The wildlife management field is frequent-ly criticized for being more theory than prac-tice, and is not readily understood by thegeneral public. Considering most sportinganimals, this may be true. However, for a fewspecies, such as the Bobwhite Quail (Colinusvirginianus), it is fair to say that progress hasbeen good. Management of the BobwhiteQuail has become a respected art and science,and its habitat requirements are understoodby many landowners. This fact sheet com-bines old and new information, makingquail management possible foreveryone.

Identifying PhysicalCharacteristics

The Bobwhite Quail is a small, reddish-brown bird that weighs 6 ounces whengrown. Males have a white line over theireyes and on their necks. They also have whitebibs on their throats. These markings arebrownish yellow on females. Because of the

quail’s coloration, you may have diffi-culty seeing them. Quail get

their name from the “bob-white” whistle made by the

male, which you mayhear in the early morn-

ing or late evening.This whistle is the

way one malecalls foranother to

Fact Sheet 602

Adapted from:Barnes, T. 1989. “Bobwhite Quail

Management in Kentucky.” Natural ResourcesNewsletter. University of Kentucky.

Dorf, B. 1989. “Maryland’s Bobwhite QuailNeed Management.” Tracks ‘n Trails.Maryland Forest, Park and Wildlife Service.

Mahan, W.E. 1978. “Bobwhite Quail.”South Carolina Wildlife and MarineResources Department, Columbia, SC.

Rosene, W. 1984. The Bobwhite Quail–Its Lifeand Management. The Sun Press; Hartwell, GA.

Reviewed by:Peter S. Jayne

Eastern Region Manager

Maryland Department of Natural Resources

Forest, Park and Wildlife Service

8

Wildlife Management: Bobwhite Quailby

Robert L. TjadenAssistant Director, Agriculture and Natural Resources

University of Maryland, College Park

Jonathan KaysExtension Natural Resources Specialist

Western Maryland Research and Education Center

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, University of Maryland, CollegePark, and local governments. Thomas A. Fretz, Director of Maryland Cooperative Extension, University of Maryland.

The University of Maryland is equal opportunity. The University’s policies, programs, and activities are in conformance with pertinent Federal and State laws and regulations onnondiscrimination regarding race, color, religion, age, national origin, gender, sexual orientation, marital or parental status, or disability. Inquiries regarding compliance with Title VIof the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended; Title IX of the Educational Amendments; Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973; and the Americans With Disabilities Act of1990; or related legal requirements should be directed to the Director of Human Resources Management, Office of the Dean, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources,Symons Hall, College Park, MD 20742.

Wildlife Management: Bobwhite Quail

V2002

This Wildlife Management series was published by Maryland Cooperative Extensionwith joint expertise and funding from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and theDepartment of Natural Resources. Marylanders interested in wildlife management canrefer to this series for basic wildlife management concepts, species’ needs, managementrecommendations, habitat requirements, food and cover plants, and other general con-siderations. Contact your county Extension office for more information on wildlife man-agement. Fact sheet titles in the full series are:

Fact Sheet 597 Introduction to Wildlife ManagementFact Sheet 598 Planting Crops for WildlifeFact Sheet 599 Brush Piles for WildlifeFact Sheet 600 Field Border ManagementFact Sheet 601 Eastern Cottontail RabbitsFact Sheet 602 Bobwhite QuailFact Sheet 603 Ring-necked PheasantsFact Sheet 604 Ruffed GrouseFact Sheet 605 Mourning Doves

Fact Sheet 606 Eastern Wild Turkeys

Fact Sheet 607 Tree Squirrels

Fact Sheet 608 Black Bears

Fact Sheet 609 Wood Ducks

Fact Sheet 610 Dabbling Ducks

Fact Sheet 611 Diving Ducks

Fact Sheet 612 Canada Geese

Fact Sheet 613 Songbirds

join him and is also used by males to attract amate.

Abundance and Distributionin Maryland

The population of Bobwhite Quail, whichhas long been considered an important gamebird, is declining in Maryland. Quail popula-tions have increased and declined as humansand the progress of civilization have contin-ued to alter the environment. Early land-usepractices associated with pioneer settlementswere typified by a patchy farming pattern,which provided ideal quail habitat.

From the early 1900s to the mid-1940s,quail population densities remained high andquite stable. Since the mid-1940s, however,the number of quail has declined in much ofthe South. This downward trend is largelyassociated with deteriorating habitats result-ing from the following conditions: a changeto cleaner and more mechanized farmingmethods, the joining of small fields to makelarge unbroken fields suitable for intensivecultivation, and the development of pasturesfor cattle, dairy, or hay production. Few wildspecies, however, are more capable than quailof adapting to human manipulation of theenvironment.

Also, quail are well adapted to agriculturalregions and are beneficial to people sincethey eat many harmful insects and weedseeds. Bobwhite Quail can be found through-out Maryland; however, the greatest numbersare found in southern Maryland and theEastern Shore counties.

The mortality rate for Bobwhite Quail (andmost other small game species) is high and isessentially the same in both hunted andunhunted populations. Of every 100 birdsalive in the fall, between 75 and 80 will die orbe killed within the following 12 months.Hunting only removes surplus birds beforethey are lost to other causes. For this reason,hunting in years of lower-than-average quailpopulations will not reduce the prospects fora quick return to normal levels if food, cover,and general habitat conditions are favorable.

Predators have little overall effect on quailpopulations, but what effects they do havecan be greatly reduced by improving habitat.

Better habitat increases both the number ofspecies and the quantity of individuals withinthose species in the area. This concept is calledan increased prey base. These species act asbuffers, reducing overall predation on quail.

You may be tempted to try to removepredators; however, this has been shown tobe a very inefficient approach, partly due tothe large number of potential predators andtheir ability to quickly fill any void created bythe removal of others. Instead, combine habi-tat improvement with in-season fur trappingto keep predators and predation in check.

