automated driving a step closer. Reaching this goal will change the very nature of mobility itself. There will be fewer traffic jams, lower emissions, and fewer accidents. Instead of steering the vehicle ourselves, we will be able to relax and flip through a newspaper, prepare for a meeting, or read our emails. The dream of the driverless car is soon set to become a reality—the technical basis for it is very much in place.
1.1 Distinction Between Driver Assistance and Automated Driving
Automated driving is distinguished from driver assistance primarily through the role of the driver, and more specifically, through the involvement of the driver. Driver assistance systems including partially automated systems require the driver to constantly monitor the environment and to be instantaneously available to take back control from the vehicle. Automated driving systems will allow the driver to be completely out of the loop. If the driver is out of the loop, a signifi-cant amount of time may be required to return vehicle control to the driver. This challenge leads to relevant implications on the design of the automated driving system: the automated system has to make decisions in all situations and cannot rely on the driver to take back responsibility instantly. The shift from minimizing false interventions (i.e. false positives) to optimizing overall system performance, redundancy and reliability, constitutes a paradigm change for vehicle systems development.
1.2 The History of Automated Driving
The idea of self-driving cars is almost as old as the car itself. GM’s vision for the future of transportation at the 1939 World’s Fair in New York already included driverless cars. The idea remained popular in research, media, fiction and adver-tisement. Arguably, the first real automated vehicle was built in 1977 by Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Lab in Japan, which was able to track white street mark-ers and maintain velocity to achieve speeds up to 30 kph. In the 1980s, Prof. Dickmanns’s group at the UniBW Munich developed one of the first automated vehicles travelling at highway speeds by controlling steering wheel, throttle,
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and brakes through computer commands based on real-time evaluation of image sequences. The Eureka PROMETHEUS Project (PROgraMme for a European Traffic of Highest Efficiency and Unprecedented Safety, 1987–1995) was the larg-est R&D project so far in the field of driverless cars and several cars demonstrated automated driving during the final presentation in October 1994 on Autoroute 1 near the Charles-de-Gaulle airport in Paris. Since 1984, Carnegie Mellon University’s Navlab program developed a total of eleven automated research vehicles, with a highlight of the program being the “No Hands Across America” drive in 1995, in which two researchers drove 3,000 miles across the US with the vehicle steering itself 98 % of the time. In 1991, the United States Congress passed the ISTEA Transportation Authorization bill, which instructed USDOT to “demonstrate an automated vehicle and highway system by 1997.” The research culminated in a final demonstration in 1997 on I-15 in San Diego, California, in which about 20 automated vehicles, including cars, buses, and trucks, were dem-onstrated to thousands of onlookers, attracting extensive media coverage. In the 2000s, DARPA organized a total of 3 challenges for autonomous and completely driverless vehicles. While no vehicles finished the first race in 2004, Stanford University’s Stanley won the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge, which lasted 212 km across the Nevada desert. The 2007 DARPA Urban Challenge moved the com-petition into an urban environment with intersections and other moving vehicles, and was won by Carnegie Mellon University’s autonomous vehicle. The series of challenges was able to show that advances in enabling technologies such as com-puting, sensing, networking and connectivity finally enabled automated street vehicles. This marked a milestone at which the focus moved from academic research to industrial research. Bosch, as the leading automotive supplier, is at the spearhead of this development.
1.3 Forecasts
Recently a number of technology and market forecast have dealt with the topic of automated driving. KPMG [6] expects reduction of crashes, reduced need for new road infrastructure, productivity improvement and improved energy efficiency, new business models as well as vehicle ownership models. IEEE members have selected autonomous vehicles as the most promising form of intelligent transportation, antici-pating that they will account for up to 75 % of cars on the road by the year 2040 [3]. ABI Research [1] predicts that fully autonomous, self-driving, robotic vehicles will start appearing between 10 and 15 years from now and that 10 million such new cars would be rolling out on to United States’ public highways every year by 2032. Wired Magazine forecasts that driver’s licenses will not be required anymore after 2040 [7]. PricewaterhouseCoopers forecasts a reduction of traffic accidents by a factor of 10, a reduction of wasted time/fuel in congestion also by a factor of 10, and it concludes that the fleet of vehicles in the US would collapse from 245 to 2.4 million with the complete introduction of autonomous vehicles [4].
