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1970, C. C-30.

Guidelines for the Instructional Design of Motion Picture Sound , -

. - . I

Bruce Leslie Mann

A Thesis

lin

f The Department

of

Education

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements. gree of Master of Arts at

. . 'O'. lhe -Go % cordia University Montreal, Quebec, Canada

April 1988

O Bruce Leslie Mann, 1988

Permission has been granted t'autorisation a &t& accorabe to the National Library of h ^la ~ibliothhque nationale Canada to microfilm this dua Canada Be microfilmer - thesih and to lend or sell cette thase et de prater ou a-

copies of the' film. de vendre des exemplaires -du film. . . .

/-+ The author (copyright owner) L'auteur (titulaire' du droit h a s r e s e r q e d o t h e r d'auteur) ee rbserve lee publicat ion rights, , and . autres droita de publication; neither the thesis nor ni la thase ni de longs - extensive extracts from it - extraits de cell'e-ci ne may be printed or otherwise 'doivent stre imprimes ou reproduced without hi s/her autrement reproduits sari; son. . written permiesion. autarisation 6crite.

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I " ISBN 0-315-41609-2 - ,

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ACKNOWLEDG$IC~ENTS %

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t

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. This manuscript is dedicated to Diane Mann for her encouragement and guidance throughout ,.

this ordeal and without whom it may not have been finished.

The author would also like to thank Dr. Don Beckwith for his time, patience, and

supervision & this work. ,

Also deserving of special mention for their hard work, valuable-advice, loans of instrucdqnal ' I I >

materials, and for short-notice .. use of their prodliction facilities are: ~ & - i l ~ n Hoggaid, Ken ~ o d h , . - I ' 0 . , 1

and David Wells; ~o fe s so r s ~ehmid i Coldcvin, andbicki in the Peoartm-; 3 .

n t of C o m v o n St-; . . : Prqfessors -- Kovats, Babinikb, and Thwaites in the De~artme

Professors Tyrell and Herman in the & ~ w e n t of Cinema a'nd Photo&; Karen Sutton in

the Centre for Continuinp Educatior~ ~ a n h ~ e a n e in the 1 oami-, dvjsor Elaine

Bruce on ERIC; and Mark Schofield, Paul McGnire, Paul Hrasko and Audrey 'wells in the

Finallyi(hanks to 811 seventeen participants who pamcipated in the foxma6ve evaluation of .' I n

3, '* rC

6 . '* the instructional unit. . - 1 . P

s Acknowledgements

+ List of Figures

List of ~ a b l e t ( ' ;

- - 4 1. Problem ~tate&nt - 1

B I, I i , . '. Background To the Problem ' 1

Realism c" 1

Visual Bias.

Unstructured Sound I

- AV ~ed&dan~y -

~nifunctiond Sound

The Role of Implied Sound '- a . 10 5 . 7 I

'r I

Designefs identity 4" '

. . 11 ' *

- . Introduction to the Context of rhe K l e m : 4 ~e&s ,~s se s sment ' - d 12' - . \

Traditonal Teaching Guidelines a - - 12

> , Undesigned Instruction

. - \ - student Visual 'Bias' , I :- 15 -

, btltement of the Problem I - -, , - \ 15

t I

\ - ' ,

2. Literature Review \ ' \ . .

- Importance of the hriblem Within the Context of the Available ~esearc 17 . n : \ . . First Structuiing Bthaviour: Stating and Implying Functions , , 17

B . Cmtivc ~hinki& &ss for &-ing Sound Functions a -? 23

1 .' 1 ,

i . *

. 1

I . . a The Status Quo: The Reaction Against Realism

~ontern~ar~:Practitioners kd Thedrists . ' '

'. . Landmark So3nd Designs 43 , %,

1. I - ' Second ~uucturin~@ehaviour: . Rescfibing - Strategies for Functions: .

-.. - ~nformati~aai ~odnd Strategies +

.,,' a '

Emotional Sound Strategies ' - r)

& /' Pacing ~trategiei - w i,49 .' - . . '. , - <'' /-

Rhythm Strategies 50 . - I .

Review Strategies

I I ~ e l i v k y Strategies i 5 1 I * -

Review of the ~ i t e r i h e in'Instructi&al Design ,/

53 1 '

Inspuctional Design Model ' 53 I r )

Needs Assessment . 1

I I

55 -

Audit Trail . ' , 56

A ' * I ' Performance Objectives ' 57

1 .

I / . t

\

, ,,

t # ~nshcional Strategies and Media 58

Crit~ioakeferenced -. Tests '- - ' 59, , 73

/ -. **

/ , * Formative Evaluation * . 59

production Design: . ~ o f t w d ~ e f ~ r e Hardware - e ' I

.. I darionalk for Media Selection & : , : : 65

' t

3. ~nstru~tional Design MctHodology_ - 69 >

. - I . -

" ' 69 ' Instructioqal Design and Develo

.~tfcrent Situation Tests /

.; ' 5 .

"4 . f - Audit Trail ' 71 , A

J . - 2 .a , - -

‘- 1 bstruc tional Goal 72

Concepts: Skills, Strategies, and Motivation I 73 , * ', .

Creative Thinking Process: Structuring Sound-.Func@ons " 74 ' \

~tcuct& of the ~nstructional beTp 4 ,.- I .

79 /

f

The Hietarchy ' a 79

\

Media Selection p.r 71 .+ 81

'Production ~ctai ls h d ~Guirexnents * * - 81 -

4 , : Formative ~valuatiqs

I. . I .

. > Evaluitioq Design of the $&dy B

/ ' 81

1 )

' Stage Onpi SME &nd-Ir~s&orial Designer Feedback -

. . . . \ . 82 + ,

' Revised Instructional' Events Timetable ' , I * .

9 Stage Two: ~ n c - ~ o h n e ~&native'~valuati~ns 3 , , \ ' . - . Q

t . . Stage Three: Small Group ~arinative,~vaIuations .

m .

d - a. > , .

t, . ' Y

4. ~ecommendations fkkevision C

: 2ecoyendations f& ~cvisions to the Pcxfomqce objectives . Y -

Objective Eight

Objktive Nine

Objective Ten r

Objective Eleven .

Objective ~ w e l v e 102 ' C * 4

I ( i

Objective Fourteen h ' 104 ',

"8

a

, Objective Fifteen + -1 05 ,P

Objective Sixteen ' . B , . ( I .

, I . , ObjectivbSevehteen . b, fl - Objective ~ i ~ h t & n I , , z

0 ' " 5 '?

Objqtive Nineteeh - % ,

< . . . ,. J . . Objective Twenty

, ~kcomrnendatiorns for Revisions to the Instructional Analysis

L . f a

Objectives Requiring Both Rule-Using and Problerh Solving ~ & t e ~ i e s 1'.

- , . 120'

* &9 , - Objectives One though Five - , - - - & - 120

I. I h t i v e Thinking S trategie's - b. 120 ' . .

c .

' Objective Nine - , . ' 1 . 0bjecives Te* and ~3even: ~ound~unctions and ~tructurc , - - r(, 4121 - , -'

1 , - , . ' <

Objectives Twelve and Thirteen: Structuring Sound Functions 122 - - * *

, Objectives Fourteen aid Fifteen -

A

. , - Objectives Ninteen 'and Twenty; . '

-- r

, Objectivcb-Requiring ~ i e - u s i n ~ stratigiei &ly h r 3 ,

, Objectives Six, seven, andS$ght , . - a .

L - , . Objectives Sixteen, Seventien, and Eighteen 4 .

bstrucdonal Events Tmtable

, Formative ~ v a l u ~ t i i n ode! .

(ippurdi; A: TWO ~ e k n t Situation Tests

Appendix B: 'Ihrce A Pri& Objktives

4 5 Appendix C: Three Revised Objectives .

" - * Appendix D: Eight Revised Answer Sheets , .

. .-* .' ABSTRACT L -,7 Q - - la

4. * : I '

Guidelines for the Instructional Design of ~ o t i 0 . n Picture Sound

-- 7 Bruce L. Mann

I

.:, ~raditionall~, film b d televidon users have thought of motion picture s -

9 911nd as *

' accompaniment to thy visuals. This inattention to the sound cornpone6 in movies has manifested

itself over timi in film and televi~ion producdon courses. As a result of using the h i r t i n & -

I . . ~ h g ~ s (1986) audit trailing and Davis, Alexander & Yelleh's c1974) RST techniqueshr study o

a determined dat there doesli't seem to be a system of scriptwriting, of sound mixing, or of ; - ',I,

, ' applying ae~thetics'~reserit1y in place that can manage the complexity of structuring sou d

* b - - functions synergistically. m e prevailing situatidn is that motion pidture production students and ,

cannd.c;eate new' prockdures for designing sound for motion pictures

synergistically. * A unit of instruction was~evelopedyfor seventeen conirnunication studies and educational ,

1

<

khnology volunteers basedon a vHation of Gag (1979) instructional design , ._.

4 / - - -* . mode wih\quali&ve criteria drawn from Keller's (1983) rnotivati~nal theory and the Mitchell, ,

e \

Wilkens &'steukel (198 1) cteative learning paradigm. Dick and Carey's (1 985) formative %.

u

evaluation of intellectual skills and'attitudes was complemented with van Oech's (1983) creative - I r e

\ 4 thinking strategies. The subject matter experts, external evaluators, and independent instructional . , I % -

designer ievised the instructional rnateiiafs. It is highly recommended that they consulted in V '

future studies in sound design in order to keep the instructional ngterials current and interesting. 3,

The one to one Pials exposed sever& criterion-lev& inconsistencies and unusablqvidm ?

segments. Single subject trials are rec~mmended if. new materi Js are king , cbnsidered . fat

-. inclusion into the unit. The small group evaluations produced the most feedback about the

instructional design, showing that only two subjects were able to master-38 of the 40 criteria at

- 9 - the fP0 leiel. Several subjec~s erhibitesproblem blving traits requiring a less %wed- *\,

insrmctioai&&xi&menr, while subjey~ exhibi~n$~redominantty rule-y8ng level traits required a* . .

more structured treatment. (See Mann, 1988 for corhpkte details of the instm6ti&nal design ...

,stages and forinative evaluation results.) =

Further recommendations for revision wduld have the numbkr of objectives expanded from . - 4 , seven. td'twenty with a mire equalweighting of criteria per objective and more task specific

, . I -

cre~tiv@Mnlcing task-strategid for rule-using level subjqti. Revised instructional materials

would hate more job-related probleqs in the video examples and nonexamples. Revised

criterion-referenced e i t s would show more uniformity of difficulty of media type and of - - \ I

# '

genre-type between test items. Moreover, since there does not'seem to be any adequate sound i

d e s i 6 systeh in place at present, this soynd design system and its instructioGa1 design

procedures may be a logical point of reference to begin designing instructional materials for other '* J

- % a .larger audiences. Y

7 -

LIST OF FIGURES

3.1 Needs assessment. Y 5

3.5 A priori hie~archy of objectives. & ..

. 3.6 Revised hierarchy of objectives.

4.0 Recommended revisions to the hierarchy of objectives.

LEST OF TABLES

3.0 A priori instructidnd events timktable. . 4

3.4 Revised instructional events timetable. &

4.0 ~ e c o d e n d e d revipions to the instructional events timetable.

CHAPTER J t

5

Realism I . Historically, -have been two main theories used for interpreting jliroduction values in

movie-making: Expressionism and realism. These thedries have dominated the history of motion

picture theory and ever since their inception by realist Louis Lumiere and expressionist

George Melies (Gianetti, 1985; ~onaEo , 198V. Realistic sound tended to be synchronous, 4 A r

derived from the images yhkh were ;corded simultanously with them.'~x~ressionist sound

tended to be nonsynchronous, that is, detached from its source, often acting in contrast with the

image, or existing as a totally separate iource of meaning. Thes theories were essentially 7 visually-motivated conc~ptualizations of reality.

X

Critics of t$e realist tradition have stated that there is no reason why thesoundtrack should

reproduce the sounds usually made by the objects represented in the images (Spottiswoode, 1

1949). b e more dissimilarities there are between pictwe and sound while still retaining a link of,

some kind, the mdre powerful the effect on the viewer~listener (Arnheim, 1957; Balazs, 1972; * \

Bresson, 1977; Cavalcanti, 1939; Clair, 1972; ~ i sen~ te in , 1949; Eisenstein, Pudovkin & 1

Alexandrov, 1949; Gorbrnan, 1976; ~nerson , 1934; Kracauer, 1960; Metz, 1980; Paine, 198 1;

Pudovkin, 1960). - . ?

Owing to a prcponderence of primaril; visually-$ndd theoreticians and pratticioners, ' 8

designing sound for mot& pic$ures has oftenbeen slighted both in practice and mearch '(Akin '

/- - *,

- I

a 1973: Doae 1976; Gorbman 1978; Rosenbaum 1978). The justification f ~ r discussing ovies in

visual terms has been that sight has always been considered the primary sense (Rosenbaum,

1978; Sparshott, 1971). r

In the past, creativity was most often yoked to seeing: "To imagine is to visualize". Terms b

like "motion pictures", "cinema", and "television", trace their etymological roots to visual -- --

concepts, not to oral/aural ones. Consequehtly, many contemporary authors attribute their *

opinions of poor sound in media productions to a visual bias which has evolved due to a

camera-oriented dominance in the filmmakinminology (Akin, 1973; Altrnan, 1980, 1985; t

Altrnan, 1980; Dope, 1978; ~oienbaurn, 1978; Seidman, 1986). Altman (1985), for example,

stressed similarities; Eisentein (1949) stressed montage; and Bazin (1980) preferred long-takes.

Both Eisenstein and Bazin were emphasizing the visual component of filmmaking, The current

. . ' - visual bias, therefore, ma? have been generated as a by-product of th'e early debates between the

visually-m~tivated'expressionist and realist movie theoreticians and practitioners.

Movie criticism and theory still remains resolutely image-bound (Altman, 19,85):Reasons

. ~nderlying~the authority of the visual dominance have continued to multiply. The s o b e of the I

image's current high status is still closely linked to sub-sets of visual terminology such as "angle

"of view", "imaginary line", ' h l e of thirds", "aspect ratio", and others (Gianetti, 1985; , 1) . '-

Livingston, 1969). The recent literature has suppqi$d djis visual emphasis b; the adoption (in

some production circles) of the film theories of Jean-Louis Baudry, Jean Comolli, and Jacques' .

, ~acan.*~h;se theories, cs~entially based iil linguistics, have been popularized in p i n t 'and on tape ~

'

by ~ a u d j . Metz, and student-producers at the Universite de Paris (Altman. 1985). Although c I

- these theories are sufficient for naming and classifying the meanings embedded in

. expnssionistic-style productioris~roblerns have arisen in production practice and in courses I

when describinpnon-dominant sounQdesigns (Gianetti, 1985). Descriptive film sound'theories, ' , -

, therefore, may be part of the cause for the gaps in sound-picture relationships.

, . There are two more possible explanations for the recent visual bias in many motion picture

h - V ' 1 d

& C

3

i productions: Unstructured sound and unifu~ctional sound. Sound bullying (Rosenbaum, 1978)

D

refers to eitherboth unstructured and/or unifunctional design production activities. Some sourtd

designs have functions without a structure for those functions. Others have either an unstructured

unifunctional design or an unstructured no-function design (e.g., aleatoric sbund). In either case. - .

the designs ,are unstructured and therefore contribute to thfisud bias in the list1@ner/viewcr either . .C I

because the soundtrack does nothing to redlce the visual bias, or because it ydks against the I

scripted action.

I

The efkct of a production with two or more sound functions working withog a structure is

often distracting (Gecsei, 1985), boring (Brown, 1985) or both (Field, 1982; Ooldman, 1984).