Life History of QuailQuail do not like to be alone. During late

fall and winter, they gather together to forma “covey.” Quail coveys break up as daysbecome warmer in the spring, when themales and females pair off and courtshipbegins. Quail pair off for the entire nestingseason, and both males and females build thenests. Nests are made of dried vegetation andare in areas such as fallow fields, hedgerows,rights-of-way, and hay fields. The nestingperiod extends from April throughSeptember, with most nesting occurring inMay, June, and July. Quail renest only whenearlier attempts are unsuccessful. Nestingattempts may fail because of wild fires, poorweather conditions, predators, agriculturalactivity, or other environmental factors.Many nests are destroyed by dogs, cats, foxes,rats, snakes, raccoons, skunks, and otherpredators. Such destruction, however, is notnecessarily bad because it provides more timebetween hatching dates and thus reduces thepotential for mass mortality of the young.

Clutch sizes range from 8 to 25 eggs, withan average of 14. If the female is killed, themale will take over incubation and brooding.After a 23-day incubation period, the numberof chicks hatched ranges from 8 to 25 andaverages 12. All chicks hatch within a 24-hour period and leave the nest together a fewhours after they are dry. Chicks can fly whenthey are 2 to 3 weeks old. They weigh asmuch as adults in 8 to 9 weeks and resembleadults in 15 weeks. The adults and brood nor-mally remain together as a covey until fall.The winter covey size averages 14 birds, andmost of these birds live about 4 months;

tivated areas or areas providing adequate cover.These strips should be maintained by mowing,disking, or burning one side of each strip every2 or 3 years in the early spring. To receive someeconomic return from cropland removed fromproduction by fallow strips, these areas may beestablished in pine seedlings on a spacing of 8feet by 10 feet. These plantings will provide apermanent cover for the future as well as somefiscal return.

Cropland Management Practicesto Benefit Quail

Quail management practices for cropland canbe summarized with the following suggestions:

• Avoid tillage or mowing within 50 feetof field edges during May, June, and July,if possible. Portions of the field edgesshould be disked when more than 75percent of the soil is covered with a layerof dead vegetation to provide for newweedy growth and ideal nesting cover.

• Leave turn rows and roadsides unsprayedand untilled.

• Do not burn roadsides, hedgerows, orcrop residues. If burning is needed formanagement, burn between February 15and April 1.

• Do not disk or plow crop residues in thefall.

• Mow ditch berms only often enough tocontrol unneeded woody growth, andmow only in midsummer (July 31 toAugust 30). Mow one side of a ditch in agiven year.

• Disk around suitable patches of nestingcover to protect them from controlledburning.

Woodland Management Practicesto Benefit Quail

Quail management practices for woodlandcan be summarized in the following suggestions:

• Keep at least five good mast-producingtrees per acre when thinning hardwoods.

• Divide extensive open areas with plantingsof conifers and shrubs. Where conifersand shrubs are to be used in the strips,plant the conifers in the center flankedby the higher shrubs, with the lowershrubs on the outside. When plantingconiferous species for game purposes,use an 8-foot by 8-foot or 12-foot by 12-foot square. Where shrubs are to be usedalone, a spot planting of 6 to 10 shrubsshould be made or a hedgerow of plantsusing a close spacing.

• For optimum quail production in pine andpine hardwood woodlands, limit sawlogproduction to one-half the normal expect-ed production for the site and maintain anopen canopy so that at least 60 percent ofthe forest floor is exposed to direct sun-light at noon during the summer.

• Use uneven-aged stands and long rota-tions in woodlands of pine or hard-woods. A rotation for loblolly pine ofabout 50 years is satisfactory.

• Plant rectangular strips 200 feet wide at10-foot by 10-foot square spacings at 10-year intervals when converting openlands to pine for timber production.Thin the first strip after the third strip isplanted, and winter control burn thelimited strip 1 year following thinning.

• Use timber harvest and regenerationmethods if maximum quail manage-ment on timbered land is desired and todevelop permanent 1- to 2-acre forestopenings, which may be planted to avariety of the quail food crops previouslydiscussed. Permanent openings shouldaverage one per 15 to 20 acres. If perma-

nent openings take too much landfrom tim-ber pro-duction,

food patchesmay be estab-

lished in exist-ing timber stands.

2 7

Remember, the best quail cover is relativelythick above and open at ground level toallow easy movement.

DiskingDisking your land, except where it is prac-

tical to burn, is probably the cheapestmethod of producing desirable quail foodplants. Disk anytime following the first fullfrost until the following May.

Nearly all fields will provide an abundanceof native food plants through light disking ofstrips around the edge of these fields, allow-ing for a transition zone if needed. Transitionzones are simply a third habitat type devel-oped between two existing and differenthabitat types. In most instances, transitionzones will be developed along an adjoiningedge between hedgerows, roads, ditch banks,timbered areas, and cultivated fields. Youmay disk new ground the second year, as anestablished strip will continue to producefood for several years. You should alwaysestablish strips close to adequate cover.Transition zones between forest and field areextremely important because the bobwhite isan “edge species,” and the amount and quali-ty of edge present usually dictates the abun-dance of quail on a particular area. Properlymanaged and maintained, these areas willprovide much of a quail’s needs year round.Transition zones may be established in theagriculturally unproductive field corners,edges, or borders. These zones may be locatedwhere woodlands meet crop fields or exposedpastures and along fence lines and roadways.These transition strips may cover all theunproductive field edge but should never beless than 15 feet wide.

Brush PilesYou may build brush piles in woods adja-

cent to fields where winter cover, such asgreenbriers or honeysuckle vines, is lacking.Brush piles are one of the quickest methodsof improving quail cover. They may be con-structed with readily available materials. (SeeFact Sheet 599, “Brush Piles for Wildlife,” formore information.) Brush piles should beloosely built and grass and weeds allowed togrow in them. You will need one or two aver-age-sized treetops to build a brush pile (15feet wide by 5 feet high by as much as 40 feet

long). Establishing hedgerows and plantingshrubs around field edges or in clumps in cor-ners of fields will improve winter cover.Evergreen trees should also be incorporatedin the hedgerows and clumps.