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2 Bosch’s Vision for Automated Driving
Bosch has been active in the research programs for automated driving since the 1990s and has participated with Stanford University’s team in the 2007 DARPA Urban Challenge. Since 2011, Bosch is developing technologies specifically for fully automated vehicles, and has since then showcased the technology at the 2013 IAA (Frankfurt Motor Show), the 2013 Transportation Research Board Workshop on Road Vehicle Automation at Stanford University, and in a video [8].
Bosch’s vision is an intelligent forward thinking vehicle—making the vision of injury and accident-free driving reality. Automated driving of the future will synchro-nize traffic flow to reduce travel times and fuel consumption. It diminishes the load on the driver by taking over dedicated driving tasks—in line with each individual’s needs—allowing all age ranges to be mobile and safe. Automated driving allows the vehicle to become a part of the driver’s interconnected home and work life, making time spent on the road more productive and eventful. Bosch is set to develop holistic mobility concepts and services, paving the way for personalized environmentally friendly travel.
3 Motivation
Automated Driving is a key enabling technology for increased efficiency, comfort and safety. More than 90 % of all accidents are at least partly caused by human error. The Texas Transportation Institute estimates that in 2011, congestion in 498 metropolitan areas caused urban Americans to travel 5.5 billion hours more and to purchase an extra 2.9 billion gallons of fuel for a total congestion cost of $121 billion [5].
Increased vehicle automation still leaves plenty of room for driving pleasure. Figure 1 shows situations where automation can assist overwhelmed or under-stimulated drivers through accident avoidance or assistance functions. In situations
Fig. 1 Focus of vehicle automation during different driving tasks
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where the driver enjoys active driving, systems may offer information to the driver. In situations where the driver would much rather sit back and be productive, com-municate or relax and consume media, vehicle automation can relieve the driver of tedious driving tasks and take over control.
4 Roadmap for Automated Driving
4.1 From Driver Assistance to Automated Driving
The introduction of automated driving will happen in several steps (Fig. 2). Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) has been on the market for over a decade. Advanced assistance functions such as Predictive Emergency Braking Systems, Lane Departure Warning and Lane Keeping Support (LKS) help to prevent acci-dents or reduce their consequences. However, these well-used assistance systems require permanent driver supervision. The architecture of today’s vehicle relies on the driver as a backup in case of system failure.
4.2 Partially Automated Driving
As a next step in driver assistance, Adaptive Cruise Control and Lane Keeping Support will be combined into Integrated Cruise Assist providing longitudinal and lateral guidance within one assistance system, see Fig. 3. This system will be based
Fig. 2 Bosch’s roadmap for automated driving
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on a radar sensor for longitudinal guidance and a monocular video camera for lateral guidance. Automated lane changes with driver confirmation will require additional mid-range radar sensors for surround sensing. Speed may be adapted based on vis-ual road sign recognition. Partially Automated Systems will still require permanent supervision by the driver and the availability of the driver as a backup.
4.3 Highly and Fully Automated Driving
The step from partially automated to highly automated driving will be significant. The driver will be enabled to focus on other tasks while driving, and will be able to communicate, watch a movie or spend the time in the vehicle productively. We envision the introduction of these systems initially on highways. The Highway Pilot (Fig. 4) will start on the highway upon driver request and system confir-mation. The vehicle will center itself within the lane and will maintain complete awareness of the environment through a number of sensors for environmental per-ception. The vehicle will control its trajectory via automated steering interventions as well as automated longitudinal control. The vehicle may automatically change lanes when appropriate. The technical challenges and key technologies for highly automated driving vehicles are highlighted in the following section.
Fully automated vehicles will be able to assume the complete driving task including all the speed ranges and under all environmental conditions manageable by a human driver. This level of automation is currently seen more than 10 years in the future due to the significantly higher scene complexity to be encountered.