. Location news footage and documentary cinerna'!.pr aleatoric i

without a strategy)

usually relies on realistic

/ o"erdubbing(~ianetti, 1985). Arnbienthoise an conversation in a chaotic event , for example, h. I / may ifnply several sound functions at once /sg.)&nosphert, POV, 14ale). However, in this

context, these functions s k m to produc distracting effect. .,

$

Boring productions on the other often to be the result of informatiomfly , I

redundant pictures, stated, and *plied sou d. This seems to occur most often when there's lots P 6 of "wind-up" in an

1

where the impact

mediating an intended message or expression. An info4ational rolind subsuatategy (Allen, 1981.;

. Zuckerman, 1949) is a contjnuurn that spans from thedeakest substr4tegy, wherein the sound k

A accompanies fie image; to a stronger sound substrate.gy that cues the image; to a stronger sound .a

, -

subs&tegy that counterpoints the i&; to yet a sttonger souid9substrategy that dominates th; a . \

- . image'; and finally to the strongest sound sabstrategy, that undermines the image. The P - -

accompaniment of sound to the image is coqsidered to be thg weakest infbrmationd sound

subsiatcgy%cau'&he sound merely repeats the same information presented by another \ S

\ component of the same medium. Many current sound designs, especially in broadcast television,

utilize the weakest informational sound substrategy in order to convey information. ,

EmotionalStraterv. The emotional stiategy prescribes a scripted subtext for the text,, and

7 answers the question, "what does she really want?" (Broyn, 1985; Field, 1982; Gecsei, 1985;

Goldmari, 1984). In defining the visual action intensity the emotional sound strategy prescribes

how, where, and how often the'chosen sound function should punctuate the visualaction (Alten,

198 1; Seidman, 1986,; ~uckekan , . 1949). In punctuating the emotion, this emotional sound - ,

, strategy prescribes how., where, and how oftm the chosen sound fuqction should provide 1 . 't

subtext to the stated so&d.and/or visual action (kltdn, 1981; ~eidman, !986; Zuckerman, 1949): a -

., . RhvthmsCnd Rhythm and pacing are related but distinct sound . , -

su bskategies (~oldevin, 198 1 ; palher, 1969; Salomon, 1-979; Schrarnm, 1972). The iko rhythm a _ . m

% substrate'gies (i:e., continuous-and discontinuous) prescribe the periodicity for each chosen '

, . r . I - I

J f sbund function in the script. Thiy p&scribe how, where, and how often the chosen soufid , 3 . -.

a ., , , function should set up the world (Brown, 1985; ~ield,l982; Root, 1985) in the production.The . , ,, '

a two paCirfg bound subqtrategiei (Coldevin. 198 1; Palmer. 1969; Salornon, 1979; Schramm, ,

1.

, 1972) hdy fast; where, and how often the chosen spund function kcurs in the R

- Ri , productioh. Sound . pacing . , may either be &t or slow, or both occuning in contrast to one ,

- 0

another. . . I

. he three review substrategies 0.e.. massed, spaced, and su'mmarizexi) 1 . . '

. . . . . - pkscribes *the nature bf a particular function's re&c&ance in asound-picture, relationship (

Coldevin, 198 1 ; Davi%S, Alexander & Yellon, 1974). A m a s d review substrategy clumps one A,

. . - or morr funcbons together in o& place in the story. A ,spacedreview substrategy spreads out one '

enim plbt. While a summarized review subsnategy reweds the . 7' s

--.

impact of one or more functions unitil the third act. . . d

\ i

, r, &livery Str-, f i e delivery strategy is usually considered to be contiuum used in . * & ' .

- , 7 L.

. :. - education to prescribe instructional events or learning activities (Davis. ~ l e x a n d ~ & yellon, . . ' . 1974). The ijidlicatibn of convirienr or divergent delivery rhethods predcribe;r how, wQere, and

I

how often the chosen sound function should editorialize the issue. !n a convergent delivery - -

t strategy I (Coldevin; 1981) the producer presents the questions and supplies,the aqswers; I

one side over another. ' This divergent deliveb sound substrategy prescribes how:

1 where, and how often the chosen sound~function should represent the most exhaustive research - . ' 1 of the issue. In the divkrgent deli-very strategy.(Coldevin. 1981), the listenerlviewer supplies

-

' I hisher own answers to contrdversial questions presented by the medium. In &ery case; the I

strategies that make up the sound design structure specify~how, where, or how often a particular I

'3 -

, ) strategy will appropriately place specific sound functions next to every moving pict,ure sCquence

\ so as to create an'exprissionistic coriceptu&ization of reality which is greater than the sum of the - , *

. J parts. '-

AV Re- and Self-service Megsaeine d . . There ire t,wo types of manifestation of visual -

- 1 ' bias in modon picture productions as a result of two or more sound functions working without a- -

,-

structure: AV redundancy and self-service messaging:. i 8:

J' , - 1

1) AV redundancy is the most frequent and obvious manifestation of visual bias in motion " 1

picture productions as a result of two w more sound functions working without a structure. I

o r

, Many media users hhveueated sound as an accornpani&ent to the "real" basis Gbinerna (i.e, the - \ moving pictures); and that "those peopleon the screen should merely produce the appropriate - 8

9 noises"6rdwelltk ~ ~ o r n ~ s o n ~ ~ ~ T h n r - i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

+

movie makers have been largely-responsible for the current state of AV,redttndancy. AV . -. . , 'p

*

> , redundancy bcdun frequently on n&wsAprograms.that fcature ongoing worldly*skirmishcs and -

wars. For example, a TV pews proprarhme may yxeen pictures showing a skirmish as it* ' - happened (live-to-tape). The nevjs anch6r inuoduces arid reads the details of the story describ;u$

, . 0 , ii

I

1 3 * , %

4. , . . r

. " a ?. ' C i

. * I . , ' ' I

I ' .

t - - ?. . what the listener/viewer can hearlsee for himherself while the charper @herator pnnts out the

text of e anchor word for word across the screen. In this example, the scriptwriter has aimed 3 6 the redundancy of these messages at the gut (Rosenbaum, 1978) intending to punctuate an

- - J - emotional highlight with a conyeFnt c~ntinuously spaced review substrategy. There is an

attendant inforhation4 strategy which structures an atmosphere sound function 'that merely

accompanies the image thereby sustaining AV redundancy and the visual bias. The graphicated

text accompanied by the voice-over is, another unnecessary reinfo~cement of the s v e I

informational strategy of the sar* atmosphere sound function. The combined effect in this "

example is a one-sided point of view (POV; camera angle and structured sound~function) of tHiT . -w

. . skirmish, where the soundtrack doesn't say any more than the pictures bave and may even be

distracting to the 1irt;nerlviewer unless either the sound volume is lowered or the newscast is

listened to from another room. AV redundancy means that not enough of script was wqitten with k"

- respect b how, where, and how often any chosen sound function (atmosphere in this case) Gas r,

structured (e.g., using an informational, emotional, pacing, rhythm, delivery) into the I

.{ sound-picture relationship. . 4

t / ' - 2) Self-service m e s y n g is a less frequent manifestation of visual bias in motion picture ,A,

r K C , productions as a result of two or more sound functions working without a strucnrre. Self-skyice -. /"

\ / mess!iging, particularly infbrinational messaging . , take themselves too seriously, providing . . the. ,/ -

# / , - - '

bulk of the evidence for visual bias (~isl iy, 1967). Two examples of self-service rnessagink are ,,,' . . -% .. N evangelists and all-riight salespeople wlio frequent many local and network cable telev$b.(/'

/ '

' stations following the late news. Using aronvergent delivery strategy, the ~revailhg condidon is ' 4

I _ _ _

, . , '- . -- 'that sdf-service rnessa'ges make conventional uses oi siiund s t r u c t u r e s : ~ 1967) is - -

I ., \ , I ,

.concerned with the fundamentally immoral act>of not screening equally strong arguments from ', + - .. - ,.I

opposing sides; not allowing people the opportunity to make up their own minds, not with the.

aesthetic mistreatment of the message. , .

Ideally, every *smcmred function in a sound-picture relationship should be deliberately. I

. >

. - d ,' --

I' . i' ', .

-, . . .. I .7 . ' 1 , .

* / . obscured, F6ntrovenial, or highly complex in its anistry or social ideology (Eislcr, 1967). This 1 ,

would e k ourage the listener/viewer.to become an aktive participant in the expexieice in -order to - draw their own conclusions) about the message. -

- -

, - 1 Sound designing uses'both stated sound (i.e., live or live-to-tape dialogue or narration, live

/' P

/ music, and live action sound effects)rend implied functions (i.e.', locale, POV, - /

h;, ?..

, 1 atmosphere/feeling!mood, pasvfcture events, chrirrlcter's past, and character in the character). . . j h-ucturing sqund effects and music without r e g d to thek implied functions in the sound-picture ' -B

"rel~onsbip neither prescribes appropriate character, locale, point of vie'w (Rosenbaum, 1978; / ',

. F. Zuckerman, 1949), nor accelehtes the scripted action (Brown, 1985; Field, 1982; Gecsei, 1985; D

& , . -r

Goldman, 1984). 1 . '

The following structuring methods are considered to promote-the \;ihal bias in the- 5 s

listenertviewer by not attending to which functions are being structured: - ,

I ~. * 1) Ari'stotle in the Poetics alluded to structure as "a simple or complex plot made up of those - .~ - i

powerful elements of athahion: peppity, discovery, and suffering" (1449.b6 to 1453.10). Yet . -

these elements are ignoredrin his discussion of plot dwelopment using sound (structdre, ' - 'C

dialogue, and music). .-

a . 2) Zettl(1973) replaced Pudovkin's synchronistic/async@nistic dichotomy.with thc more

literal source-cqnnect'ddis&nnected categories. His subcategories seem to be dependent on \.

visual cues rather than o n story struttur'e, and only allude to the psychological compoAents of 1

sound. . t

- - - - - - - .- - .. - --. 3).Coldevints,(.1981) several content organization categories were nkant to improve learning :- . *

b * i \ . , usihg media by,smcturing the bcat ional content throughoh the prodiction. They do nM &end

.- * to sound in the sound-picture relationships.

1 . . * : . 4) The Children's ~&le"ision Workshop uses instructional goal-areis as a method-for , -.

P

re skc7uring visual and verbal content (Palmer, 1969; Schramm, 1972). Their methodology,~ -

P - however, neglects to wnsider a . for selecting and combining their sound strategiei

I

P : es '2' '?~j

(goal-areas) with their swnd functions (POV, character's past, etc.) in the picture-sound, # -

relatiowhip. 4 - I , . , . _ I

5) Salomon's sysiem of cbdes (1979) primarily describes the strategies used to interpret and . . I I

- prescribe educational.messages. They do not provide for the temporal dependency of sound ih -

the time-space continuum (Arnheirn? jb5'7). - %,

6) The story-spi~e (Goldman, 1984; Field, 1982; Root, 1979) has been considered to be an n

% indis$nsible insmment used in theatrical sc&enwriting?nd miide-foi-TV movies. Its usefulness a. in treating the story using soundhas been left untouch_ed.

7) McLuhan's (1967) idea that "-v acts mor@ki%hpr than an eye; that i t & articipation is

h aural not visual':, c@es thmorrect altiudLfor biak probl m in TV. '

? * . (I

However, this notion was only part of in a futurishc globd . . ib -

- f , - village, and is not'readily acceptable to designing sound or television.

-, . . 8) News items read by the n,e\work.anchor or riporter tend to'ba designed .with a stated,

* '

realistic, synchronous sound. Either ho"imp1ied sound funcribns, or a unifunctiond (usuily - 8

- point of view) infomatiopal sound strate67 is If a POY sound function i b structured . .

into the script, only one ~ 0 V ' y i n s the debate. The only-implied function,'(^^)^ in this case), is - + - 1-

-. t . . 8 m a m n e d throoghout the production. Since the anchor's character, hisher past, hisher POV, ,

hisher locale is never,manipulared, the resuiting impression seems to be that the interview&'s

'POV must be somewhat less cokct pr lessinformed while the anchks P& is always cornsf: 1

. The compelling delevision magazine-style "60 Minutes" has evolved a method that occasionally -- --

__T_ ---- emdes away the very trust and rigor at the very hem of investigative jourrial~sm;' (~onaBim -

9) Brijish and North Aperican television drama has tended to utilize informational and

emotional strategies while applying one of three examplesaf the same sound function; namely,' 0 , u

s - .5

atrhosphere/ feeling/mbod (Alten, 1981; Gorbman, 1976; Zuckerman. 1949). While giving these

productions an immediate recognizability, the; multiple applications of unifunctional souid can , 4 . * hardly be expected to suspend the listener's disbelief across phductions.

1 10)bther.producers and writ& (Bordwell & Thompson, 1979; Dpane, '1980; ~ o r b m h , :

. . 1976; ~rendergast, 1 77; Seidman, 1986; ~ ~ o t t i s w o d e , 1965) have suggested semiologicd P 'I

'. : frameworks to o r g d z e content. But these are tpo desqriptive alld too Complex for most sound 0

u , I*

design users (Gianetti, 1985). ' I i

'. f?. 1

oned W e x D v . ~onv i rba l sound has k e n praised (when not overused) for its - . Lffect when h's aimed at the gut.(~osenba)lm, 1978), contriving to persuade the audience that the I images are more effective scarier, funnier, bolder, sadder, or wiser than they actually are. An

l. . , insidious albeit, less frequent manifestatibn of visual bl'as in motion picture productian has been . , ,

conditioned reflex sound designing, which usually recurs in dramatic and docudramatic film gnd

'i televisioqi productions. There are few examples in the literature that deal with sound designs that I \ . %.

stiG2at;latc thdught rather than manipulate f onditioned reflexes. Condition9 reflex sound designs , I are alsd symptomatic of L woiking 'sound structure without any, or with only one, sound

I I # .

function; Oneabvious example of associative automatism (Eisler, 1967) or conditioned reflex

sound is the use of music torepresent impending doom of the approaching shark in the feature '

movie "Jaws". If anequivalent visual coercion werelrected at the audience, it would probably

function like printed italics or an exclamation point, which of course would probably be 0 I

" ridiculed.

Cliche Des*. An equally insidious yet more frequent manifestation of visual bias than the ',

'* * \

co*ditioned reflex design is thcliched sound design.'cliched sound designs ire symptomatic of , . ,a working soun,d stiucture without ,rr------ any, or with only - . one, sound .--- function. k, the - . I

-,

cliched sound design may be said to act as substitute for, and may be considered to be' a corollary . . * ' of the conditioned reflex design. The heuristic used here seems to have beenlafwhenevn you '

' can't afford to inveni your own conditioned reflex design, then use somebody - - else's. In the

L I

scriptwritihg literature,' these "uses" of other designbs work ak called spin-dffs or rip-offs , -

(Brown, 1985; ~oidmm, 1984) depending on how heavily the user borrows from the initial

. .id&: , ' 8

' . ClicheQ reflex sound designs an symptomatic of a sound structure without

. ' I

* ~,,. function. Sometimes sound necessitates an informational % -

so;nduack, as in electronic ntws,gathering (ENG) and in electronic field production (EFP). Here I

, Q the sound is qften Subordinated and unifunctional ,(Spottiswoode, 1949; Zettl, 1976).

1

1 ;+ - A

In p~vailing practice, the effect on the ,specta6f is oftenplanned (cliched designs, '

' conditi~ned reflex designs) while the conteht of ihe music is planless (Eisler, 1967). This . .

situation should be reversed.Whate~r the narure of the re'sources s,ed (e.g., original

composition, records, tapes), the movie music should be situation specific,derived from 6 e I I

prirtjcular conditions of given case, and preferably never before heardpn radib ubless.

s~ectfically desighed to include that purpose (Eisler, 1967) as in many music video r h L -

"First, the music should be planned without an eye for the effect. Both pictures and sound m

\ 1 1 6 ' 9 .

shbuld. have a. function in the sound-pichre relationship, driving the story forward naturqlly *

/ a '

based on the character's mbtivations, not the scriptwriter's device (Brown, Gecsei, GoIdrnan, '

'I - 19.83). The use of music, dialogue and sound effects in motion pictures should be inspired by I . \ , - Objective considerations (i.e., the intrinsic riquirements of the work). The sound should not

a I

overeagerly identify with'thekvents on the screen but should be able to assert its distance fro;

than and thus accentuate the general meaning (Amheim, 1957; Balazs, 1972; Bresson, 1'977; \ - > - --- - - -Pa

Cavalcanti, 1!$39; Clair, 1972; Eisendein, 1949; Eisenstein, Pudovkin & Alexandrov, 1949; 9 tr

t 6 Gorbman. 1976; Grierson. 1934; Kracauer. 1960; Metz, " I . 1980; h o kin, 1969). Then, a b. i' , prom of the music should be tested i n the target audience, Changes should be eonsidered .

fobowing an assessment of results of the observationhadeof the target group(s). No "rules of .-

-- - .

I xperience" shou\dbbe recognized until they have been tried out on a target sudi&ce (Eisler., , /

/' '

1 1967, p. 126). Even in asserting its distarice, sound designi-nebe ovepsed-. Director John- .. \ Ford stated in an-interview with collegue-Peter Bogdonavitch (1969), "1 don't like to see a man

alone in the desert dying of thirst with the Philedelphia Orchestra t#%ind him" (p. 99).