When establishing plantings in fields adja-cent to woods, leave 50-foot-wide, 100-yard-long alternately mowed and unmowed stripsaround the fields. Areas mowed andunmowed need to be reversed each year ortwo. They should be mowed after July 31.Disking a quarter of these mowed strips afterthe main nesting season will benefit quail intheir nesting efforts.

HedgerowsHedgerows should be developed and main-

tained. They provide the foundation for quailmanagement on many farms. Minimumwidth should be 12 feet. Hedgerows next tocrops should not be more than 7 feet high toprevent shading of the crop. Encouragewoody plants, such as wild plum, sumac,greenbrier, wild grape, honeysuckle, blackber-ries, dogwood, sassafras, osage orange, andother low-growing shrubs. Do not allow talltrees to dominate (not more than one talltree per 150 feet of hedgerow should beallowed to stand), because large trees shadevaluable undergrowth. Cut tall trees andallow them to fall in hedgerows. Let tops andlimbs lie where they fall, and permit a narrowstrip of grass or weeds to grow next to thehedgerow. Leaving a strip fallow to grow intoa suitable hedgerow may require 3 to 15 yearsdepending on the soil and what has previous-ly been growing there. A well-developedhedgerow around a 20-acre grain field maysupport one or two coveys.

Other types of vegetative cover are alsoimportant under certain conditions. Largefields and pasture, for example, contain areaswithin the center that are not utilized byquail. Generally, quail will not venture morethan 50 feet into the open from the nearestadequate cover type. To provide access routesinto these areas, divide large fields into smalltracts by providing travel lanes across or intothese fields. This may be accomplished byleaving undisturbed strips in native vegeta-tion. These strips should be at least 60 feetwide or wider if practical. You can set up thestrips by connecting adjacent timbered or cul-

although some may live a year or longer.Approximately 80 percent of the fall quailpopulation consists of birds 3 to 7 monthsold. These coveys have a home range of 15 to100 acres. All of their needs, such as food andvarious types of cover, must be within thishome range. Table 1 summarizes the life his-tory of quail.

Managing QuailThe following general quail management

recommendations should provide you withsome ideas about what may be done on landyou own, manage, or hunt. Specific manage-ment recommendations can be made onlyafter you investigate an area and prepare amanagement plan.

As previously mentioned, the only way topermanently increase quail populations onany land is through the maintenance anddevelopment of quality quail habitat. Theprocedure involved in producing more quail,however, is relatively simple.

First, if you are a landowner or hunter,think about where you consistently foundquail during the past few winters. The loca-tions all will contain essentially the same ele-ments: adequate cover within a short distanceof a food supply containing several importantfood plants, either cultivated or native. Next,look over your land, decide where you wouldlike to develop your land for birds, and try todetermine why birds are not using these areasalready. Be sure to identify the limiting fac-tor(s), and use management techniques toalleviate these factors. If adequate coverexists, grow food; if cover is scarce, develop itbefore you grow food.

Some of the more common managementtechniques used to improve quail habitatinclude disking, burning, and planting forfood and cover. Remember to design yourmanagement plan so food and cover are ade-quately interspersed.

Use caution when planting food plots forquail. Seeds of cultivated plants are notalways a reliable source of late-winter nutri-tion for the birds because they have a tenden-cy to rot more quickly than native plants.The easiest way to encourage native plantspecies growth is by disking and subsequent

fallowing of areas along field edges. If possi-ble, avoid late-summer or fall plowing of cropresidue unless an unplowed strip of residuecan be left around field edges.

CoverIn general, quail like a diversity of cover

types, including forests, brush, sparse grass,and cultivated lands. When all or a combina-tion of these conditions exist, populationspresent usually depend largely on a distribu-tion of these four types. Bobwhites preferareas where all types may be found withintheir normal 40-acre range.

Bobwhite Quail are a low to intermediatesuccessional wildlife species, which meansthey like a diversity of habitats dominated bybrushy areas, grassland, and cropland.Provide a mixture of 30 to 40 percent sparse

6 3

Table 1. Life History of Quail.Breeding season April to October

Brood size Average: 12 chicksRange: 8 to 25 chicks

Clutch size Average: 14 (in mostinstances a pair ofquail will hatch onebrood per year)Range: 8 to 25 eggs

Covey size Average: 14 birds

Fly 2 to 3 weeks of age

Hatching season May to August

Home range Average: 40 acresRange: 15 to 100 acres

Incubation period 23 days (both male andfemale share in theincubation)

Markings Male: White line overits eye and down itsneck and a white bibFemale: Markings arebrownish yellow

Maturity 15 to 16 weeks of age

Weight Adult: 6 ounces

grassland, 40 to 60 percent cropland, 5 to 20percent brushy cover, and 5 to 40 percentwoodland. Quail are relatively sedentary ani-mals, with daily movements usually restrictedto 20 to 40 acres. Thus, a mixture of habitatsproviding adequate food, cover, and watershould be well interspersed within the quail’srange of 1/8 to 1/4 of a mile.

Large fields of fescue are not good quailhabitats. The best cover for quail should notbe too dense. Remember, a quail looks at theworld from a height of about 4 inches andrequires space to escape predators easily.Optimum cover provides a thick overheadcanopy while maintaining openings within 1foot of the ground. For quail cover, thinkdiversity or variety. Cover requirements forquail can be broken into nesting cover, roost-ing cover, loafing cover, screening cover,escape cover, and winter cover.

Nesting cover. Nesting cover is critical forsuccessful reproduction. Optimum nestingcover is usually a grass or grass and weed mix-ture that is not too old or thick; therefore, fes-cue is not good nesting cover. Ideally, primenesting cover is typified by scattered shrubsand briars interspersed with a moderatelysparse stand of herbaceous and grassy vegeta-tion, such as goldenrod, panic grass, broomsedge, bluegrass, and orchardgrass. Most nestsare located within 50 feet of an edge.