Fig. 3 Integrated cruise assist combining longitudinal and lateral assistance for partially auto-mated driving
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In the meantime, Bosch is developing additional functions to assist the driver also in low-speed situations such as parking and maneuvering. With Park Distance Control and Park Steering Control already being on the market, higher levels of parking automation will be introduced step by step. The highest level of parking automation will be automated valet parking.
5 Key Technologies for Automated Driving
Many key technologies for automated driving still require substantial research and development (Fig. 5). Without using the human driver as a fallback system, an automated vehicle has to decide on the best course of action in all situations encountered within the defined range of the function with highest reliability. Monitoring the driver and communicating vehicle intention will push HMI beyond the state of the art for existing driver assistance systems.Surround sensing will require a combination of multiple sensors including
radar and video sensors to generate a reliable and comprehensive 360° environ-ment model of the vehicle environment. This will be supplemented by information from other vehicles (V2V communication), infrastructure (V2I communication) or a back-end server depending on availability. In addition the vehicle will get up-to-date map information from an online server.Perception, also called sensor data fusion, is comprised of the processing of
data from all sensors to a common sensor-independent description of the vehicle environment. Bosch is developing a probabilistic grid representation, where the vehicle environment is modeled as a grid of cells. Sensor measurements estimate
Fig. 4 Highway pilot
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the probability that each cell is unknown, blocked or traversable. This “occupancy grid” technology was developed for indoor robots, and Bosch has extended this technology to automotive applications by incorporating object velocity measure-ments and additional contextual information.
Localization is defined as estimating the position and orientation of the ego-vehicle for positioning in the lane and on the roadway. Localization require-ments for automated driving depend on the respective use case: highway driving requires accurate lateral localization within the lane, while accuracy requirements are relieved longitudinally due to larger curve radii on highways. Requirements in urban environments are equally high laterally and longitudinally due to small curve radii encountered. Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GPS, etc.) are used for absolute positioning on the earth with an accuracy of several meters, and are therefore not yet accurate enough to determine the lane in which the vehicle is positioned. Improvement to centimeter-level precision is achieved by correlation of sensor data with prerecorded maps. These maps may be stored on an online server and transmitted to the vehicle.
An automated driving vehicle needs to handle all situations within its func-tional scope. Driver assistance systems are typically designed and optimized for certain scenarios and often use rules to makes decision based on the detected scenarios. Automated vehicles must make reliable decisions in all scenarios and Bosch therefore use continuous decision making to cover the complete continuous spectrum of possible situations in road traffic.Automated vehicles require combined lateral and longitudinal motion control to
also ensure the desired position over time. Unlike the current generation of driver assistance systems, our control algorithms use coupled lateral and longitudinal control for improved performance.Another major change in automated driving systems will be in the ECU architec-
ture. The E/E-architecture of automated vehicles will change from a fail-safe archi-tecture as seen in current driver assistance systems (with the driver being available as a redundant backup), to a fail-operational architecture, which must maintain basic functionality in a failure situation and even without a driver in the loop. ECUs for automated driving will require significantly increased computational resources and connectivity while fulfilling highest automotive safety requirements.
Actuation systems for automated driving will be highly reliable, which may be achieved through redundancy. Bosch is in the unique position to have to alternative brake actuation systems with ESP and iBooster, which can be combined into one fail-operational system for automated driving.
The interaction of the human driver with the automated system will be most relevant when it comes to the “handover” between manual driving and automated driving. The vehicle must monitor the driver’s position to take back control from the vehicle and must also ensure that the driver has taken back control. In case the driver fails to respond to a takeover request, the vehicle must be capable of bring-ing itself into a safe state. The execution of the safe state transition depends on the specific driving situation and may include changing to the emergency lane to come to a controlled stop or may result into a gradual slow down on the existing lane.
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6 Test and Application
Bosch is testing automated driving on roads in Germany and in the USA [2, 8], see Figs 6 and 7. The goal is to use everyday driving situations to put the cars to the test and to improve them. In order to ensure safety during the development pro-cess, Bosch’s safety concept was reviewed and confirmed by the German certifica-tion organization TÜV Süd.In total, over 5,000 engineers work at Bosch to develop safety and assistance
systems which form the foundation for automated driving. A project team dedi-cated exclusively to automated driving is now working to safely integrate these future functions with a car’s sensors, control units, and actuators to form a unified system. They are working toward this goal in two places: in Palo Alto, California, engineers are driving the development of functions, while systems integration is being done in Abstatt, near Stuttgart in Germany.