.% - , * -- -4 '.- <,'*,3 ' I

Typically, public taste has dictated how, where and how often film and television producers . , *

embrace realist techniques. One reason for this may.& tie commitment (or thk lack thereof) of

the sound designer in balancing anistic objectivity with public taste. Well-designed sound has

always had a lot to do with how the designer interprethe world (Eisler, 19b7). It must be

decided in each case how, where and how often should su-uctured functions should be

prescribed. And whether or not the identifica$on is actually achieved or replaced with cliches. -. 5, b

In conclusion, it seems that visual bias has been one of the most pervasive problems - in

motion picture sound designing (Altman, 1985; Gorbman, 1976; Rosenbaum, 19 8 . The 7 - number and nature of the structured functio-ns of sound in sound-picture relatiansh ps determine

1 I . , whether or not the effects of those relationships have promoted or reduced the visu

listenerlviewer. Movie sound, therefore, will not k g i n to improve until every

treated with exact regard to its special function (Alten, 1980; Eisler, 1967; ~uckerman. 1949).

The literature seems to support the opinion that gaps are evident in-many motion picture sound 1,

'design Presumably, this lohg history of gaps in sound design results is the product of

producers who - have learned their craft either aprioh, from experience; o r by some combination ' .

1

of both. ,It folbws that any improvement in the sound design education system should logi~ally - - A - - .-- - -- -+- - -

'produce better motion picture sound designers. "Better motiq picture sound designers" in this \ I

+ ,s, context refers to those persons who have the ability to generate original expressionistic

conceptualizations of the reality for the sound-pkture relationship by selecting and combining

appropriate fungtions and structures synergistically for each sound-pictun sequence throughout - ' , . .

an entire production).

.i' tion To The C b w f The Problerp: A N- Y

. This proliferatibn of unstructured and/or unifunctional sound designs in motion picture

productions hasmanifested itself over dmk as a bad habit within the instructisnal designs of . . many film and television production courses. The prevailing situation is that motion picture

production students and practitioners avc not been able to create new procedures for designing $. sound for motion pictures (Alten, 1981 ; Eisenstein, 1949; Gianetti,. 1976; Metz, 1960; Gorbman,

1976; Gidal, 1978; Pudovkin, 1949; Spottiswoode, 1950; Zettl, 1973; Zuckerman, 1949). As a . consequence of this bad habit, many writers are pressed to offer new production or teaching

guidelines to the study of the relati0,nships of sound to picture (Baggaley, 1986; Bordwell &

Thompson, 1979;.Brookes, 1986; Burch, 1973; Doane, 1980; Eisenstein, 1966; Eisler, 1967; ., Feldman & Feldman, 1967; Goldman, 1983; Gorbman, 1976; Kracauer, 1960; Mancini, 1985;

I

-# Manville & Huntley, 1975; Paine, 1985; Prendergast, 1977; Pudovkin, 1958; Rosenbaum, 1978;

. Seidman, 1986; Shq les , 1975; Schramm, 1972; Snider, 1971; Spottiswoode, 1965; . . Stephenson & Debrix, 1969; Weis & Belton, 1985; Zuckerman, 1949).

Tea- . .

Claudia Gorbman (1976), for example, states that the most %uently quoted authors,

namely Arnheim. Kracauer, Spottiswoode, and others, have created a general disherest in \

movie sound through the officiousness "with which they have treated the soundtrack. According "

~ ~ ~ ~ f n ~ w ~ t students of sound should be aware that: -- 1) '

sound design falls into one of two opposing categories- parallel versqs counterpoint; 2) the

relation of Gund to picture falls into one oftwo opposing categories- synchronous versus

nonynchronous; a d 3) he narrative source of movie sound falls into one of two opposing s . - - - categories- realistic"versus unrealistic.

. . /

'~ T

* ?--- 1 3

. \ Gorbman's criticism of these categ~ries is well-taken in so far as the domindnt prricpces in ,

sound design education are questioned. Her point that sound effects editing and mixing*shbula be - I ex-mined by practitioners in relation to the current sgucture of their own ideological dualism, is

also well taken. Eisler (1967) concurs with thiS need for more unconventional uses of sougd-t6 1

and social ideology. Gorbman's important

/contribution may be in the exposure of traditional Pythagorean dichotomies that split cwrent v

@ ( sound effects design knowledge into two opposibg Cperating methodologies: Intellectual versus

\ emotional, intelligible versus sensible, reasonable versus intui -d e (Doane. 1978; ~ocenbaurn. / 4'

\1978). Gorbman's serniological replacement, however, does little in the way of presenting a I 1

and systemic instructional technology for prescribing an original ,soundtrack that , _I

lo+ers the visual biss. Her sound aesthehcs are reminiscent of a simplified version of the Metz C , - .

semiology. Metz has no production component either (Gihnetti, 1985). His seiniological

, frameworks escriptive classifications only, not nognativel ~onver se l~ , the r:otion of 1 .>

expressionism, though presenting only one side of a dichotomous relation;hip, still lends itself to

-, easier classification under this system than does ;he semioilc~symbology (~iimetti, 1986). 1 * ~evl ra l other guidelines for producing.Wd teaching effective sound de i ig i~~ are evident in the

literature. They range from the simplest step-by-step instructio,ns for.primas-y schocl children \ / (Swartz, 198 1) to adult production education (Seidman, 198 1) to audio hookrup -...- .....,...., \

techniques for consumer u Brookes, 1986) to several complex audio configurations that are '%

designed to improve the or corporate film production (Piper, 1975) to the variable studio f l . 'I

o r EFP effects of audio hardware in video prod.uction systems (Starr, 1987; DuPre, 1987) to --- ---. ---

current pOrsuasive message desigys used in the m&ke&g.of audio hardware and vidko .

production systems (Moss, 1987; Stanton, 1987) to curretrt audience research on increasing the

perceived reliability of subject matter experts through the use of solemn music ( B a a ey, 1980). * 1

6. Recent decades of independent B filnmaking\have seen a return to .the sound.-as-performance

t 4 'badition of the silent-with-piano-music film,: Synchronous sound is always realistic. However, ,

'

- , &-

-- not dl h a production students are using synchronous realistic sound. In one college setting,

"2 student Super 8 f i lFakers haqe discovered that asynchronous r alistic sound Hias easier to a

work with and offered students m.ore creative possibilites than synchronous realistic sound

(Piper, 1975). ~ e-w,r

Steven Seidman's (1986) students, alternatively, studied soundtracks in order to create their C .

own m2ic videos. This strategy, however, relied on prerequisite visudlization and

narrative-writing skills. Portnoy (1986) used to assist students in learning I 4'

believable character development and scene accelleration in their creative writing projects. Some

independently made student films (Camper, 1985), and student videos (Brookes, 1986) were

4 r/ accompanied by sounds that were n d placed on th; filmstrip or audiotracks, but played

separately that is, super 8 double-system style. The synchronization was inexact and slightly

different on each projection: It was a fresh experience for every screening, and in one sense, an

. i expressio"istic conceptualization of reality. '\ A

d The rationale'lor implementing many of these widelines was derived, in many cases, from L C

b some combination of trial error, expert judgement, and traditional film production principles, IEL - 1

rather than from a forrnati;e.evaluation of the instructional design. The products were sound 8 - - - 'i' - .

designs that were clones of each other s i y e they reflected neither the style nor the value-system

of the designer. Productiori theories, it see&, have only been as good as they were useful.

y e n they have ceased to be so, they were often discarded in favour of an approach that d

- "worked for the picture" (Gianetti, 1985) with little attention payed to the commitment of the i

designer to the sound design in the filrnqurriculum (Dome; 1976; Eisler, 1967; Rosenbaum, -. -

Q 1978). The sound designer was not~aught cow to become committed to manipulating or

& changing reality as part of the instructional system. (

Student Visual B i a

. One probable consequence of these ihmries seems to be a scarcity of movie; that use - non-dominant sound designs in motion picture productions (Doane, 1978; Rosenbaum, 1978), - ,

There has been a rack of detailed technical information about production techniques for

non-dominant sound designs and an inadequate vocabulary fordescribing non-dominant sound ,

-- design. Its not surprising, theretore, that so many students tend to thlnk (as media producers - P

have) of sound as simply an accompaniment to the real basis of cinema; the moving images.

Listener/vieyers, therefore, assume-that the people and things pictured on the screen just produce

an appropriate noise (Bordwell & Thompson, 1979).

In conclusion, it seems that the majority of subject matter experts are u%nimous in their I agreement on this problem of a visual bias Moreover, there seems to be a consensus of opinion

\ ' I I

within the wea of educational research that sound design education has been virtually left

uniouched (Berg, 1976; Burch, 1973; Coldeuin, 198 1: ~ucktrman 1949). Burch (1973) writes 1 > .

tfiat,research into soundtrack productioh techniques,-eked out by qualified rese&chcrs. is -, '

crucial if entertainment and educational motion picture film and television are evZr to realize their 1

inherent potential. Coldevin's Ttr research (1 98 1) arid Zuckerman's film research (1 949) have

suggested that more educational formative research and formative evaluation-need to be canied . out on the rela'donships of sound variables to picture variables for film, video, and sound

production courses. 0 4 .

Given problematic or soundless..(either in-house or independent) - film and TV segments,

. motion pictu;e production practitioners and students of film and TV produition have not been ', 1

able to generate new sound designing,procedures f i r solving probkms energistieally. , .

\ Spcifically, film gnd television production students and practitioners are not able to: 1) . ,-

prescrhe origind multiple sound functions for every sound-picture relationship in the production;' , . e '

' 2) prescribe an original rnultipl~-~dtegy so nd structure for each sound function bf every It - , q sound-picture relati~nship in the prdu~tion! 3) write an expressionistic rnulti-layerid script

\ - \

prescribing the und-picture relationships thtpu'ghout the production based on the original Y #

structured sbund functions; 4) verbally direct thb audio recording and mixdown of an #

expressionistic sound design using the original multi-layered script; and 5) write the procedure , ,

used to create the original expressionistic sound design.

Fi 7

\.

8 .

CHAPTER 2 - , - . r

+ \

\ . m \ ._ -

e Liteiature Review I C -.

r. s

1

/ - - ,

- ', . b Pr&~ern Within ihc Co - .

Zm~ortance Of The d .

ntext Q f X l e

DDort For CHTI%&~S Assessmem %

0

, , Pooqsbund designs seem to be caked by either unshctured sound functions, unifunctional

so id , or both, in many Sound-picture relationships (Akin, 1973; Bordwell& ~hompson, 1979; / I Doane, 1978;'~isenstein. 1949; Metz, lb60; ~oibman, 1976; Gidal, 1978; Pudovkin, 1949; - ' . I Rosenbaum, 1978; Zettl, 1973). Two behavioun seem to be implicit' in structuring sdund I

"

functions intq a sound-picture relationship:

I '. 1) At leasi two (out of a poH~ib~e six) appropriate sound functions must be chosen for. *

s~cturi*ng sound into eafh ~o;nd-~icture r e ~ a t i ' o n s h i ~ . ' ~ ~ ~ i c a l l ~ , the procedures used for , . .

cFloosing appropriate sound functions have been intuitive at best, haphazard most often, and non f i

I 1

existent at worst. Visually-motivated creative behaviour seems to be the result of some ' - . . A

. I y * comb~natlo df ignorance or carelessnesq 4ith a mutipicity of sound functions, and an t

$ , . '

' ,

overfamiliarity with realistic c~nce~~alizations of reality (Altrnan. 1985; Doane. 1978; ' C.

J' I

" * Rosenbaum, 1978; Seidman, 1986). ! . I

t four (out of a possible six) appropriate sound strategies for sducturing each . - \ ,

Q b .

function must be predbed. Implicit in this task is anability to choose from among fifteen '

possible substrategies, as well as the ability to decide-how, where:and how often each - -

subs&tcgy should be applied in thesound-picture nlationihip. . -X - - , -

,' n cL .,

I - \

L 'L .

4 . . . ~videntally, , _I.. functiqnal aesthetic dnuvh i @tween m&hgs inherent in e

' , ihe stated picture, implied dicture, stated sound and the implied sound. The stated sound ,

' ,

S

' , functiohs, in this context, refers to li+e dialope,effects and music. An implied sound is.a

"

s o u i d , silence, or combination of'sounds, that . d&cribes . or prescribes its function within a * sound-picture relationship (Alten, 198 1 ; Gorbman, 1976; Zuckerman, 1949).

. . The six imilid'sound' functions may be conceptualifed as possible prescriptiok-for

I _ character. place, time, or subject matter in a sound-picture reiatioriship. In this sense, they are not . - L * ,

' . unlike Xrnhiim's visual categories for monkg= (1957). Together, the implied sound funchons

can prescribe what the sound should imply within a so;ndpicture relationship: 1) about the . .

atmosphere, feeling or mood; 2) about the p o i ~ t of view (POV); 3) about future or past events; 4)

about the &ale; 5) about the character's past; and 6) about the character in the character.

~ h e r t . Feeling& - and Mood, Implied emotional functions of sound relate to the m d or

feelings aroused when sound'is added or subtracted from the picture. The atmosphere, feeling, , I .* , 3 . . . .. and mood sound function (Alteri, 1981; Seidman, 1986; Zuckerman, 1949), traditionally has

been the most overused.function of sound. Typical overuse of this function is the'leitmotif; a

i music phrase repeated thro ghout the (Eisler, 1967). The clearest examples of

leitmotif occur in "Jaws" types of films and in most television dramas'and.comedips with easily * & . I

I

recognizable signature tunes, a's in "Cheers", "Cagey arid Lacey", "Magnum PI", :'Hill Street

Blues", and so forth. The problem withasing this function exclusively or inapproriately is that L

' 1

over time it s,eems to produce.a deadening,effect in the listener/viewer, possibly due to its D I i

' consumer qoduct quality (Eisler, 1967; McLuhan, 1967). ' \

t

Sound design expen 'Roger Tyrell has labelled the local television commercial~~'Lajeunesset' \ . . .

- - - &fixable because the producer threw on a little backbund music to an atmosphere,

feeling or mood."L,ajeunesse" refers to a local fashion store. This commercial shows a modern 0 0

b e couch and table in the foreground with a white background. A fafiionably &essed woman enters

Y - . - , - .- kit and seats herseif on the couch, posing deiiberately to give the impressionhf her wealthy,

d

exotic.c.haracter. She looks ofktage right expectantly. Cut to a card chow photographs of four or . 7

, five models posing in w q i n g attire. h e sound that was chosen for this cornmerkial was

orded music ahd a voice-over. The voice-over is a woman's voice softly chanting I

. "lajeunesse" throughout. I? this ease, the chgsen music has been frequently aired by the TV \

station to accompany filler spots such as "A Montreal Minute", and "One Moment, Please". . I .

' Untypically, in titillating drama or comedy this music,rnay function as an understaled musical

I suggestion of lo"e, sorrow, suspicion, and so forth. ,

$

.m. Implied ibformarional functi&s6of sound (Alten,, 1981; Zuckehan, 1949jrelate to . \ .

illustrating by a$ding a hew concept idea or fact to the filmlvideo. point of view (POV) can be 8 % -

used as a function bf chia&er. A subjective POV uses ch+ractG voice70ver, an objective POV

, uses narrator - A voice-over, and a performer POV uses som,e+cornbination-of subjeqile-objktive - sound (Alten, 1986: Lee & Misiorowski, 1978; ~uckerrnan, 19h9)! These are usudlly presented ,

alone, which tend to present a one-dimensi0,nal newsreader, cartoon, dramatic or other character. . -

u;ually, the motion picture montage cdnnotes or defirotes thiPOV. The audiovisual redundancy

of a TV talkinh head (as we watch it talking) is due in part to dimisuse of the POV sound \

du:

fundion. Examples are prevalent in many broadcast n ws and in'terview shows. \ r . . 1

* Pecalling the Past or Foretelling the Future':.Essentially, this sound function may be tboug I I

of as the equivalent to a scriptwriter's visual or flot device call& the "gimmick" (~rown,\11985;

. . , Geesei; 1984; GianCt.ti, 1985; Field, 1979; && Misiorowski, 1978; Rooti 1984; Samuels,

1984). also known as Hitchcokk's "McGuffin" oldma man. 1983; Monaco, 1981). @like the - I . I character's past function, howeier, this function informs the 1istenerlvie"er about a past event I unrelated to the character's past (e.g., a metaphorical .occurance as in a dream). In this csntext the ' t l

, gimmick may be a sound that implies something only known to the audience, or to thepain r . s *.

character and umence ut not to theoher charmrs. ~ i r t u a l l ~ always produced with too much ' . I x

'"echo or reverb (Alten, 1.981; Zucke'iman, 1949), this function is still only sparingly used in , ' 1

\ '~ecalling'the past has been used as both an emotional and informational strategy to, great

I . * effect in the recurring "Rosebud" in Orson Welles' "Citizen Czine", and "Who are those guys, ,

Y %>

anyway?'! in Lehrer gnd Goldman's "Butch'Qssidy ahd th6 Sundance Kid" screeenplay. / - '-.<

# r . j

I

J

a . .