Roosting and loafing cover. Roostingcover is characterized by sparse, low-growingvegetation with an open canopy. This coverprovides warmth for the birds at ground levelat night. In addition, should flight be neces-sary, the chance of a collision is reduced.Quail use loafing cover for dusting, resting,and loafing during midday inactive periods.This cover should occur in clumps (30 to 50feet across) where the ground is relativelybare, but with a canopy several feet aboveground. Shrubby areas are excellent loafingcover. Dusting is important for quail to con-trol external parasites and mites. Thin standsof weeds, grasses, and shrubs, such as aster,ragweed, horseweed, broom sedge, plumbushes, and sumac bushes, fit this need.

Screening and escape cover. Quail usescreening cover for protection from predatorswhile traveling or feeding. Low shrubs or tallgrass and weed mixtures provide excellentscreening cover. Often, this type of cover can

be provided by maintaining unmowed areas.Escape cover is required for eluding predatorssuch as hawks, owls, foxes, and house cats.Usually dense grass, coarse weeds, or densebrush provides excellent escape cover. Densewoody plants, such as blackberry, grapevine,and vine honeysuckle; dense, low-growingthickets; brush piles; and felled treetops arealso used.

Winter cover. Winter cover can be a criti-cal factor and is necessary to escape harsh,adverse weather conditions. Woodlands anddense brush are examples of excellent wintercover.

The key to successful quail management isto provide all kinds of cover in a small area inthe proper arrangement. Also, remember tokeep some areas free of vegetation for scratch-ing, dusting, and feeding. Most farms inMaryland lack adequate nesting cover, wintercover, or winter food. If you follow the previ-ously listed requirements, the other habitatneeds will also be met.

FoodQuail need all of their food and cover

requirements close together because they liveprimarily on the ground and travel mostly bywalking. Primarily feeders of fields and openforests the diet of quail is composed largely ofseeds, small fruits, and green forage. Duringthe fall and winter, approximately 90 per-cent of the quail’s diet is seeds. Quailprefer seeds from native annualplants (non-woody herbaceousplants called forbs, or weeds)over perennial species. Quailfeed on green, succulentplant material year round.Insects, in particulargrasshoppers, beetles,beetle larvae andspiders, are avitally importantprotein foodsource during thespring and sum-mer. As theyoung chickshatch andgrow, theyrequire largequantities of pro-

dwarf sorghum are also good food sources.Integrated pest management or minimal pes-ticide use will help the bobwhite to thrive.

The current practice of planting corn inthick stands, especially for silage, has reducedthe overall value of these fields for quailbecause dense stands and herbicide applica-tions seriously reduce the volunteer growthof annual weeds and other plants preferredby quail. If possible, leave a couple of rows ofcorn standing around the field edge after har-vest is complete. Mow portions at intervalsduring the winter months to supply food forcoveys during this period. Soybeans and thegrain sorghums are more valuable to birdswhen a few rows are left standing on fieldedges. The vegetative part of these plantsoffers some cover and, in most cases, seedswill scatter out gradually, thus providing acontinual source of food. All of these foodsupplies should, when possible, be left closeto available escape cover.

In areas where disking, burning, or avail-able row crops will not produce the desiredfoods, you may plant a variety of high-qualityquail food plants. Plantings for quail may bedivided into two general types: fall plantingsand late-winter plantings. Fall plantings con-centrate birds for hunting and late-winterplantings are used during periods of low foodavailability. A combination of the two isprobably best. Late-winter food helps to makean area attractive to the birds year round. Fallplantings help to attract birds during thehunting season and may draw some birdsfrom adjoining unmanaged land.

Some of the better fall plantings includethe annual lespedezas (common, Korean, andKobe), browntop millet, and Florida beggar-weed. Low-maintenance, late-winter foodsnormally planted in this part of the countryinclude bicolor lespedeza, soybeans, anddwarf sorghum. All of these plants requiregood seedbed preparation and fertilization,and some require cultivation.

The size of the plantings should be at least1/16 of an acre and normally does not needto be larger than 1/4 of an acre. Establish theplantings in large, narrow strips about 15 to20 feet wide, parallel to field borders, forestedges, roadways, grown-up ditches, or otherareas adjacent to suitable escape cover.

tein. This protein requirement is met by con-suming large numbers of protein-rich insects.A single quail consumes 56,430 insects and5,379,168 weed seeds in a year, and it can eat560 mosquitoes or 168 grasshoppers in a sin-gle feeding. Artificial feeding is not recom-mended because it is usually expensive andyields questionable results.

Bobwhite Quail eat some of these impor-tant plant species: pigweeds, ragweeds, wildbeans and peas (legumes), sunflowers, beg-gar’s lice, tick trefoils, and crotons. Quail alsoeat grasses, such as panic grasses, foxtailgrasses, orchardgrass, barnyardgrass, andsmartweeds. They also eat hard and soft mast,including the seeds of oaks, ashes, blackber-ries, and sumac, as well as a variety of culti-vated crops, including sorghum, milo, corn,and wheat. Seeds of legumes are probably themost important native quail foods, withgrasses and sedges second in importance.

Although quail are commonly seen nearopen water and are occasionally observeddrinking surface water, it is not essentialbecause birds normally receive their waterrequirements from dew, insects, and succu-lent green vegetation.

Once the cover requirements have beensatisfied, examine the food base and

determine if adequate nutritious late-winter food is available, because

late winter is usually the peri-od of greatest stress for the

birds. Winter food mustbe present in February

and March andmust be availableabove any snowcover. Soybeans,grain sorghum,

and shrub les-pedezas all represent

excellent examples ofwinter food species.Some of these food

requirements can be provid-ed through the proper manip-

ulation or harvest of the moreimportant row crops planted in

Maryland. Soybeans are probably thebest all-round cultivated food source for

quail, because they help to provide year-round quail needs. Corn, smaller grains, and

4 5

grassland, 40 to 60 percent cropland, 5 to 20percent brushy cover, and 5 to 40 percentwoodland. Quail are relatively sedentary ani-mals, with daily movements usually restrictedto 20 to 40 acres. Thus, a mixture of habitatsproviding adequate food, cover, and watershould be well interspersed within the quail’srange of 1/8 to 1/4 of a mile.