7 Conclusions
Bosch is convinced that Automated Driving is becoming a reality and will offer benefits for safe, relaxed and economical driving. We expect a stepwise intro-duction of automated driving starting with increased levels of automation on the highway. The first highly automated driving function will be a Highway Pilot. The trend towards Automated Driving is generating new technical challenges for the sensors, algorithms, actuators as well as the E/E-architecture of future vehicles. Bosch is developing automated highway driving functions in dedicated project
Fig. 5 Key technologies for automated driving
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Fig. 6 Bosch test vehicle brings highly automated driving to the Autobahn
Fig. 7 A Bosch engineer supervising an automated vehicle test drive. The safety concept worked up for the test campaign was tested and approved by TÜV Süd. [2]
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teams in Abstatt, Germany and Palo Alto, USA. These teams are continuously testing automated vehicles on the German Autobahn as well as on highways in California and Michigan.
References
1. ABIresearch, Autonomous Vehicles, Q3/2013. https://www.abiresearch.com/research/product/1016486-autonomous-vehicles/
2. Bosch Media Service (2013) Automated driving Bosch carries out tests on German roads, May 2013. http://www.bosch-presse.de/presseforum/details.htm?txtID=6235&locale=en
3. IEEE News Release, 9/2/2012. http://www.ieee.org/about/news/2012/5september_2_2012.html
4. PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP (2013) Analyst Note, Autofacts, Look Mom, No Hands!, Feb 2013. http://emarketing.pwc.com/reaction/images/AutofactsAnalystNoteUS%28Feb2013%29FINAL.pdf
5. Schrank D, Eisele B, Lomax T (2012) Annual urban mobility report, Texas A&M Transportation Institute. http://mobility.tamu.edu/ums/
6. Silberg G et al (2013) Self-driving cars: the next revolution, 16 Jan 2013. http://www.kpmg.com/US/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/Documents/self-driving-cars-next-revolution.pdf
7. Wired Magazine (2012) Let the robot drive: the autonomous car of the future is here, Feb 2012. http://www.wired.com/magazine/2012/01/ff_autonomouscars/
8. Youtube (2013) Bosch automated driving, Published on 22 Jan 2013. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0D0ZN2tPihQ
https://www.abiresearch.com/research/product/1016486-autonomous-vehicles/https://www.abiresearch.com/research/product/1016486-autonomous-vehicles/http://www.bosch-presse.de/presseforum/details.htm?txtID=6235&locale=enhttp://www.ieee.org/about/news/2012/5september_2_2012.htmlhttp://www.ieee.org/about/news/2012/5september_2_2012.htmlhttp://emarketing.pwc.com/reaction/images/AutofactsAnalystNoteUS%28Feb2013%29FINAL.pdfhttp://emarketing.pwc.com/reaction/images/AutofactsAnalystNoteUS%28Feb2013%29FINAL.pdfhttp://mobility.tamu.edu/ums/http://www.kpmg.com/US/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/Documents/self-driving-cars-next-revolution.pdfhttp://www.kpmg.com/US/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/Documents/self-driving-cars-next-revolution.pdfhttp://www.wired.com/magazine/2012/01/ff_autonomouscars/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0D0ZN2tPihQhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0D0ZN2tPihQ
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Bosch’s Vision and Roadmap Toward Fully Autonomous Driving Abstract 1 Introduction1.1 Distinction Between Driver Assistance and Automated Driving1.2 The History of Automated Driving1.3 Forecasts
2 Bosch’s Vision for Automated Driving3 Motivation4 Roadmap for Automated Driving4.1 From Driver Assistance to Automated Driving4.2 Partially Automated Driving4.3 Highly and Fully Automated Driving
5 Key Technologies for Automated Driving6 Test and Application7 ConclusionsReferences