I 20 \ . .

Similarly; foretelli& the fuhue, in this context, is a gimmi~k;a sound that implii$ something - x'

only kdown to the audience or &the main character and audience but not to the other clyacters.

- A; example of'foretelling the future can be h&d in.the thoughts of the crazy girl in Ingrnai >%.

4 ~ergman's "Though A Glass, Darwy". Re~alling the past can be written as both an informatibnal

and an emdtional strategy a's when the old man's pasi is revisited in Bergman's "Wild ,

9 Strawberries", which incidentall; seems to function on a par with the @age. Two lesser-known, .

1

yet in some ways more s w i n g examples of sound are use both an emotional and an

- informational strategy, is the iound of the breathing sick woman alone . . in the empty apartment in

-paddy chay;vsky's "Mother", and the infamous breathing murderer in "Mu. . (. . , . /

As anhfonnational strategy alone, recalling the past or foretelling the future deliberately

. exaggerat&'the absencb ?f t h e i n the space4 continuum (Arnheirn, 1957) e.g:, rypically,' 7 - "nieanwhi1e;haek at the ranch...". As ari emotional strategy alone. r6calling the'past &r foretelling

. , . . a the future is often used as a psychological device for describing mental events within a character.' . 0 A

Usually, however, the gimmick is overplayed and the intrigue lost. One example is the & c m , c e , . . IC - . . *

- of the dragging foot in e "Ballad Of The Thin an". .

ha;'been ukd in stageplays that were adapted to

' used as a hair-tri&e~ that Loold set off the tragic

*b m u k i i c $st. 'I$is of course would all bc-previously unkknownest tothe udie e, evolving '

naturally &.he plot (and the character's personality) .unravelled. I

- % , . - -

Two s'hiking examples of this effective use of sound as a diction of the character's past are . . . , , * , * " , "

the skret psychotic w0r1ds:~f ihe'iv?rnen portrayed in "Liluth" aid in "I Nevei.Promised You A '

' Rose Garden". Another example of this eff&tive use of sound as a function bf the ch-mdier's b

A .

past is the anarihic boy who narrowly escapes death running through busy traffic because he

refuses to acknowledge its physical reality in "La Vie N'existePas". In all these examples, the .' listgnerl~ewer is only partially privileged to the psychologicd state of the charkcer, and orily at

\ ' certain times: ' &

.) * . 1-

\ - ' 7 - a .

'LQEBLE W e seems to play o most ~ecessaqlinforrnationd roles in a sound picture

e I

-- - - -

. .

* . 2 1

t , *" relationship. Most often, the -, locale sound function is used realistically - as appropriaie background - music or sound effect. ~ ~ ~ i c a l l ~ , familiar sounds an prbduced to establish a locale by evoking

B listenerlviewer faith in anticipating familiar behaviours (Alten, 1981 ; Zuckerman, 1949), eg. ' .

$2 I Chinese music for a city sc6nq.denotirig Hong Kong or Peking. Untypically, familiar sound can

* I - .+ be added out of context, e.g., Chinese music in little-Italy which may create uncertainty, interest; '

L

o; the subtle, other-worldly voice of Drnth Vader or several Twilight Zone episodes that stem to 8 .

nly heavily dn locale iound ( ~ l t e n , 1986; Lee & Misiorowski, 1978; Seidman, 1986iand \

- 6 /'

Zuckerman, 1949). JT

Character in the Character. Specific questions in relation to the plot ariu&ally answered in 6 "

the stated picture (the visual action)'or on the stated soundtrack - (the dialogue): who is fie?

wholwhat does she want? However, specific questions in relation to the subtext of the plot are

best answered by implication using the character in the character , sound function: What dGFTie - , really an?? ~ho/wha(s really stopping himher from gettingwhat she wants? The intention t ,

behind prescibing this sound function is to generate. a Fontroversy with the other sour@ functions

(i.e., POV, Locale, Character's Past, etc.) working in the sound desip, The character in, the '" +i

I character sound function refers to the subtext, story spine or tragic flaw.in the character:

- Typically, character-in the character sound'would beused to depict a certain r&urrihg aspect u

, . of the character's behaviour, as in many of Spielberg's films (e.g., "Jaws", and "Raiders").

Y,

- ' ~nt);pically, certain aspects of the character'g (moral) character or hisher peculiar~personality '

- Y , , (mask) is intentionally prescribed ambiguously Gith, for exainhle, self-effacing music that '

r p~sen t s a multi-faceted character in the character oldma man, 1985; Root. 1985; ~uckcrrn&.

1949). one of the few lan@ark prescriptions of the character in the character sound function

0 survives in , tb classic dder-wordly music box bells that betray the business woman in "McCabe

'and Mrs ~ ida ;" , with its audible grumbling idle gossip of the townspeople in Roben ~ l t m h ' s . n

Character's Past, Unlikexharacter in the character, the character's past sound function tries . I

to answr spedfic questions.in relation to the plot. This function does not plumb theodep;hsof the . .

character's psyche the way the character in the character fdnction does, It 'therefore takcs less time

I ' * v - - -

to develop and tends, to be in evid&e more often in motion picture productions roan, 1985;

Gecsei, 1984; Gianetti,,l985; Field, 1979; Lee & Misiorowski, 1978; Root, 1984; Samuels, 5

1984). A muhidimensional character is a well-sketched character, detailing the character's past by ' ) . implication (usually visual). ,

J - - .&

The character's professional past implies (without overtly stat~ng it) what the character has 0 . /

been doing for a living; his roles in the~orporation, history of relationshifl with co-workers, and - so forth. Thecharacter's personal past implies (without overtly statingit) the n a t ~ e of hisher

- - marital history, history of educational background, job, andsocioeconomic hist6ry. The , . ,

character's private past is what propels the character through the story;The private past implies $

the need for fame, money, stability *I of the marriage, peculiar tendencies, and 'flaws of character or

personality.

r*- - -- In sumation, there are six implied sound functions. Typically, in so far as most directors-.~

-

have not realized the potential of the sound track, sound has remained a secondary component of 04

the motipn picture system. The effect of working with .. sound - structure without using any sound - 4

functions, or with using only one function (usually mood) is that the structwe neither describes ..

the character, the locale, POV, nor accelerates the scripted action (~ rown , 1985; Field, 1482; ,

.Gecsei, 1985; Goldman, 1984). Nondescript characters, redundant, cliched and conditioned

reflex s.ound designs are symtomatic of a working sound structure without any, or just one,

'sound function. Sound designiqg attitudes seem to have locked the creative thinking pm-ess into -

an audio~uisually-redundant status that his encouraged the'iroduction of sound design

clones (Altman, 1985; ~ordwell'dc Thompson, 1979; Doane, 1978; Eisler. 1967;,Eisenstein,

1949; Gorbman, 1976; GidaI, 1978; Pudovkin, 1949; Rosenbaum, 1978; Spottiswoode, 1950).

Beginning my analybs of the.creative,thinking process with the elements bf sensation,

would mean starting at the wrong elid, since the elements, products of reflection and abk'traction, .

. are tcmotely derived from he immediate experience (Heidbreder, 1933). The whole experience, - , ' b

in which the entirety is somehow different from the inert sum of the parts, has been called gestalt

d'

?'' , i; 8 , a , - Q 0

r*

..* -$5 . ,.,. . 7

.,+. - . .

(Koffia, 1935; Kohler, 1929; Luchins, : Wertheim'er, 1972; Zettl, 1973). h a gestalt, the 1. . , I r -

parts of the whole experience, are not indifferent to each other but 'are mumally re lgd ; they

interact and influence one another. Change in onepart may produce change in another. The -

gestalt ., cannot be conceived of as a composition of elemenis. ~ h ; best wayto understand the

whole experience, would be to decompose it- by analysis into its component p-arts. ~owcver, Z

these component parts should not be decided upon arbiaarily; but in their place, their rdle and 4

Z function in re1 onship to the whole of which they are a part, and not be partitidned int? - - 9 . ..

predetermined elements that are indifferent to the whole (Koffka, 1935; qeidbreder, 1933; 4 . -

Luchins, 197 1; Wertheimer, 1980). 1 1

<

C Y

The Creative Thinkihr! Process for Choosirg Sound Functions t

One way of conceiving of the creative thinking proces!has been to consider the ideation

activity itself in two phases: .the germinal phase and the practical phase (van 0ech. 1983). \r '4

The Practical Phase, TaktRg the latter component of the process first, creative ideas can only ..

be evaliated and executed in the practical bhase of the creative thillking process. Evaluating L

' ' alreidy-created ideas, closing-in on practical decisions, running iisk analyses, and preparing to

-i5any the already created ideas into action are all sympto~atic of and the best use for hard ,

thinking. Hard thi&ng tends to be logical, precise, exact, specific, and consistent; focusing on . . , o 3.

the differences among elements in a system. Traditiona1,educational systems have developed hard 'h

thinking, with - . less effort. given to developing soft thinking skills (van Oech, 1983); p ~ c u l a r l y , . < - 0 '> in the untested area of choosing sound functions for structuring (Eisler, 1967; Gorbman, 1978;

L I

! Pjdovkin, 1949; ~pothswoode, 1950). The ambiguity and dream-like attitudes of soft thinking L a . .. are inappropriate during the practical phase, since they can prevent the execution of an idea *

'

- (Mitchlll, Wilkens & Steukel, 1,88 1; van Oech, 1983).de firmness and direcpers indigcncous , a to thehard thinking attitude, while necessary for the organizational side of sound production,

. I.'

tend to Nerfere in the germinal phase. Nevertheless, based on the low level of originality,

ambiguity, and synergy in the prevailing choice of sound functions used in souhd designs, hard . ! . 4 I

< - (r

I.

@ ' thinking rather than soft thinking skills seem to have been attempted in the germinal phase of the

I / crcatik thinking process (van Oech, J983). Hard thinking in the) germinal phase of the creative . b \ I thinking process, then, seems to be responsible for poor sound designing.

I e G m Ideas can be generated and manipulated more easily in the germinal '

\

phBe. Where hard thi- can lirni germinal phase, soft lhinking is I

quite effective when sqarching for Hard-thinking attitudes in the .

germinal phase can act like mental to creative thinking. Logic and .. , .

) analysis, the tools of hard thinking in h e practical phase. can prematurely narrow the creative

thinking process in the geminal phase (van Oech, 1983).

Soft thinking - has many characteristics: It is metaphorical, approximate, diffuse, playful, and * P

.capable of dealing with contradiction, searching for similarities and connections among elements

in a system (Mitchell, Wilkens'and Steukel, 1981; van Oech, 1983). Soft thinking in the creative

living h e s s is not the adspration of inner circuinstance% outer ones. Soft thinking may be

conceived of as the creative thinker's will to power "in d i c h , workihg from within, s h e

incorporates and subdues more and more of that which is outside" (Nietzsche in Kaufrnann,

d l q 7 , p. 361). Th'is heelpi to insure that sound deiigning is not self-~ervicing (Eisler, 1967). . 41

F Therefore, for more and better ideas, the best prescription should be a good dose of soft thinking' l , .

at the germinal phase; and a hearty helping of hard thinking in the practical phase of sound design

production. % I

. . Functions: Soft Thinking in'the Germinal Phasc

G e n e r m n a l Idea . . . Discovery seems to consist of listening to/looking at the same

thing as everyone else and thinking something differently. Brainstorming, or soft thidking aloud - % Z

(either alone or withbthers) tends to motivate the.saspension of disbelief and enerate unique 1 \ 1

rcsponscs,'such as original humour, using similies to compare ideas, concepts, things and

people. These original ideas can be unusua1;clever; even outlandish (Brown, 1984; Fi'tld, 1982; ---

Gessner, 1968;\Goldman, 1983; Mitchell, Wikens & Steukel, 1981; Robt, 1979; Samuel~, .

w P

\

1982). During this soft thinking process, facts don't exist, only interpretations (Nietzsche in

Kaufmann, 1968; van Oech, 1983). What matters iqwhere the focus is placed. By changing *

perspective and playing with concepts of knowledge and experience, we can make the ordinary

extraordinary, and the unusual commonplace. Without the ability to temporarily forget about the

distinctions between ordinary and extraoidinary., the mind remains cluttered with ready-made

answers, stifling its capacity for brainstorming. Again, day to day hard thiriking tends to be

logical, specific, and so bn; appropriate to the practical phase of the creative thinking process.

Hard thinking in the germinal phase of the creative thinking process, however, &ems to be

responsibl$ for poor sound designing because of its ability to mentally trap the entire creative

thinking process into the lock-step status quo attitude, labeling this process "the normal way of

thinking". 7

These mental locks can be opened in two ways. The first way is to become aware of the z

mental lock and try and forget about it during the soft thinking phase for new ideas. The second

way is to try possible motivating influences that ma'y suggest sampfe sound functions that are the

-) source from which these mental iocks may be op ed. One of the most popular suggestions is to '

utilize the content of an older medium in order to creare a new medium (McLuhan, 1967). Some

examples are: 1) transcribing an interesting radio program into the structured sound functions on %i

a music video; 2) prescribing a newspaper article as the structured3ound'functions on a

educational program; and 3) rewriting the ending of an old song into the structured sound

functions on a epic motion picture sounduack. \

flonconforrning. New ideas are not born into a conforming environment. Whenever y p l e

get together, there is a danger for "groupthink" (van Oech, 1983). hi; is the phegornenon in

which the group members are morqinterested in retaining the approval of other members

trying to anive at creative solutions to the problems at handaroup pressure c b inhibit -. -

\

originality and new ideas. Thus when everyone is thinking alike, no one is doing very much ,/ - I ( /

thinking. One way of dealing with the problem of conformity and groupthink is to play the fool - - - >

(van Oech, 1983). Many of the foolish ideas of five and ten years ago are now a reality. It is a

26 W "

difficult to be objective if you have a lot of ego tied up in an idea. Playing the fool might refrape

the probletn by denying that the problem exists at all. This foolishness may reverse the standard

assumptions in order to place the focus an another party's POV. Or the fool may stimulate

creative ideas in the other group members by rftaking a parody of the rules, while extolling the -

trivial and trifling with the exalted (van Oech, 1983). It may beworth noting that putting down %

the fool (as played by someone else) may be setting up a group-think situation. \ Ambig&. On the,one hand, people strive to avo~d ambiguity because of the

i

communications problems they incur (van Oech, 1983). Conversely, ambiguity often helps to \

\

create new ideas. In germinal situations', there is a danger that too much specifity can stifle the I

producer's imagination (van Oech, 1983). Tolerating ambiguity means feeling comfortable when

faced with Complex social issues that may have intermingled opposing principles (Mitchell, , , ' t

Syeukel & Wilkens, 198Q,-accepting the fact that noi all questions are totally right or wrong,

. that there are gray areas which must sometimes be tolerated: Some examples are: 1) utilizing Ilu

inquiry techniques; 2 ) utilizing higher level thinking skills; 3 1 thwarting the premature closure

during storyconferences, and; 4) encouraging different or unique questions and responses. -- ~he'rightful place for ambiguity is duringrhe search for creative ideas, not during the

3 execution of them. A synonym for ambiguity may be "a second right answer" (van Oech,'1983,

'

d

p.24). Traditional educational environments encburage covergent learning wherein the producer <

looks for the one right answer (Davis, Alexander & Yellen, 1974; van Oech, 1983). Thus, the

one right qnswer approach has become ingrained in our way of thinking. This is unfortunate

because often it is the second, thud or tenth right answer which is what is needed to solve a -7

problem in an innovative way. Roger van 0eih (1983) offers three sources of ambiguity: 1) .