Large fields of fescue are not good quailhabitats. The best cover for quail should notbe too dense. Remember, a quail looks at theworld from a height of about 4 inches andrequires space to escape predators easily.Optimum cover provides a thick overheadcanopy while maintaining openings within 1foot of the ground. For quail cover, thinkdiversity or variety. Cover requirements forquail can be broken into nesting cover, roost-ing cover, loafing cover, screening cover,escape cover, and winter cover.

Nesting cover. Nesting cover is critical forsuccessful reproduction. Optimum nestingcover is usually a grass or grass and weed mix-ture that is not too old or thick; therefore, fes-cue is not good nesting cover. Ideally, primenesting cover is typified by scattered shrubsand briars interspersed with a moderatelysparse stand of herbaceous and grassy vegeta-tion, such as goldenrod, panic grass, broomsedge, bluegrass, and orchardgrass. Most nestsare located within 50 feet of an edge.

Roosting and loafing cover. Roostingcover is characterized by sparse, low-growingvegetation with an open canopy. This coverprovides warmth for the birds at ground levelat night. In addition, should flight be neces-sary, the chance of a collision is reduced.Quail use loafing cover for dusting, resting,and loafing during midday inactive periods.This cover should occur in clumps (30 to 50feet across) where the ground is relativelybare, but with a canopy several feet aboveground. Shrubby areas are excellent loafingcover. Dusting is important for quail to con-trol external parasites and mites. Thin standsof weeds, grasses, and shrubs, such as aster,ragweed, horseweed, broom sedge, plumbushes, and sumac bushes, fit this need.

Screening and escape cover. Quail usescreening cover for protection from predatorswhile traveling or feeding. Low shrubs or tallgrass and weed mixtures provide excellentscreening cover. Often, this type of cover can

be provided by maintaining unmowed areas.Escape cover is required for eluding predatorssuch as hawks, owls, foxes, and house cats.Usually dense grass, coarse weeds, or densebrush provides excellent escape cover. Densewoody plants, such as blackberry, grapevine,and vine honeysuckle; dense, low-growingthickets; brush piles; and felled treetops arealso used.

Winter cover. Winter cover can be a criti-cal factor and is necessary to escape harsh,adverse weather conditions. Woodlands anddense brush are examples of excellent wintercover.

The key to successful quail management isto provide all kinds of cover in a small area inthe proper arrangement. Also, remember tokeep some areas free of vegetation for scratch-ing, dusting, and feeding. Most farms inMaryland lack adequate nesting cover, wintercover, or winter food. If you follow the previ-ously listed requirements, the other habitatneeds will also be met.

FoodQuail need all of their food and cover

requirements close together because they liveprimarily on the ground and travel mostly bywalking. Primarily feeders of fields and openforests the diet of quail is composed largely ofseeds, small fruits, and green forage. Duringthe fall and winter, approximately 90 per-cent of the quail’s diet is seeds. Quailprefer seeds from native annualplants (non-woody herbaceousplants called forbs, or weeds)over perennial species. Quailfeed on green, succulentplant material year round.Insects, in particulargrasshoppers, beetles,beetle larvae andspiders, are avitally importantprotein foodsource during thespring and sum-mer. As theyoung chickshatch andgrow, theyrequire largequantities of pro-

dwarf sorghum are also good food sources.Integrated pest management or minimal pes-ticide use will help the bobwhite to thrive.

The current practice of planting corn inthick stands, especially for silage, has reducedthe overall value of these fields for quailbecause dense stands and herbicide applica-tions seriously reduce the volunteer growthof annual weeds and other plants preferredby quail. If possible, leave a couple of rows ofcorn standing around the field edge after har-vest is complete. Mow portions at intervalsduring the winter months to supply food forcoveys during this period. Soybeans and thegrain sorghums are more valuable to birdswhen a few rows are left standing on fieldedges. The vegetative part of these plantsoffers some cover and, in most cases, seedswill scatter out gradually, thus providing acontinual source of food. All of these foodsupplies should, when possible, be left closeto available escape cover.

In areas where disking, burning, or avail-able row crops will not produce the desiredfoods, you may plant a variety of high-qualityquail food plants. Plantings for quail may bedivided into two general types: fall plantingsand late-winter plantings. Fall plantings con-centrate birds for hunting and late-winterplantings are used during periods of low foodavailability. A combination of the two isprobably best. Late-winter food helps to makean area attractive to the birds year round. Fallplantings help to attract birds during thehunting season and may draw some birdsfrom adjoining unmanaged land.

Some of the better fall plantings includethe annual lespedezas (common, Korean, andKobe), browntop millet, and Florida beggar-weed. Low-maintenance, late-winter foodsnormally planted in this part of the countryinclude bicolor lespedeza, soybeans, anddwarf sorghum. All of these plants requiregood seedbed preparation and fertilization,and some require cultivation.

The size of the plantings should be at least1/16 of an acre and normally does not needto be larger than 1/4 of an acre. Establish theplantings in large, narrow strips about 15 to20 feet wide, parallel to field borders, forestedges, roadways, grown-up ditches, or otherareas adjacent to suitable escape cover.

tein. This protein requirement is met by con-suming large numbers of protein-rich insects.A single quail consumes 56,430 insects and5,379,168 weed seeds in a year, and it can eat560 mosquitoes or 168 grasshoppers in a sin-gle feeding. Artificial feeding is not recom-mended because it is usually expensive andyields questionable results.