4 humour. 2) paradox; and 3) personal or private sources. 4 5

Humour. Paradox. and Private Sources. The literature suggests that humour is a

crucial ingredient of the creative personality (Eisler, 1967; Schramm, 1971; Zillmann, 1980).

'Thus, the emphasis should be on helping people bec-ome better producers and consumers of

humour. Esstntiiilly, good movie music should contain humorous elements as a kind of formal t, . L P \

self-negation, not in the strict s e w of mocking the storyl-inn or the characters on the screen.

Movie music should not take itself too seriously while making use of the whole gamut of

expressions (Eisler, 1967). Sound designers should be able to: 1 ) develop the ability to pun a x

to enjoy punning; 2) create humourous~tories, limericks, poems; and 3) pursue activities

involving humourous artwork such as cartoons and &oodles.

The very occyrrance of a paradox is at the crux of creative thinking, for it is the ability to ,

entertain two different qnd often contradictory notions at t e same time (van Oech, 1983). In the

application of motion picture aesthetics during productiori life can be made to appear to be

fast-qd-lively yet slow and melancholic; or frivolous yet deadly serious, depending on the points

of view taken simultaneously. %

The seeking out and cultivation of the private sources of ambiguity by producers can improve

"the idea.having average" (van Oech, 1983, p.6). These may be books, people, a song on the

radio or whatever forces the creator to look for more than one meaning in every design

possibility.

The Creativity Sti-ma. Creative people believe that they are creative because they've been

told ihey are, while less creative people believe that they are not creative because they've been

told they are not (van Oech, 1983). Moreover, a major factor which differentiates these creative

people from those who believe themselves to be uncreative is that the creative believers perceive

themselves as paying more attention to their small ideas than do the creative disbelievers. This 6 -

- phenome%ori is conct?fned with the development of a self assessment mechanisth (Mitchell, -!

Wilkens & Steukel, 1981). t

An often used example of thg creative believir self assessment mechanism at work in motion - % . J

- picture production has been that of the auteur theory (Gianetti, 1985; Monaco, 1984). ~cco rd in i> '

to this notion, the director (and some others) believes that he should rightfully be thought of as

the sole creative inspiriation bf the entire process in motion picture production based on the,

perceptions of a few syndicated film critics. Under this preconception, filmmakers like Robert

Alman, Ingmar ~e r&n , Alfred Hitchock, Jean Rcnoir, and others have been raised to the level

- of "auteur1' or author of their film prcductions; based on the glpcal'acclairnations of "their

work". Altman. Bergman, and Hitchdck have proliferated %heir auteur persona.thoughout the film

industry and public at large during their interviews with the gedia, king words such as "my * \

L vision of" and "i was inspired by ..." to describe the callective effort of many creative people.

This auteur view of the motion picture produc>on business- has been widely criticized by

most practitioners and writers of motioy picture productions (Brown, 1985; Gecsei, 1984; / ' /

' t$ . Gianetti, 1984; Field, 1979; Lee & Misiorowski, 1978; -. - Root, 1984: Simuels, 1984)- since any

production is,.in fact, well known to be a collaboration of the efforts of many people (i.e., '

*screenwriters, sound designers, costumers, a'nd so on). Therefore, it seems that it is both the

public's perception of these men, and their relectance to djsspell the illusion of sole propietorship

that niakes then1 and "their work" great.

Self-assessing sound design activities wouldrequire designers to test their own prpducts or \ ',

\ performance in terms of its strengths and weaknesses, suggesting possible means of 0

improvement (Eisler, 1967). This would entail the designer self-assgssesing the gtstalt in their

own script and sound mix for a soundless videograph, as well as their for their own progress I

thro&hout the sound designactivities. It is this type of self-assessment that sound designers 0

need to exercise on a more regular basis in order to reduce the pejorative view of themselves as

creators. 4b - e..

1 ' brnine From Failyr~. There,are instances when making krrors is consideredinappropriate, .

but the germinal phask of the creative isn't one of them (van Oech, 1983). One element t-

, of creative problem solvingcomes about by learning from a failing situation (Mitchell, Wilkens\& .,

Steukel, 1981). EKO~S are a sign of diverging from the well-travelled path. Failing now and then, . , in this coptext, is a sign that iqnovation is ing place (Mitchell, Wilkens & Steukel, 1981; vag

Oech, 1983). One way to encourage innovation is to develop an atmosphere in which failure is

permissable: 1) Establish an environment which says: "Go ahead and try something. 1f it doesn't

work lets find out why"; 2) Screen the failures of sound designs created by famous producers

with tin-ears (Rosenbaum. 1978; Sharplet, 1978); 3) ~ n c o u r a ~ e students to attempt tasks where

- - failure is possible (i.e., a discovery method of learning sound design).

- / - .-b---

- 1 ' A

Generating Flexibility, Prodrrciilg a variety of ideas that cake$ shifts fi\m one though( - - u

pattern (or category) to another (Mitchell, Wilkens & Steukel, f981; Torrance, 1980; van Oech,

i' 1983) seems to be another motivating influence that may be a possible source from which mental

locks may be opened. For example: I

1) benerating open-ended questions or selLquestioning may produce a variety of ideas that

may cause a shift Fom one thought pattern to another, such as "how we know that character X

means what she says this time" may be shown through either: a) scripting thebvisbal action (e.g.,

by showing her in action), which is more typically the case; or-b) implyiniby prescribing an %

implied sound function (e.g., a fairly common sdund that triggers an old memory in her) which *

denotes a tragic flaw from the character's private past. L

2) Generating "how many unusual'uses" questions may be considered to be another mkntnl

unlocking technique (e-g., how many unusual uses can you think of for a s d n t sequence i? this %

'L

ppbauction? For which sound function?); or.

3) Categorizing tasks that focus on the comparison of two items by identifying as many

differences as possible and placing their responses into categories (e ., The train whistle i n this w 7 sequence are examples of the following sound'functions: a) defining the intensity of the action, b) ! .

; . establishing locale, and c) creating atmosphere).

I t may not be enough to generate original ideas through brain

ideas seems to be a key that may open mental locks.

Tesnnp-out - Ideas and Hunches. The realm of the possible may bi called a germinal seedbed. w

I' Th-ere are many soft-thinking tools for culifivating the seedbed. One of them is the "what if'

? : 5 1

4

2 question (Brown, 1985; van Oech, 198j). Some examples of the "what i f ' questiop are: What if . -

#

a everyone (in the story) could hear what everyone else was thinking? What if an entire motion *

, % G.. - ' picture. story were made up solely of several points of view of the behaviours of one penoq . .

during an entire day?. The key to asking "what if' questions in the phase is allowing 1

oneself to probe the possible, the impossible and even the i ractical for ideas. mS.

0 \ -- --

\. . , ~ - 30 .

\

"What if' questions alone may not produce practical, creative ideas. Therefore, it may be

necessary to use another germinal soft thinking tool called the "stepping stone" (van Oech,

1983). Stepping stones- sometimes called an outline, scripkid, sketch, or story idea in film and

media (Brown, 1985; Gecsei, 1984; Gianetti, 1984; Field, 1979; Lee.& ~isiorowski, 1978;

Root, 1984; ~arnuels, 1984)- are simply provocative ideas which stimulate creative thinking 0

about other ideas. For example, a script-idea may call for a herd of charging elephant< The \ '

I

production costs for bringing such a herd to the studio, or the crew to the herd, would be'

prohibitive. However, the shund alone of a h ~ r d of charging elephants dubbed-in during post ':

production may be more cost effective. But for this idea to become fruitful, it would need the

visual equivalent to plant the seed for oraVaural creativity. The value of the "stepping stone" lies

in its latent .practicality, I

One reason why producers an$ students have not used "what if ' thinki~g and stepping

stones to generate ideas seems to be that current m d a have dictated the production trends I

making prociucdis and students prisoners of familiarity (van Oech, 1983): They get used to

asking "what is" and not "what if ' questions. A second reason why producers and students have

not used "what i f ' thiniing and stepping stones to generate ideas seems to be that they up

low-probability production tbols (van Oech, 1983). Most people don't feel that they can find the I

time to ask several soft-thinking questions without coming up with immediate prac'tical px t ive

ideas. A third reason why producers and students have not use$ "what if' thinking and stepping

stones to generate ideas seems to be that they haven't been taught to use these tools. Many people '. ,

have been educated to respond to unusual ideas by saying, "That's not practical" (van Oech, f I

, 1983, p. 48): Consequently, there seems to be an embedded fear of being criticized for being

I impractical. *

nahve Sound D e h Much of what is called intelligence may be &I ability' - - %

to recognize patterns or sequences of events. Patterns give-us the power to understand the '

- phenomenal world. Patterns tend to rule our thinking. Quite often, creative thinking involves

. .

breaking out of one batfern in order to disqover another. People tend to treat most problerns'and t

8 F

i

B , 31

6 : situations as closed ones with set rules rather than open ones which can be played with. One

M

reason for this m 6 be that there is a lot of societal pressure to follow the rules. Breaking the ' .

rules doesn't necessarily lead to creative ideas, but it's one avenue, since many rules outlive the . -

purpose for which they were intended (van Oech, 1983). *

Many propositions throughout a person's lifetime tend to be pregented as a winllose

situation. Game-playing, however, presents a win/no win logic. Either the participant wins the

game or learns from the experience of losing the game. Playing games with Ideas in this way can b

fertilize the creative thinking process, Moreover, a fun learning or working environment makes -, more productive than a routine environment (van Oech, 19&3), Generating imaginative sound.

Q ,.

designs in this context refers to the capacity of tending or engaging in fantasy-related thought - processes (Mitchell, Wilkens & Steukej, 1981), including an ability to delibemtely exaggerate

I reality in scriptwriting scynd mixingjGianetti 1985; ~iper,X981; Rosenbaum, 1978). . Scriptwriting, by definition; must manipulate reality- the story and characters (~ristotle; Patica;

Field, 1982; ~essne;, 1968.~oot, 19'79; Goldman, 1983; Samuels, 1982). The scriptwriting'

adage "all writing is rewriting" (Field, 1982; Root, 1979; Goldman, 1983) applies here.

Creating Fluencv, The concept of fluency can be thought of in terms of 'odds': the ability to

create many responses to a given stirrmlus. (van Oech, 1983). The stimulus may be silent

pictures, a problematic soundtrack, or an unfinished script. Rather than breaking the whole into c

arbitrary pieces and building it again from below, an above-down view argues that the best way '.. to understand the sound-picture relationship, as a whole,'ls to decompose it by an sis into its 4 '

t ~ ~ m ~ ~ i e ~ t pans (Luchins, 197 1; Wenheimer, 1934; Wertheimer, 1980). Tknking deepiy about

the ch&ctm and their environment involves moving the whole'experience onto gfferent planes 1 . (Eisler, 1967); finding moments that will-generat? ahflict, surprise, or susQense in the story I

(- - ,-

using the functions of sound (4ristotle, ~&ti+; Field, 1982; Gessner, 1968; Root, 1979;

Goldman, 1983; Samuels, 1982).

In a gestalt, the entirety of the pheii6~enon (e.g., a roundpicture relationship) is somehow

- different from the'inertsum of the parts (e.g., a subjective POV sound funchon).'lhese parts are 1

32

not indifferent to each other but are mutually related; they interact and influence one another.

Change in one part may produce change in another (,Wertheimer, 1934). In other words, what I

f l does the skcture of its pldt look like? Should the plot points and catharsis r appear in the usual P

places in the story? (Gristotle, w t i ca ; Field, 1982 ; Gessner, 1968; Root, 1979; Goldman,

I 1983). Does the story proceed in a linear. fashion, flashback or f k a r d ? (Brown, 1984). Who's -

POV is taken; who do we ?ling to? What does the character want and who is she afraid of? Who '

i : is stopping them from getting what they want? (Brown, 1984). What about suspense- and how is

" 1

it resolved? (Goldman, 1983). What are the subtexts within each of the stories? (Gecsei, 1982; Ir

Goldman, 1983). When do the ob\igatory scenes occur? (Goldman, 1983; Field 1982: Root,

The next step may be to make a .list of prerecorded or synthesized sounds, though not \ C c 1

recorded live during shooting. However, the gestalt that is achieved in unifying the magnetic

soundtracks to the film images cannot be conceived of as a composition of separate sound , ,

-

elements ycompanying pictures. To begin any analysis with the elements of sensation is to begin' '

\ at the wrong end, for these elements are products of reflection and abstraction, remotely derived

from immediate experience (Qianetti, 1985; Gorbman, 1976; Heidbreder, 1933). Every single . <

- sequgnce must be treated with exact regard to its special function (Alted,l981; ~isler,-1967; '

Zuckennan, 1949). This can be achieved somewhat in the way an orchestra leader might \

, Q

- - emphasize the smngs in one then make them swell in another, controlling all the 1 \

elements by emphasizing and deemphasizing each layer of sound separately, and at will. . .

U n l a n g v a n t Elements Svnectically. The actiirity of uniting different and seemingly

&levant elements synectically can only be successful^ when the implemmter has'developed both u

; the cognitive skills for implementing an innovation, and the affective behaviours necessary for" "

'a -.

gknerating positive adtudes toward th t innovation (Mitchell, Wilkens & Steukel, 1981; van .

%ch, 1983). 1n creative problem qolving there is an inductive lpp , a combining of ideas from I

widely separated knowlgge systems, a bold use,of analogy thar transcends yhat'is usually -L

peant by generalizing within a class of problem situations (Gagne, 1985; van,&ch, 1983). A ,

the rational ones (Mitchell, Wilkens & Steukel, 1981). -> \ .

- Some hypothetical examples of emotional expression manifesF in new sound functions we: ..

I ' . 1 -

1) Word-gaming, suchtas, "a calendar is like a mirror bekause.."'; 2) playing with scientific laws

and concepts, such as, whatwould happen if there was no sun, only sound ...; 3) person@ I

analogizing, such as, "what animal sounds the way this person looks?"; 4. Direct halogizing;

such a%, "Alexander Graham Bell's invention of the telephone was based on his clinical

knowledge of the human ear because, of his work with the dea h nd; 5) symbolic Qnalogizing, <

such as, "the use of objective and impersonal sounds to describe personal problems (kg. a ,

woman screams, as the train whistle shrieks (Arnheim, 1957). The key to this find of . ,

metaphorical thinking is in thinking of simjIarities: similies and metaphors. '

k A metaphor is a kind of concept map, making complex ideas easier to understand. The

\

human ability to symbolize is not limited to the real nor the present. This capability empowers

creative thinking in two ways: First, it enables the thinker to anticipate the future with such

questions as, "suppose it rains tommorow?" and, " What alternatives should be made?" By

stimulating possibilities, future planning is realizable. !Bcond, creative thinking is not bound by

real world constraints. Ideas can be generatedthat have no correlate in the world of experience - ' e

* (van Oech, 1983). - Elaborating on Se~arate Ideas Based on an Oripinal Notion, Specialization, as part of a

4. - \

management information strategy is a fact of life, &here the goal is to n k o w one's foc~is h d *I

. . t - - < "

.@come ebpert within it ( v a d e c h , 1983). Such infoirnation-handling attitudes, however, can ,

iimit generation of new ideas. They not only force the creator to delimit problems too narrowly, #

>, they may also prevent investigations outside for new ideas a ts ide of their areas of expertise. 5

Strategies for new sound ideas may reside in books, activities, conversations, or in an. Sound w 1

designers might 'well look to cinematography o~visual litera'ty literature for clues to designing

sound (not as cues for their sound designs) but as inventive aural repIacements to traditional L

visual techniques. ' '~nusual uses" exercises b n put familiar sounds in a strange setting. sound b

'

designing exercises may include the planning of learning qctivities-that have students prescribe :

the most bbringsoundtrack they ca" think'of (e.g., A droning arinouncer reading the weather, . . - sports scores; the CFCF elcvat rjnusic &hind a "Montreal Minute"; the shouting "K Tel-type" \ . + . " 6

v~aVmusic mix of the hard-sell ad campaign); . , +upplying titles or new titles for redesigned , 3.'.

I

Generally speaking, Storyconfeqencing activities provide a stimulus to develop responses and I

require the creative thinkers to develop responses which build on. each other (a chaining effect). r +

~ o m L examples are: 1) solving problems with given conditions anditerns which allow for d

sequeniial developments leading to ultimate solutions; 2) completing full, complex designs from

simple partial sound designs; 3) inbenting new games and/or rules based on a wel1;known game; . and 4) writing endings to unfinished designs.

the w d Picture Svnerglstlcallv . . . When two qr more elements (e.g., locale

I,

and subjective POV implid sound, functions) interact in,a unique manner, the result can-be .,. greater than the sum of its parts (Koffka, 1935; Luchin,A971; Mitchell, Wilkens & Steukel,

"t 1981; Schoderbek, Schoderbek & Kefelas, 1945; van Oech, 1983; Wertheimer, 1934,1935; 4

> Zetl, 1973). Synergy in a script or final cut refers70 the behaviburs of an integrh aggregate

macrosystem (e.g., the enire film or television production) unpdicted by behaviours of any of Q

* -

/ - their components (the sound design) or subassemblies of their compdnents (the functions or

srmcturrs). fn the gestalt, the parts of a whole interact and influence m e ano&r. Change in one . -

uce change in another. For example, the integration of the implied subjective ~ O V .+-I-

sound function, ;epeated onceor twice, can makc the function reinforce, parody, or undirrnine - itself depending upon how, where, and hoyofkn it is structured in a script or sound mix. Other

cxii~~plcs &synergistic sound designing would be: 1) unifyink the hramatic rnat&ds in a script '

or..&x; 2) associating ideas across implied and spted functions; 3) connecting dialogue ,'

sequences by structue; and 4) accompanying sequences of functions for silent action. Possible *

synergistic sound designing learnlng activites may%clude: 1) creating a sound design mural

d T

\ 35

' where the whole class or small groups of students would participate in its planning and . ,

construction; or 2) creating useful sound designs from poor ones using meager resourks. - .

Moreover, synergy in a script or find cut may also refer to the khaviours of an integral

aggregate microsystem, One example may 'be the integration of two or more implied sound

functions (such as the subjective POV and the character's professional past); with a sound.

structure comprising five scriptwriting strategies, such as an inforinational strategy that , .

undermines the image; an emotional strategy that defines the intensity of an action, has fast '

Y ,

pacing strategy, has a discontinuous~hythum stktegy; and a divergent delivery strategy (Alten, b 'h*; I

, 1980; Mitchell, Wilkens & Steukel, 1981; Zettl, 1973; Zuckarman, 1949). Structuring sound - I

functions will be covered in greater detail later in this chapter under the heading "The Second ,#

Structuring Behaviour: Prescribing Strategies for Functions" The 1 * < -

the context of designing sound for movies will, also be explained

for Production ~ g s i ~ n : Software Before Hardware". / ,

Soft T h t n h g Resouwfulness 6 . . Soft thinking in the germi,nal phase requires a unique form

of resourcefulness. Resourcefulness can be measured in terms of the power of one's @ Q

i

achievement (Mitchell, Wilkens & Steukel, 1981)'~his "power of one's achieveqeht " may G -

. 1

manifest itself ai: '

1) the aggregate of one's skill (e.g., an ability to scriptwrite sound functions that creates

* .multi-faceted ch&cters,or can mix silence &roughout a clutteired picture sequence); 2 ,;. . ' .

', of one's one's aesthetic judgement (i.e., th sound form as the audible shape \ of the sound's conteht); - -

, 3) one's capacity for finding the means for prescribing functions (e-g., creating a new t , .

instrument t~ obtain part, or a11 of, a new sound design; e.g.:a nose-flute or humming hydro 1

wires to create a mood or .POV, etc.); . .. .- 4

4) one's capacity for adjusting the means for prescribing functions (e.g.,'"making db" wiih

substitute equipment, e.g., mixing live, prerecorded, pr live and inncorded sounds on r 1 f * \

audiocassette: then playing it back using a dual-system ,sound-picture system in class (Swam,

' 1972); using audio overdubbing on videocassette recorders; or .

5) one's capacity for testing the effects of a sound design, then redesigning the s o y d with 4

the qesults of the evaluation in mind (e.g., testing-out the applause activity by simply dktermining

whether or not the); preferred design one or design two; using incentives or not; 'directing a group 8 * -

to applaud loudly vs. one or two people clapping half-heartedly).

In summation, most of us maintain certain attitudes which lock our thinking into thc status

quo. Unlocking the ten mental Iwks invdlves believing in the worth of one's ideas, and having

the persistence to continue building on them. With this attitude, the creator takes more risks,

breaking'the rules occasionally. S h e looks for more than one ght answer, h'unting for ideas -

B outsid hisher line of expertise. Creative learning, then, often mean; tolerating ambiguity and -

\ \ - occasionally looking foolish. In the germinating phaSe of a mental unlocking process, playing

;f

with creative ideascan be more fruitful than "getting down to business". These activities involve I ?

engaging h "what if' and other soft thinking approaches in an effort go beyond the status quo. , . V

Finally, in order to achieve an objectivism in the sound, the designer must be able to draw out the

essential form of someone/thing by freeing him/he from its details so that the ear glimpses

everythirig and grasps nothing, yielding a highly intellectual content fornulation into a single

' immediqte impression (Eisler, 1967; ~hahn; 1957). A simple discussion among designers , " . , utilizing some of these concepts may generate long-range planning tasks which require

I

performance over an ,extended period of time. 'i

The Re-

Traditionally, motion picture'"users have thought of sound as an accompaniment to the visuals

(Arnheim- 1957; Balazs, 1972; ~resson , 1977; Cavalcanti, 1939; Clair, 1972; Eisenstein, 1949;

Eisenstein, Pudovkid-Alexandrov, 1949; ~ o r b m ~ , 1976; Grierson, 1934; Kracauer, 1960; ' -

Metr,'1980; Pudovkin, 1960). Through expressionistic manipulatibn of the f tock, or through A montage, the cinema could~articulate anything.-=The addition of

' h that the images had exercised &r cinematic expression for more th thirty ye s (Weis & . P "t Belton, 1985). The widely accepted view, therefore, has always been been that it\E(as the

visual's riglit to receive most of the attention (Amheim, 1957; Eisenstein, 1949; Eis stein, L , Pudovkin & Alexandrov, 1949; Metz, 1980; Salt, 1976). The introduction of sound, or more I

particularly, ofPialogue, to filw posed sevefal problems for those producers who located the

source of artistry of the medium within the silent discourse of images that constituted a unique

7 language (Weis & Belton, 1985). , .

rn 1928, Soviet film expressionistic directors Eisenstein, Pudovkin and Alexandrov

published a joint statement on sound film in a Leningrad magazine wherein they collectively *

condemned the realistic application of sound to picture by montage. According to this notion, the a '-

cinematograph of moving subjects tended to isolate and neutralize those subjectb by cutting them L

I

off from surrounding reality, suspending them within time, in space or by attendant subject C

, -

matter (Amheim, 1957), thereby transfaoning the nature of the moving images of the subjects ,

into- blocks of raw, unsc"lptured makrial. The coincidence of sound with image threatened this

by restoring power and autonomy to the photographed subjects, increasing their*

independence of meaning, and thus their inirtia as montage pieces; in essence "destroying Be

culNre of montage" (Eisenstein, Pudovkin & Alexandrov. 1949). Both Pudovkin and Eiscnstcin

considered that if sound were used syrnbdlically and contrapunctually, rather than realisticdly, t

\ ' . d

there would result less harm done to the visual image (McLuhan, r967; Weis & Belton, 1985). r

Although he was a cosigner of the statement, Pydovkin held a different view from A

Eisenstein's. Pudovkin saw asynchronous sound as a means of enriching rather than neutralizing -7

I .

the image (~udovkin, 1960). While ~isenstein'd sound thhory was resolutely dialectical, . - - Pudovkin a program for associatiqnal approaches to sound and picture: "...the fwsi

funftion of sound is to augment the potential expressiveness of the film's content .... sbund,

. ' playing a subjective pan in the film, and image playing the objective *art, is only one of many

'

diverse ways in which the medium of sound film allows us to build a counterpoiht. I maintain

that only by such counterpoint can primitive naturalism be surpassed, and the rich depths of

meaning potential in sound film, creatively handed, be discovered and plumbed" (Pudovkin,

1960, p. 86). Marshall McLuhan (1967) wrote of the 1928 Soviet literary ;vent in likeness to the

coming of film sound to illiterate people. The Ahican tribe, during a screening of a film of

themselves as photographed/recordeh By73.S. Carpenter in 1960, would not accept the

I combination of both sight and sound media together] They insisted on group pdcipation (by 0

P uting and chanting during the film screenings): In the silent version, they automatically- & ,

n

provided sound for the&elv'es by way of c l o k or completion. This activity becarpe wholly ' o \

frustrated by the inclusion of a soundtrack. "When sound was added, there was much less ,.

participation inCworking with the image, making it '"a further completion of the visual package as , ' 4 I

a mere consumer cqrnmodity" (McLuhan, 1967, p. 130). Moreover, there was "o turning back to 1 --

the old way of "seeing" once sound film listehingl watching became the custom. McLuhin drew

parallel circumstances between this (and other) primitive ~frican-tribes to the misgivings of the

orallaural Russians, ~iting Eisenstein and Pudovkin. - - -

Even directors of more theamcal biases were opposed to stricjly.rd1istic uses of sound. In a.

1929, director Rene Clair noted that through a careful selection and orsanization of sounds,

filmmakers could liberate themselves from wordy theatricalism and recapture sdme of the poetic 5

%>

energy that animated siknt cinema. The asynchronous usepf sound provided a new method of

exp&ssion. "For instance, we hear the noise of a door beiqg slammed wbile we are shown ' "

Bessie's anguished face watching from a window; her departure we do not see. This short scene

in which the, whble effect is, concenkted on the actress's face and which the silent cinema would - '-

have hap to been broken up into several visual fragments, now owes its excellence to ks 'unity of . . < *

place' achiqved through pund" (Clair, 1972). 0

Brazilian-born Alberto Cavalcanti exerted cohsiderable influence on the approach to soLnd '

taken by the BritiSh dwumentary mvement in the thirties (Weis & Belton, 1985). Like 1

Pudovkin, Cavalcanti wrote,that sound could enable the cinema to achieve a more exact rendering

of emotional reality. "While the picture lends itself to clear s'tatement, the sound lends itself to

suggestion. All the most suggestive sound devices have been nonsync." (Cavalcanti, 1939, /

p.211). - -

Rudolf b h e i r n , a student of gestaltists Max Wenheimer and Wolfgang Kohler, published $ - -

an influential series of articles from 1933 through 1938 on film. In As &, Amheim,

answering those who viewed film as a-reproduction of reality, celebrated (hose aspects of the

cinema that limited Its reproductive potential. "Phple who contemptuously refek to the camera as 'B I \ -.

an automatic recording device, must be made to realize that even in the sinlplest photographic

reproduction of a perfectly simple objett, a feeling for its nature is required which is quite beyond

any mechanical operation" (Amheim, 1957). For Amheim, the primacy of the ifnage was total:

there was no room for anything else. Speech was either redundant, or at odds with the image,

preventing,a true fusion of the two media (Weis & Belton, 1985). Although he was considered -.

to be an expressionist with respect to visual perception, Arnheim contradicted Eisenstein and

, other proponents of nonsync sound by rejecting asynchrdnism which made sound and image . -

. separate but iqual, because the addition of sound.kduccd the gap between film and reality and + -

threatened the arti'stic ;tatutof the medium.

Hungarian realist theoretician Bela Balazs was a figure of paradox. He endorsed the 8 .

transition to sound as progress yet faulted the sound film for its failure to realize its potential $.

(Weis & Belton, 19851. In his 1945 book, m o m Of Film, he wrote that the coming of sound . .I .

and the introduction of speech celebrated the cinema as a wotdless language. For him, the 0 .

potential of sound filni was in its ability to recover certain lost sensations fqr the listcner/viewcr, . 6

.- such as the sounds of objects or nature, the sounds of certain spacgs, or the sound of silence,

' which cah be heard only in the context of othn sound; (weis & Belton, 1985). Balazs viewed

the vocation of the sound film as a redemption from the chaos of shapeless noise by accepting it. #

\ , -

t ' t - - ' \ , -

% + I I . > e * P

a% expression, as significance, as meaning. The soundtrack should organize sounds into a new

language that will decipher thenoises around us, g s n g the listenerlviewer "the speech of 6 \

things ... if he, sound or voice is not tied up with a picture of its source (asynchronous sound), it

may g r ~ w beyond the dimensions of the latter. The surest means by which a director can convey

the pathos or symbolical significance of sound or voice is precisely to use it asynchronously" - \

(Balazs, 1970, p. 64). Further, Balazs stressed the spatial qualities of sound that prevent it from

being isolated, and that endow it with h e timbre and colour of the phcular space in which it( L

was recorded (Weis & Belton, 1985).

Perhaps no theorist has been more influential to filmmakers than Siegfried Kracauer, whose 0

&k wry of Film: The R e w t i o n of Phvsical Reality, like Balaz's, was $istrustful of the

soundtrack as mediator between the viewer and hisher environment. Classical theorists, it would C

seem, created a historical preceqent when they,held the cinema accountable to theory, rejecting

any cinema that failed tdmeet their s6ndards (Wels & Belton, 1985). The literature continues to

indicate concern for thepreservation of the spctural unity picture and sound even when music ' 1 T

is used as a contrast (Eisler, 1967). Typically, this unity was achieved indirectly; it did not

consist in the identity between any elements (tope; color or that of rhythms as.a whole). The , -- / .meaning or function of the elements was'intennediary and should never coincide per se. The

relation.was not one of similarity but, as a rule, one ofquestion and'answer, affirmation and

cC negation, appearance and essence.

\

The& seems to belittle doubt that sight is the dominant sense in any sound-picture 4'

relationship, and that the picture usualiy commands most of the attention. But critics have 'f '4

% ' beiieved that the visuals clan not hold the attention for long if the aural sense is not suitably

stimulated (Alkin, 1973; Rosenbaum, 1978; Gorbman, 1 9 7 6 ) w e d by ever-deepening

visual infomation, therefore, audiences must have heightened sound effects, if only to perceive ' I

h

them at all (Paine, 1'985). Out of the juxtaiosition of what the sound is saying and what the 2 3

pictwe is saying, the audience comes up with a third idea which is cob,posed of both picture and

sound messages, and resolves their superficial differences. Moreover, the relationship of sound ',

to picture is always shifting within a design. The more dissixhilar they get while still retaining a

link of some sort, the more powerful the effect (Paina in Weis & ~eltonii985). The

rationalization for this attitude lies in the confusion about the relative importance of the

relationship of the sound and picture to each other. This 'poor relation' attitude is particularly

evident in televiGon, where the problem of achieving high quality ,sound is avoided by

't suggesting that the presence of the picture makes sound less crihcal or that the picture supplies

most of the information (Alkin, 1973; Altman, 1980; Benjamin, 1974; McLuhan, 1967; Zettl, .

1973). Director Alfred Hitchcock, in a candid interview with his collegue Peter Bogdonavitch, b

. appeared to have accepted the place of visual bias when he defihed "pure film" as,film that

expresses its rnean?ng visually, specifically through montage (Bogdonavitch, 1963). But closer

examination of his statement in context of his filmmaking revealed (to some) that he was

objecting to an excessive use of static dialogue sequences, not to music and sound effects (Weis,

After 1933 "background rgusic" came to be used more extensively (Bordwell & Thompson, , .d

1979; Salt, 1 6). Sound effects, music, and speech could be produced expressionistically or $I realisticall#(~ianetti, 1985). Whereas realist film theories stressed the content being

. communicated, film expressionist qeories stressed how the ideas and emotions were conveyed.

Moreover, sound was either diegetic . , (in the story space) or nondiegetic (not in the story space).

If diegetic, it may be on-screen or offsctren, inteqal (subjective) or external (objective). one - . -

characteristic of Pegetic sound was the possibility of suggesting the distance of the

listenerlviewer'fiom'the source of the sound; loud sounds implying closeness, softer sounds

implying more distance. This phenomenon became known as the doppler effect (Alten, 1980). L

~ 6 s t nindiegetic soundahas had no relevant temporal relationship to the image (Gianetti, 1985)

such aa music played over a scene to create a mood, not to impb a certain loc ~ o r @ V . ~ o v i e . ,

sound, pmicularly ;nusic, should retain the quick pace of casual listening imposdl by the picture,.