Bobwhite Quail eat some of these impor-tant plant species: pigweeds, ragweeds, wildbeans and peas (legumes), sunflowers, beg-gar’s lice, tick trefoils, and crotons. Quail alsoeat grasses, such as panic grasses, foxtailgrasses, orchardgrass, barnyardgrass, andsmartweeds. They also eat hard and soft mast,including the seeds of oaks, ashes, blackber-ries, and sumac, as well as a variety of culti-vated crops, including sorghum, milo, corn,and wheat. Seeds of legumes are probably themost important native quail foods, withgrasses and sedges second in importance.

Although quail are commonly seen nearopen water and are occasionally observeddrinking surface water, it is not essentialbecause birds normally receive their waterrequirements from dew, insects, and succu-lent green vegetation.

Once the cover requirements have beensatisfied, examine the food base and

determine if adequate nutritious late-winter food is available, because

late winter is usually the peri-od of greatest stress for the

birds. Winter food mustbe present in February

and March andmust be availableabove any snowcover. Soybeans,grain sorghum,

and shrub les-pedezas all represent

excellent examples ofwinter food species.Some of these food

requirements can be provid-ed through the proper manip-

ulation or harvest of the moreimportant row crops planted in

Maryland. Soybeans are probably thebest all-round cultivated food source for

quail, because they help to provide year-round quail needs. Corn, smaller grains, and

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Remember, the best quail cover is relativelythick above and open at ground level toallow easy movement.

DiskingDisking your land, except where it is prac-

tical to burn, is probably the cheapestmethod of producing desirable quail foodplants. Disk anytime following the first fullfrost until the following May.

Nearly all fields will provide an abundanceof native food plants through light disking ofstrips around the edge of these fields, allow-ing for a transition zone if needed. Transitionzones are simply a third habitat type devel-oped between two existing and differenthabitat types. In most instances, transitionzones will be developed along an adjoiningedge between hedgerows, roads, ditch banks,timbered areas, and cultivated fields. Youmay disk new ground the second year, as anestablished strip will continue to producefood for several years. You should alwaysestablish strips close to adequate cover.Transition zones between forest and field areextremely important because the bobwhite isan “edge species,” and the amount and quali-ty of edge present usually dictates the abun-dance of quail on a particular area. Properlymanaged and maintained, these areas willprovide much of a quail’s needs year round.Transition zones may be established in theagriculturally unproductive field corners,edges, or borders. These zones may be locatedwhere woodlands meet crop fields or exposedpastures and along fence lines and roadways.These transition strips may cover all theunproductive field edge but should never beless than 15 feet wide.

Brush PilesYou may build brush piles in woods adja-

cent to fields where winter cover, such asgreenbriers or honeysuckle vines, is lacking.Brush piles are one of the quickest methodsof improving quail cover. They may be con-structed with readily available materials. (SeeFact Sheet 599, “Brush Piles for Wildlife,” formore information.) Brush piles should beloosely built and grass and weeds allowed togrow in them. You will need one or two aver-age-sized treetops to build a brush pile (15feet wide by 5 feet high by as much as 40 feet

long). Establishing hedgerows and plantingshrubs around field edges or in clumps in cor-ners of fields will improve winter cover.Evergreen trees should also be incorporatedin the hedgerows and clumps.

When establishing plantings in fields adja-cent to woods, leave 50-foot-wide, 100-yard-long alternately mowed and unmowed stripsaround the fields. Areas mowed andunmowed need to be reversed each year ortwo. They should be mowed after July 31.Disking a quarter of these mowed strips afterthe main nesting season will benefit quail intheir nesting efforts.

HedgerowsHedgerows should be developed and main-

tained. They provide the foundation for quailmanagement on many farms. Minimumwidth should be 12 feet. Hedgerows next tocrops should not be more than 7 feet high toprevent shading of the crop. Encouragewoody plants, such as wild plum, sumac,greenbrier, wild grape, honeysuckle, blackber-ries, dogwood, sassafras, osage orange, andother low-growing shrubs. Do not allow talltrees to dominate (not more than one talltree per 150 feet of hedgerow should beallowed to stand), because large trees shadevaluable undergrowth. Cut tall trees andallow them to fall in hedgerows. Let tops andlimbs lie where they fall, and permit a narrowstrip of grass or weeds to grow next to thehedgerow. Leaving a strip fallow to grow intoa suitable hedgerow may require 3 to 15 yearsdepending on the soil and what has previous-ly been growing there. A well-developedhedgerow around a 20-acre grain field maysupport one or two coveys.

Other types of vegetative cover are alsoimportant under certain conditions. Largefields and pasture, for example, contain areaswithin the center that are not utilized byquail. Generally, quail will not venture morethan 50 feet into the open from the nearestadequate cover type. To provide access routesinto these areas, divide large fields into smalltracts by providing travel lanes across or intothese fields. This may be accomplished byleaving undisturbed strips in native vegeta-tion. These strips should be at least 60 feetwide or wider if practical. You can set up thestrips by connecting adjacent timbered or cul-

although some may live a year or longer.Approximately 80 percent of the fall quailpopulation consists of birds 3 to 7 monthsold. These coveys have a home range of 15 to100 acres. All of their needs, such as food andvarious types of cover, must be within thishome range. Table 1 summarizes the life his-tory of quail.

Managing QuailThe following general quail management

recommendations should provide you withsome ideas about what may be done on landyou own, manage, or hunt. Specific manage-ment recommendations can be made onlyafter you investigate an area and prepare amanagement plan.

As previously mentioned, the only way topermanently increase quail populations onany land is through the maintenance anddevelopment of quality quail habitat. Theprocedure involved in producing more quail,however, is relatively simple.

First, if you are a landowner or hunter,think about where you consistently foundquail during the past few winters. The loca-tions all will contain essentially the same ele-ments: adequate cover within a short distanceof a food supply containing several importantfood plants, either cultivated or native. Next,look over your land, decide where you wouldlike to develop your land for birds, and try todetermine why birds are not using these areasalready. Be sure to identify the limiting fac-tor(s), and use management techniques toalleviate these factors. If adequate coverexists, grow food; if cover is scarce, develop itbefore you grow food.