/ and not be left behind (Eider, 1967). I

Expressionists such as Pudovkin and Eisenstein had establishd the classical groundwork Q r I

encouraging gestalt and reducing the visual bias by encouraging the manipulation of the one

dimensional aural reality along the realist-expressionist continuum. Sxce the 1930's, motion

picture editors were beginning to realize the importance of "he dialogue cutting point" for making

smooth, unnoticeable cuts when cutting from one speaker to another in a scene-(Salt, 1976). By

1933, it was possible to mix a separately recorded music track with the synchronous dialogue L - \

track after editing the vihuals, without an audible loss of sound quality. Expressionistic theory 'J

b emphasized the technical sound effects design terminology, techniques of sound track

' constru~tion, and the dis ?! ourses on sound effects technique. Though not a11 modem theorists

agreed with Bazin (that the existence of the cinema precedes its essence) the sound film had been . .

accepted as a given. While early filmmaker-theorists like Rene Clair viewe@'asynchronous Sound

as a means of serving the irhage, Robert Bresson, a modem counte$art, gave,an independent

status to the soundtrack. For Clair, off-screen sound complimented and liberated the image, ,

eliminating the need to show the off-screen action. For Bresson, sound repIaced grid dominated,

4 not complemented the image. , , 4

* -

Recent decades of independent filmmaking have seen a return to the sound-as-performance .

tradition of the silent-with-piano inusic film, wherein the expressionistic soinds tend to be:

B ,

1

nonsynchronous; that is, detached from their source, often acting in contrast with the image. ',

There haS been a growing iendency towyd the development and integration of the pFoduction's ; '

technical elem'ents; scriptwriting, sound designing, acting, and'photography .u

. McLuhan, 1967; Salt, 1976). - . , 8

#

4

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. . 6 .,

n 7 r C * . J . '

I

' , /

Sound Des im \

There are a few motion pictdre productions that can be said to be examples of well-designed

sound. There is the lonely, timid, rosebud-type character within the echoin prconsumptive

personality of Orson Welles' "Citizen Kane". There are the crescendo-reaching polylogues in I

I Billy Wilder's gangster films and in Alfred Hitchcock's "The Birds". There is subjective agony

behind the superficial drug-created joy in Francis Coppola's " ~ ~ ~ o c a l ~ s ; ~ o ~ $ + i n d thp B ', >\

controlled business man losing control in "McCabe and9Mrs Millar". And, there is the ' C

peeping-tom surveillance man, who becomes trapped in his own paranoia in Francis Coppola's (. /

P

"The Conversation". fa Ttiese sound designs (and others) have been considered by critics/to be -

inspired (Fischer in Weis & Belton, 1985; Gianeiti, 1985; Paine, 1981; Weis, 1978, 1982). .

Furthermore, isolated examples of stylized sound in local television productions provide us with

the the rare examples of well-designed sound: The omnipresent gong that cues the doughn,ut r

maker in the often-run "Time To Make The Donuts" ad; the efficient siience of electricity in a , 9

. V e p . .

Hydro;Quebec ad; and the noisy traffic crossing a kitchen floor in several current floor wax - c

coihmercials.

One particularly striking TV sound example is a recent ~ e p s i commercial wherein a young

aspiring baseball player approaches two lyming opponents (i.e., the Coke and Pepsi machines),

in a dusty smal! town of baseball enthusiasts. In a brilliant use of analogy, the boy is transformed

(using sound) into a n'ervous batter in the World S6ries, and'the machines his adversary on the /I \

pitcher's mound).' In this case, the announcer's voice and boy's actions are supported by the .-. .J

picture, instead of the reverse (i.e., several grown-ups-whom we See through a store window .. are

gathered around a T V set cheering on the hitter at bat). The voice says. "there'; the wind-up ... and the pitch". At this point, the bby has made his choice, snaps open the lid. "It's a hit ... it's

- going.,md going", $s {he boy chugs back the frosty drink. "It's gon;". There's cheering as the . I "

--.-

boy knishes the drink, wipes his brow, and,tosses the empty can with perfect accuracy into the

trash bin. In this example, the locale and POV sound functions dominate (possibly undermine in /-

Z ' .

i '

some moments) the information pr&nted by the image. This is qccomplished by defining the \

.I

intensity of the boy's consequences of choosing a Pepsi over a Coke,.spacing each function I

(localebd POV) slowly throughout the design, then slugging a home run crescendo deliberately . k

converging in a victorious cheer from the crowd, achieving catharsis. >.

The balance of sound design products, for the most part, are considered to be either AV *t

redundant, conditioned-reflex, self-servicing messages or cliched (Alkjn, 197,3; Altman, 1985; 4

Altman, 1980; Bordwell& Thompson, 1979; Brown, 1985; Doane, 1978; Eisler, 1967; Field, . .

--.y

1982; Gecsei, 1985; Goldrnan, 1984; Rosenbaum, 1978; Seidman, 1986). Is sound designing

then the inspired gift of a fortunate few, or can it be learned by anyone? What are these producers , I

9

doing with sound that others are failing todo? One place to begin an investigation of the source P

of this inability may to understand the problem from a historical perspective. A review of the 3

$

literature into the history of Wotion picture production indicates that there seems to be a

continuing need to go back to the fundamentals of motion picture production iyld see what new '

forms can be derived from its substance (~~bttiswdode,,l949). "Any study, however imperfect, L

which tries to lay bare the scaffolding of the film medium, hay be ableto help the cxeative .

I '>

worker on his way" (p. 2). f

In summation, the prevailing situation in many entertainment and educajhnal media in which

sound and vision are combined seems to be a tendency to consider sound as the poor relation and

ti5 allow only as much consideration, effort, and facilities as can spared after the visual

requirements of the production have been satisfied (Akin, 1973). Poor sound designs seem to be 7 . .

I caused by either unstructured sound functions, unifunctional sound, or both. The results of *

unstructured sound functions are evident in audiovisualy redundant and self-servicing sound 6

L

designs. The presence of a well-structwed script is evident in a fe,w landmark movies but is

usually absent in many productions (Brown, 1985; Field, 1982; Geosei, 1985; Goldman, 1984). r'

Although struc tk seems to have been considered to be an improvement over the unscripted . i

1 ' .

. ,

5 . '4 \

story, the visual aspects of the film story (utilizing the storyboard to tell-the story) h&c been

traditio;lally favoured over the aural aspects. Since the advent of original and adapative

scriptwriting for film, e functions of sound have been unscripted and even aleatoric (Gianetti, 7 - 1985; Monaco, 1985). - -

What has been missing and heretoforheeded, therefore, is a system that w ~ u l d increase the *

amount of consideration given to the sound component in sound-picture ~lationships therdy 5 3

closing the gaps in results attributable to poor sound designing. The new system needs to include

would a more *ise structuring procedure for scriptwriting that delineated how, where and

how often a givh iound function would be structured into each ~.ound-~icture relationship.

rr - & -Second Fehaujpur: for RlmiQns

. . 4

Structurin'g is the second behaviour implicit in structuring sound functions into a

a sound-pictur ,relationship. Structuring Skills i re relatively common dramatic devices that, in

'1 many cases, are learned iri' many creative writing and productioq courses under various

synonyms. However, typical sound structuring practices have largely repained separate from the - .', , I

scripting and filmmaking prqcesses, often utilizing one or two kinds of specific sound sqategies

at a time (such as pacing or rhythm) without reference to more than one sound function. The

temptation of many designers seems to be to consider sound supcturing as a hard thinking

activity to be carried out in ,the a1 phase of production. , .

This consideration, the root of the structuring problem."The trouble with such

simplecontrols is that they have insufficient variety to cope with the variety in the environment''

(Beer, 1964, p. 50). The designer needs to be constantly questioning himherself about the . Yc

i s I , sound-picture relationship as one way of maintaining control over hisher system, keephg the

,I sound design"systern viablq, and of reducing the apparent arbitrariness for deciding what c

substrategies are suitable for which.functions.'

The two main' questions are:

1) Is substrategy X for function W *in some way to sound-picture lationship YZ? . I

If funckon W using substrategy X does dot seem to be relatable to YZ, then it may be\

appropriate to avoid usirig .that combination of structured function, since it has PO place in either I

. the sound design system or the environment (i.e., the stated picture, implied picture, stated sound '-- . 1

environment). Conversely, if function W using substrategy X seems to be relatable to YZ, then it i e

hay be appropriate to use this cornbinadan of shuctured functiob in either the sound design

rn or the environment (i.e., the stated picture, implied picture, stated sound environment).

(See the ~n'structio~l Manual in Mann, 1988 for prescriptive kietails.)

., , 2) Do I have enough variety using substrategy X with function W to control XY? If there

seems to be more variety Already in the XY relationship than the designer has using substrategy I

' X with fuwtion W, then the design& will not beable to control XY. Conversely, if the designer J

seems to have more variety using substrategy X with function Wzhan already in the XY

relationship, then the designer will be able to control the XY relationship.

Answering these self-imposed ques~ons.ought t.0 provide the designer with additional 'a

information which would necessarily reduce the variefy in the system thereby increasing the

designer's control (Beer, 1964; Churchman, 1968; Sohoderbek, Schoderbek & Kefelas, 1985)

over hisher sound design system. ~ t ruc ruho~ functions should be thought of in the same way 44

that functioning was achieved (i.e., i d d h s of a soft thinking activity Canied out in the germinal a t

phase of sound designing). Therefore, ;he same soft &inking ski,lls have been applied here in

much the same way in which choosihg the functions was done, only on a more complex level.

Instead of just choosing two out of six probable sound function inputs, there is the additional

. task of choosing four from among the fdteen probable substrategy inputs, plus the fuqher ."

complication of deciding how, where, and how often each chosen function should be structyrtd 4 1 . B 4

1 - ' into the script or sound mB:

A :'sound strateg$' isrhe sound schema foi- mediating-an , C

intended message or expression. The combination of two or more strategies working together is

47 . I . ,

calIed a sound structure. Often a sound strategy answers the scriptwriter's own questions: -

"What's%.about?" (Brown, 1985; Field, 1982; Gecsei, 1985; Goldman, 1984). Often a sound

strategy will utilize a persona.to tell its story or relate its message, in which case the question, -

"what's it about?" becomes "Who is she/? What does s/he want? and Who/whatts stopping him

from getting what s h e wbts?".

Sound structure, therefore, refers to the plot (Aristotle, Poetics), the content organization

category (Coldevin, 1981), the goal-area (Palmer, 196B; Schramm, 1972), the code (Salornon, ..

1979), or the story-spine (Goldman, 1984: Field, 1982; Rbot, 1979). This structure should be , Q 2 -

used to place the. appiopriate sound functions next to <very moving picture sequence so as to

creaie an ex~ressionist~aconceptualization of reality which is greater than the sum of the parts. 1

Sound stra'tegies-and subsuategies help the scriptwriter t o prescribe where; how, and for which

function exactly each component of the message fits iqto or "works" in the overall scheme of

each film or video scene or sequence of scenes.

'b

bformational Sound S m , f l 4

Ther; are foir informational !found substrafegies that may be placed alas a relationshipto-

image continuum: undermining, dominating, counterpointing, and cueing. All four of these t substrategies may be used throughout the sound design in combination with ether substrategies. '

A fifth strategy (not considered here) typically prescribes sound information that accompanies the , .

image. This often-used fifth substrategy best prescribes the status quo, informational sound that I kccompanies the infofmaiohal irnage>making @at information redundant, insulting the , ,.

intellgence of the listener/viewer, and subsequently promoting the visual bias. For that reason, L

\ the use of this strategy is.discourabed and nothcluded in this study. C

I

Sound S- (~rown, 1985; Field, 1982; ~ e c s e i , 1985; Goldman, 1984). . 'r This information4 sound substrategy prescribes how, where, and how often the chosen sound - ,

function should foreshadow the visual action (e:g.; segues, headliners, flashforwards. L

- , 7 i

I

P

1 C

I

hdc~uffins, gimmicks). -

Sub- (Alten, 1981; Zuckennan, 1949). This informational

sound substrategy prescribes how, where, and how often the chosen sound function should - oppose or complement the image. Visually, this strategy is used to create a visual cast-against-

type characters. As an informatio~~al sound ~ubstrategy, counterpointing has been best used to C' give different aesthetic meaning, e.g., city traffic in a "Mop 'n Glo" ad, Stravinsky's music for ' C I

the ballerina hippos in Disney'sUFantasia"; and the Wide W&ld Of Sport's ballet-in-slomo, # -

presenting a fodtball player's "character in the character" inFoduction to the programme. ,

und S- This informational sound substrategy prescribes how, d . where, and how often the chosen sound function should control the content of the image. This

sound substrategy rarely appears in motion pictures, since it would elliminate audio-visual

redundancy (i.e., identical verbal, visual & graphic infomtion/emotion) evident in many overly

graphicated pewscasts. However, at its rare besr this substrategy untypifies bedictable, . . emotioqal interlude (e.g., injects silence yhere music would bridge two scenes, or where the

5 ,

(attention to image is lost briefly). Shots f i n g \ o ~ a beating-heart, for example, creates curiousity 1

where either a "eievator music" design, or a "wind blowing through trees" design waul@ typically I

accompany a country scene). 9 I

ou- t This informational sound substrategy prescribes how,

whm, and how often the chosen sound function should ridicule the content in the image. This C

substrategy is considered to be the most radical use of informational sound in that its effect r

"sends up" the meaning in the picture (e.g., making fun of by placing laughter behind a

serious-looking politician).

The emotional strategy prescribes a scripted subtext for the text and qswers the question, t

- \

"what does s h e really want?" (Brown, 1985; Field, 1982; Gecsei, 1985; Goldman, 1984). Both \

of the substrategies may be used alone or in varying combinations together or w i q other r -

substrategies throughout the, sound design. L

fining Visual Action Intensitv S o u n d ( A l t e n , 1981; Seidman, 1986;

Zuckerm&#1949). This emotional sound strategy prescribes how, where, and how often the

~hosen sound function should punctuate the visual action. Sometimes the visual action may only e

be 'ii look' tq a ~ c ~ u f f i n . Strategically placed, a sound, or its absence, may create depth by

creating suspense or interest in the sound-Picture relationship. Typically, rapid knocks on a door \

indicate urgency, or thunderous applause as a man bows indicates success, or one or two people'

clapping infrequently implies disinterest. Untypically, restraint through the sparing use of silence - , \

or room noise may imply suspense or interest in the story or message.

p u n c t m ~ - Emotion Sound Sub- (Alten, 1981; Seidman, 1986; Zuckerman, 1949).

This emotional sound strategy prescribes how, where, and bow often the chosen sound function

should pkvide subtext to the stated sound and/or visual action. Again. a su$tegically placed

sound, or its absence, may create depth by implying suspense or interest with two or more sound . . '-.A

functions in a sound-picture relationship. Typically, scary music cues the monster. Untypically,

electmacoustically-produced soubd designs may create deeper-felt emotions,in we listener/ I'

viewer.

The two pacing sound substrategies (~oldevin, 198 1; Palmer, 1969; Salomon, 1979;

V c h r a r n m , 1972) prescribe how fast, where, and how often the chosen sound function occurs in , ,

the production. Sound pacing may either be fast or slow, or both, occumng in contrast to one t i

-9 , . another. Since the 1930fs,qacing has been used effectively in many applications qf sound .to

pictm, i.e., in artistic, education, and entertainment environments. ~ o t i o n picture =biters and t

editors have operati~nalized the importance bf "the dialogue cutting point" for making smooth,

unnoticeable cuts when cutting from one speaker to another in a scene (Salt, 1976). '". B

Rhythm and pacing activities are related but should remain distinct sound Substrategies. The

two rhythm substrategies lised below prescribe the pe$odicity for each chosen sound function in

a script or sound mix. L .

US (Coldevin, 1981: Palmer, 1969; ~alomon, 1979; * ' '

' Schramm, 1972). This rhythm sound substrategy prescribes how, where, and how often the

chosen sound function should set up the korld (Brown, 1985; Field.1982; Root, 1985) in the J

production. A continuous rhythm substrategy places unintempted sound (massed or

summarized) or interrupted sound at regular intervals (spaced) throughout the soudd.design.

P i s c o p (Coldevin, 198 1 ; Palmer, 1969; .Salornon, 1979;

.~chiarnm, 1972): The rhythm sound subsmtegies pnscribe how, where, and how often the

chosen sound function should be spiced throughout ihe production. A discontinuous rhythm

places uninterrupted sound (massed or summarized) or interrupted sound at regulai intervals -' 0

(spaced) throughout the sound design. Where and how would this sound best function? This , .

structure . . has been used most famously in Eisensteinian fashion to dissect the picture into

sub-moments for composing "kalistic" film music. Typically, the mood fuiction is srmciured L

discontinuously throughout an entire production. 1

- Thc three review substrategies prescribe the nature of a particular function's reoccumce i n a sound-picture relationship. Typically, visual review strategies are used widely for educational

message designing. It seems that the iipplication'of reviewing methods to sound designing seems h

to be appropriate when it is used in this context.