Some of the more common managementtechniques used to improve quail habitatinclude disking, burning, and planting forfood and cover. Remember to design yourmanagement plan so food and cover are ade-quately interspersed.

Use caution when planting food plots forquail. Seeds of cultivated plants are notalways a reliable source of late-winter nutri-tion for the birds because they have a tenden-cy to rot more quickly than native plants.The easiest way to encourage native plantspecies growth is by disking and subsequent

fallowing of areas along field edges. If possi-ble, avoid late-summer or fall plowing of cropresidue unless an unplowed strip of residuecan be left around field edges.

CoverIn general, quail like a diversity of cover

types, including forests, brush, sparse grass,and cultivated lands. When all or a combina-tion of these conditions exist, populationspresent usually depend largely on a distribu-tion of these four types. Bobwhites preferareas where all types may be found withintheir normal 40-acre range.

Bobwhite Quail are a low to intermediatesuccessional wildlife species, which meansthey like a diversity of habitats dominated bybrushy areas, grassland, and cropland.Provide a mixture of 30 to 40 percent sparse

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Table 1. Life History of Quail.Breeding season April to October

Brood size Average: 12 chicksRange: 8 to 25 chicks

Clutch size Average: 14 (in mostinstances a pair ofquail will hatch onebrood per year)Range: 8 to 25 eggs

Covey size Average: 14 birds

Fly 2 to 3 weeks of age

Hatching season May to August

Home range Average: 40 acresRange: 15 to 100 acres

Incubation period 23 days (both male andfemale share in theincubation)

Markings Male: White line overits eye and down itsneck and a white bibFemale: Markings arebrownish yellow

Maturity 15 to 16 weeks of age

Weight Adult: 6 ounces

join him and is also used by males to attract amate.

Abundance and Distributionin Maryland

The population of Bobwhite Quail, whichhas long been considered an important gamebird, is declining in Maryland. Quail popula-tions have increased and declined as humansand the progress of civilization have contin-ued to alter the environment. Early land-usepractices associated with pioneer settlementswere typified by a patchy farming pattern,which provided ideal quail habitat.

From the early 1900s to the mid-1940s,quail population densities remained high andquite stable. Since the mid-1940s, however,the number of quail has declined in much ofthe South. This downward trend is largelyassociated with deteriorating habitats result-ing from the following conditions: a changeto cleaner and more mechanized farmingmethods, the joining of small fields to makelarge unbroken fields suitable for intensivecultivation, and the development of pasturesfor cattle, dairy, or hay production. Few wildspecies, however, are more capable than quailof adapting to human manipulation of theenvironment.

Also, quail are well adapted to agriculturalregions and are beneficial to people sincethey eat many harmful insects and weedseeds. Bobwhite Quail can be found through-out Maryland; however, the greatest numbersare found in southern Maryland and theEastern Shore counties.

The mortality rate for Bobwhite Quail (andmost other small game species) is high and isessentially the same in both hunted andunhunted populations. Of every 100 birdsalive in the fall, between 75 and 80 will die orbe killed within the following 12 months.Hunting only removes surplus birds beforethey are lost to other causes. For this reason,hunting in years of lower-than-average quailpopulations will not reduce the prospects fora quick return to normal levels if food, cover,and general habitat conditions are favorable.

Predators have little overall effect on quailpopulations, but what effects they do havecan be greatly reduced by improving habitat.

Better habitat increases both the number ofspecies and the quantity of individuals withinthose species in the area. This concept is calledan increased prey base. These species act asbuffers, reducing overall predation on quail.

You may be tempted to try to removepredators; however, this has been shown tobe a very inefficient approach, partly due tothe large number of potential predators andtheir ability to quickly fill any void created bythe removal of others. Instead, combine habi-tat improvement with in-season fur trappingto keep predators and predation in check.

Life History of QuailQuail do not like to be alone. During late

fall and winter, they gather together to forma “covey.” Quail coveys break up as daysbecome warmer in the spring, when themales and females pair off and courtshipbegins. Quail pair off for the entire nestingseason, and both males and females build thenests. Nests are made of dried vegetation andare in areas such as fallow fields, hedgerows,rights-of-way, and hay fields. The nestingperiod extends from April throughSeptember, with most nesting occurring inMay, June, and July. Quail renest only whenearlier attempts are unsuccessful. Nestingattempts may fail because of wild fires, poorweather conditions, predators, agriculturalactivity, or other environmental factors.Many nests are destroyed by dogs, cats, foxes,rats, snakes, raccoons, skunks, and otherpredators. Such destruction, however, is notnecessarily bad because it provides more timebetween hatching dates and thus reduces thepotential for mass mortality of the young.

Clutch sizes range from 8 to 25 eggs, withan average of 14. If the female is killed, themale will take over incubation and brooding.After a 23-day incubation period, the numberof chicks hatched ranges from 8 to 25 andaverages 12. All chicks hatch within a 24-hour period and leave the nest together a fewhours after they are dry. Chicks can fly whenthey are 2 to 3 weeks old. They weigh asmuch as adults in 8 to 9 weeks and resembleadults in 15 weeks. The adults and brood nor-mally remain together as a covey until fall.The winter covey size averages 14 birds, andmost of these birds live about 4 months;

tivated areas or areas providing adequate cover.These strips should be maintained by mowing,disking, or burning one side of each strip every2 or 3 years in the early spring. To receive someeconomic return from cropland removed fromproduction by fallow strips, these areas may beestablished in pine seedlings on a spacing of 8feet by 10 feet. These plantings will provide apermanent cover for the future as well as somefiscal return.

Cropland Management Practicesto Benefit Quail

Quail management practices for cropland canbe summarized with the following suggestions:

• Avoid tillage or mowing within 50 feetof field edges during May, June, and July,if possible. Portions of the field edgesshould be disked when more than 75percent of the soil is covered with a layerof dead vegetation to provide for newweedy growth and ideal nesting cover.

• Leave turn rows and roadsides unsprayedand untilled.

• Do not burn roadsides, hedgerows, orcrop residues. If burning is needed formanagement, burn between February 15and April 1.

• Do not disk or plow crop residues in thefall.

• Mow ditch berms only often enough tocontrol unneeded woody growth, andmow only in midsummer (July 31 toAugust 30). Mow one side of a ditch in agiven year.

• Disk around suitable patches of nestingcover to protect them from controlledburning.

Woodland Management Practicesto Benefit Quail

Quail management practices for woodlandcan be summarized in the following suggestions:

• Keep at least five good mast-producingtrees per acre when thinning hardwoods.

• Divide extensive open areas with plantingsof conifers and shrubs. Where conifersand shrubs are to be used in the strips,plant the conifers in the center flankedby the higher shrubs, with the lowershrubs on the outside. When plantingconiferous species for game purposes,use an 8-foot by 8-foot or 12-foot by 12-foot square. Where shrubs are to be usedalone, a spot planting of 6 to 10 shrubsshould be made or a hedgerow of plantsusing a close spacing.

• For optimum quail production in pine andpine hardwood woodlands, limit sawlogproduction to one-half the normal expect-ed production for the site and maintain anopen canopy so that at least 60 percent ofthe forest floor is exposed to direct sun-light at noon during the summer.

• Use uneven-aged stands and long rota-tions in woodlands of pine or hard-woods. A rotation for loblolly pine ofabout 50 years is satisfactory.

• Plant rectangular strips 200 feet wide at10-foot by 10-foot square spacings at 10-year intervals when converting openlands to pine for timber production.Thin the first strip after the third strip isplanted, and winter control burn thelimited strip 1 year following thinning.

• Use timber harvest and regenerationmethods if maximum quail manage-ment on timbered land is desired and todevelop permanent 1- to 2-acre forestopenings, which may be planted to avariety of the quail food crops previouslydiscussed. Permanent openings shouldaverage one per 15 to 20 acres. If perma-

nent openings take too much landfrom tim-ber pro-duction,

food patchesmay be estab-

lished in exist-ing timber stands.

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The wildlife management field is frequent-ly criticized for being more theory than prac-tice, and is not readily understood by thegeneral public. Considering most sportinganimals, this may be true. However, for a fewspecies, such as the Bobwhite Quail (Colinusvirginianus), it is fair to say that progress hasbeen good. Management of the BobwhiteQuail has become a respected art and science,and its habitat requirements are understoodby many landowners. This fact sheet com-bines old and new information, makingquail management possible foreveryone.

Identifying PhysicalCharacteristics

The Bobwhite Quail is a small, reddish-brown bird that weighs 6 ounces whengrown. Males have a white line over theireyes and on their necks. They also have whitebibs on their throats. These markings arebrownish yellow on females. Because of the

quail’s coloration, you may have diffi-culty seeing them. Quail get

their name from the “bob-white” whistle made by the

male, which you mayhear in the early morn-

ing or late evening.This whistle is the

way one malecalls foranother to

Fact Sheet 602

Adapted from:Barnes, T. 1989. “Bobwhite Quail

Management in Kentucky.” Natural ResourcesNewsletter. University of Kentucky.

Dorf, B. 1989. “Maryland’s Bobwhite QuailNeed Management.” Tracks ‘n Trails.Maryland Forest, Park and Wildlife Service.

Mahan, W.E. 1978. “Bobwhite Quail.”South Carolina Wildlife and MarineResources Department, Columbia, SC.

Rosene, W. 1984. The Bobwhite Quail–Its Lifeand Management. The Sun Press; Hartwell, GA.

Reviewed by:Peter S. Jayne

Eastern Region Manager

Maryland Department of Natural Resources

Forest, Park and Wildlife Service

8

Wildlife Management: Bobwhite Quailby

Robert L. TjadenAssistant Director, Agriculture and Natural Resources

University of Maryland, College Park

Jonathan KaysExtension Natural Resources Specialist

Western Maryland Research and Education Center

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, University of Maryland, CollegePark, and local governments. Thomas A. Fretz, Director of Maryland Cooperative Extension, University of Maryland.

The University of Maryland is equal opportunity. The University’s policies, programs, and activities are in conformance with pertinent Federal and State laws and regulations onnondiscrimination regarding race, color, religion, age, national origin, gender, sexual orientation, marital or parental status, or disability. Inquiries regarding compliance with Title VIof the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended; Title IX of the Educational Amendments; Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973; and the Americans With Disabilities Act of1990; or related legal requirements should be directed to the Director of Human Resources Management, Office of the Dean, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources,Symons Hall, College Park, MD 20742.

Wildlife Management: Bobwhite Quail

V2002

This Wildlife Management series was published by Maryland Cooperative Extensionwith joint expertise and funding from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and theDepartment of Natural Resources. Marylanders interested in wildlife management canrefer to this series for basic wildlife management concepts, species’ needs, managementrecommendations, habitat requirements, food and cover plants, and other general con-siderations. Contact your county Extension office for more information on wildlife man-agement. Fact sheet titles in the full series are:

Fact Sheet 597 Introduction to Wildlife ManagementFact Sheet 598 Planting Crops for WildlifeFact Sheet 599 Brush Piles for WildlifeFact Sheet 600 Field Border ManagementFact Sheet 601 Eastern Cottontail RabbitsFact Sheet 602 Bobwhite QuailFact Sheet 603 Ring-necked PheasantsFact Sheet 604 Ruffed GrouseFact Sheet 605 Mourning Doves

Fact Sheet 606 Eastern Wild Turkeys

Fact Sheet 607 Tree Squirrels

Fact Sheet 608 Black Bears

Fact Sheet 609 Wood Ducks

Fact Sheet 610 Dabbling Ducks

Fact Sheet 611 Diving Ducks

Fact Sheet 612 Canada Geese

Fact Sheet 613 Songbirds