(CoIdevin, 198 1; Palmer, 1969;- Salomon, 1979; 4

Schrarnrn, 1972). This review sound substrategy prescribes how, where, and how oftin the

chosen sound function should illicit activity or reinforce a message at the end of the production.

b

5 1 4'

For example, every "Sesame typically repeats "this program has been brought to \

' -C 4 t

you by the letter Mu. Broadcast TV news programmes utilize a summarized review sound

. substrategy irl recapping the main stories of the day. Corporate video productions utilize a I 'summarizer! review sound substrategy to reinforce behaviour modification role modelling

# b

techniques. . - I 1

2 . . ed Revlew S- (Coldevin, 1981; Palmer, 1969; Salomon, 1979; Schramm, . 1 . i972). This re\r*w sound substrategy prescribes ho?, where; and how often the chosen sound

d-3

function should-illicitrdctiv& or reinforce a message at the end of each relevant segment Moral \. and personal goal areas on "Sesame Street" and "3-2- 1 Contact" are often taught all at once and

usually out of thepr_ogramrne context using a massed review sound substra

aced Review Substrategv. (Coldevin, 1981; Palmer, 1969; Salomon, 1979; Schramm, I

I

1972). This review sound substrategy prescribes how, where, ajld how often the chosen sound 31

P . function should illicit activity or reinforce a message throughout the production. Problem solving q . $

level skills are often taught on "Sesame Street" and "3-2-1 Contact" utilizing a spaced review

sound subsuategy.

.This strategy is usually considered to be a contiuurn, used in education taprescribe . 8 m

I

instructional &en& or learning activites (Davis, Alexander & Yellon, 1974). The application of

convergent or avergent delivery methods td sound'designing seems appropriate when appliod in .

this context.

' Converpent Delive-. This delivery sound substrate .. and how often the chose;sound function should editorialize the

- 8 . . 4 * ' 0 - strategy (Coldevin, 1981) the producer presents the questions and supplies the answers;

- - favouring one side over another. Brown (1985) sates that in a dramatic script with a convergent

delivery, catharsis is reached through the ,ultimate confrontation of two opposing forces. Some

.- .I 52

\:

often used story ideas (plotlines) are: When a character conquers or is conquered by ihe natural * *

elements (humanity versus nature), when a character vanquishes or is vanquished by a fellow . \

character (hurnani ty versus another humanity), when -a character overcomes or is devoured by I

itself (humanity versus itself), when a character overcomes a predetermined path with hisher

, , own free will (humanity versus fate), or when a character M t s or is beaten by an organization

(humanity. versus society).

verv -. This delivery sound spbstrategy how, where, &'

and-how often the chosen sound function reprerents the most exhaustive research of an iisue. In 5

the divergent delivery strategy (Coldevin, 1981) the listenerlviewer supplies hisher own answers I

r4

to controversial questidns p&sented by the medium. ~h example of a'dwergent sound delivery

substrategy occurs frequently in broadcast news *rograms where the anchor faces two large I - '

screens with hidher back to the listenerlviewer. Two or more diverging points of view'emerge

, but are presented equally for public scrutiny (e.g., the opposing points of view of two or more

political parties). It is important to note that there is no attempt made on the part of the broadcaster

to editorialize or to show iavdur f ~ r one side over another. /

In summation, srmctu~-e in the movie script is evident in wkll-written stories and is usually - ' , absent,in unscripted stories. Saydture then, is usually consi-ded to be an improvemnt over the ,

unscripted story (Brown, 1985; Field, 1982; Gecsei, 1985; Goldman, 1984). Scriptwriting, L . -

however, has traditionally favoured the visual story over e aural (particularly storyboarding), 3. , while the functions of sound (e.g., ihe Locale, Charcater's Past, POV, etc.) are left aleatoric or.

#-

unscri6ed (Gianetti, 1985; Monaco, 1985). Structuring skills are reldtively cofhmon dramatic

deviceCtKat can be learied (under various synonyms) in many creative writing and produdtion I '

courses. d There seems to be obe excepiion: some~roduction courvs,and texts do not attend to more

# -Y a I I than one or two kinds of specific sound strategies (such as pacing, rhythum, and deliveq+&a~-_.'_-- 1

im make up the s k c t u b component in sound design g. Moreover, crearing a structure for each i

carefully chosen function means answering how, where, and how often for each chosen

substrategy under each chosen strategy in the smcture. W e second of two strucnoing conditions 4'

of sound scriptwriting seems to be that the sound designer must be able to choose at least four !

< (out of a possible six) appropriate sound strategies. Creative soft thinking, in this context means . !<- 4

- encouraging play with four or more scriptwriting strategies to structure at least two f h w s of

sound into a sound-picture relationship in the germinal phase, would produce an expressionistic -

conceptualization of reality. Only the prociucGn and'evaluation of an expressionistic motion

picture s'ound design unit will improve the practice of sound designing. Generating sound I M

, designs that &e expressionistic conceptualizations of reality has the attendant result of rcduchg I the visual biap Reducing the visual bias in sound-picture relationships, then, requires soft \ ' . thinking in the germinal phase, ,

1 '

It seems, therefore, that aenew system for learning how, where: and how often to structure

furlctions into a screenplay or teleplay is needed. Instructional guidelines for creating sound* , 6

designs would enable students and practitioners alike to be able to manipulate sound according to *\. % I

some measurable set of criteria (Altman, 1980; Mam, 1988; Mitchell, Steukel, & Wilkens, 1981;

4 The choice of an instructional design model should be dependant on the model's

prescriptivity (Martin & Briggs, 1986). A descriptive t h q such as Bloom's cognitive

taxonomy, is one that permits reliable classifications of terms, labels, and sometimes even

- objectives and test items, but does not include the supporting materials to allow the user to .

' -

design lessons (Bloom, 1956; Bloom, Hastings & Mildcus, 1971; Martin & Briggs, 1986). a

Gagne's taxonomy, however, is accompanied by an entire theory for -the design of instruction,

organized by category, as well as an instructional design model (Gagn , 1985; Gagne & Briggs,

1979). . .

e & B- the M M . Gagne's theory offers a list of nine'

instructional events, a set of learning conditions, and a technique for deriving learning hierarchies

(Martin & Briggs, 1986). Within his five categories of learning outcomes, the section on

intellectual skills best prescribes the capabilities that enable the learner to use symbols to organize .I i r ..

and to interact wi'th the environment. (Martin & Brjggs, 1986). The organizational capabilitites

are of a soft thinking nature, creative rather than analytical. Gagne's cognitive taxonomy (1977),

coupled-with the Gagne & Briggs instructional design model (1979), has been judged by ,

;'?

Reigeluth (1983) to represent one of,the oldest and most comprehensive models of instructional t

design in use. Martin & Briggs (1986) have stated that Gagne's taxonomy is extremely useful. - , . .

ve C-bv m. The instruction of a concept, principle or theory not only

refers to comprehension teaching, but also includes the attitude toward it; the acceptance or

rejection of it as useful, and its dependability loo& 1971). Sound designing activities involve

softhihinldng, which seem to particularly suited to Keller's (1983) mbtivational theory of 1 ? continuing motivation. This theory uses two concepts, choice and effort, to &strate the reasons

w b people approach or avoid tasks, and how to design instruction to make attask more

interesting. a el lei's motivational design model has four categories with attendant strategies for- .

accomplishing each goal: d

4

1) Interest or "epistemic curiousity" in this context, refers to establishing and maintaining -

the curiousity-level, and achieving optimal le of learner arousal. Keller uses the term T linterrst' in an information seeking and problem &ing epistehc, or amoral sense. Interest, is

? believed by some (Merrill and Goodman, 1972) to be impiissible to adequately evaluate undk

conditions where the student may be able to fake a desired response. Memll and Goodmm-

further imply that it is immoral to grade students on rnolivation or interest change. However, -

, Keller has provided specific strategies to increase klevance (i.e.. amoral epistcmit cunousity) by

using novel problems, guiding inquiry into unfamiliar but not totally unknown areas, and using

personal examples about which learners have some motivational attachment.

2) ~el ivance or "instrumental value" refers to the increasesin motivation to accomplish an

_ immediate goal when it is connected to another and how the accomplishkent of one goal leads to

the accomplishment of an immediate goal when it is perceived to be a desired for attaining a

future goal. Keller (1983) suggests'that clearly explaining how one goal is connected to another.

and how accomplishment of one goal * , is connected to the accomplishment of a desirable future

goal will have an impact on continued motivation. This strategy includes opportunitites for

success as a result of effort, and opportunities for cooperation and personal choice. 1

3) Expectancy for success refers to the causes one attributes to hisher potential for repeating 1

similar tasks. A student who feels s h e has personal control over the successful compIetion of a 4

P'

learning task and who believes success is related to personal.ability and effort; will tend to persist

longer in the activity than those.who believe success is due to external factors (Martin and

Briggs, 1986).

4) Intrinsic satisfaction is a key to developing and maintaining motivation (Keller, 1983).

~ h i ~ c o u ~ l e d with reinf&ccement aimed at providing information, rather than con&lling the

learner, may lead to a sustained motivational level. b. 1 3

A - - A needs assessment is a report on the gaps-in-results between the status quo and the ideal

- -- situations (Kaufman, 1986; Kaufman & English, 1979).'~illin~ thee gaps-in-resulE&!=e ----

ideal situation and the prevailing condition is accomplished by linking insauctional objectives - P

with lifelong goals of the shdent (Martin and Briggs, 1986). * . ,

,! The status quo in sound design education is the,inappropriateness of sound designing -

procedures inmedia pmduction agd in media production education: The ideal situation would lx --. \

gestalt and the attendant reduction of the visual bias. This should be accomplished by designing 1

instruction that eljcnurages the learner to generate an original sound design procedure tb solve

are known to cause a visual bias (i.e., procedures for selecting 0 , and

and'functions of sound in the sound-picture telationship). Specifically,

film and television production students and practitioners are not able to: 1) prescribe origind

multiple sound functions for every sound-picture relationship in the production; 2) prescribe an .

original multiple-strategy sound structure for each sound function of e?ery sound-pioture \ '

relationshwn the production; 3) write an expressionistic, multi-layeted , script

s&nd-picture relationships throughoul t h & h i & e d on the original structur v

functions; 4) verbally direct the audio recording h d rnixdown of an expressionistic sound design

using thp original multi-layered script; and 5) write the procedure used to create the original b

exfiessionistic sound design. 1

An audit trail derives an appropriate terminal performance objective (TPO) directly from its <.q I

referent situation (RS), (Davis, Alexander & Yellon, 1974; Martin & Briggs,4986). The audit ' . ,

trail is a mechanism that integrates the instructional sequencing in the affective andfognitive #

*9i domains, and closes the gap between fe-long goals of the lcarner.withrheinstructiona1 unit ,

(Martin & Briggs, 1986). In a sound design strand, the audit trail would integrate the . 1. inshctional sequencing of sound design objectives inthe affective and cognitive domains, and

close the gap between life-long media production,goals, media produsion - curriculum goals,

sound daign objecti~es for courses, for courserunits, and for lessons. , 'L.

Refe-. The referent situation-test' (RS'~) is a mechanisin for relating an RS

to a ?'PO jnce 66th the test apd !he objective are criteriaof the achievement (Davis, ~lexander & \

Yellon, 1974). The RST descriW succe~sf~l performance in the kferent situation. The objective

describes succes ful perfomance at the end of instruction. Therefore, the TPO should be the < . - . . . - , .. 4.'

closest possible approximarion to the audiince, behaviour, conditions, and dcg& of the RS as

possible. ' 1)

t RS 1: This situation occurs at in-house motion picture production units such as the

' audiovisual production department within large companies like Teeleglobe an'd Bell ~ h a d a . . RS 2: This situation occurs in independent motion picture production situations such as

I

Q Atlantis Film Company in Toronto,'or Souvenir Video Productions in

, In both of these referent situations, th; scriptwriting, shooting, 9

requires the practitioners of the film or TV production company tp be able generate new sound /

designing procedures problems synergistically. (RST statements are listed in the

Appendix.) 1

1 .

~erformanfe Obi ec tives \

, , , -

The behaviours that best describe sound designing activities should have two types bf

learning outcomes: 1) a cognitive component made up of four intellectual skillk and 2) an . ! ,

,affective component made up of three attitudes toward the task of sound designing. Pow levels 4

. of iritellectual skills were defined in accordance with the Martin & Briggs instructional design 8. .

model: '1) discrimination; 2) defined concept learning; 3) nile using; and 4) prqblem solving in the P

cognitive domain (Gagne & Briggs, 1979; Mamn & Briggs, 1986); and continued motivation in .

the affektive domain (~eller, 1983; Martin & B;iggs, 1986). \

Typically, a criterion checklist is based on a consensus of expert opinion md on current ' .

reviews in the literature. The criterion checklist, in,this context. is both a quantitative measure of 4.

'b

the khaviour stat* in the objective. For example, a quantitative criterion would be: Two 8 ' , I - --

t functions are written on the function sheet within the allottdd time: Specification of a-time limit is ' - a .' I n

not essential in sound design mastery. A qualitative criterion would be: If the PO f v t i o n is - * - ' 7 f chosen, then it must imply anoiher POV or something more about the POV than has already been

stated or implied from or about him/hsr/it in the existing picture'or sound. I

-. The rationale for including domain integration as a'component in the

combination of the educational goal-weas is to de;elop aninstructionaltheory for sound design

that shows the producer, designer, teacher or evaluator how to integrate the cognitive and

affective domain, both conceptually and practically. Ordering Theory, a deterministic

measurement model builds a branching network permitting the two'dornains to build upon one

another (Hurst, 1980; Martin & Briggs, 1986). 9

Ordering theory is a hierarchical validation technique, with the primary intent of d6tennining

, . hierarchies among all possible tasks or items. As a deterministic model, it relies on the use of a '

- preset tolerance level that defines mastery qs the number of students who pass (a "yes") or fail an I

objective (a "noM)'thqt will be accepted when defining a prerequisite relationship (Airasian, 1971;

Airasian & Bart, 1975; Bart & Airasian,' 1974; Hurst, 1980; Mamq & Briggs, 1986). A . disconfirmatory response pattern (DPP) is one in which an individual achieves mastery of a

ask (a yes or 1) but fails to master'a Iower level task (a no or 0). Such a response I C

if the percentage of such responses for all the individuals in the

level except one subject2(Airasian, 1971; ~ i r k i * & Bart, 1975;'

Ban & Airasian, 1974; Hurst, 1980)JXdering theory can analyze only dichotomously scored

* data; no partial scores are acceptable. Th&efore, when designing tasks or criteriaVto be malyzed L

$1 using ordering theory, clear criteriofor mastery or noflmastery. must be estkbjished (Hunt, .i I S .

bsrmcnonal--k *.. '

Anbponant chdcteristic of leaming,in&1lectiuil skills insofar as media is concemed,*has '

. - been its requirement for precise corrective feedback (Reiser & Gagne, 1983). The overriflng - - - -

'requirement for teaching an intellectual ;kill is for an interactive operition. Typically, display ,

media (i.e., soundscapes and videographs) have been used as an interactive operation attempted * ' ,. ' . f

4 4

a '4

by using supplementaq workbooks and oiher printed material: Gagne,pnd Briggs'. (1979) nine

events of instruction has become a widely iccepted devjce . . for# prescribing instruction into lesson

designs (Gagne, 1985; Martin & Briggs, 1986). Merrill a id Goodman's media selection model

(1972) is alsqa pbpular for strycturing the events in the external learning conditions.

I , - . n tenon-Referericed T a >

Ra .

Criterion referenced test items are designed to re t both the quantitative and qualitative

. criteria and subcriteria from the criterion checklist. Designing tests of this kind has its own set of . f l .

three specific criteria: Appropriateness, accuracy, and clarity of the problem set (Rahrnlow & .

Woodley, 1979). Appropriateness is a check on whether or not the item is a propmmeasure of

the behaviour it was designed to measure. The test item is appropriate if it matches the objective \ ,,

'i

in terms of rhe principal performance, the difficulty level. and the cqnditions of performance. a

? Accuracy refers to the condition that fi.e item must be factually correct, Clarity of the problem set

refers to the relativity of interpretation of the'iest items. Inmpreting the meaning of an item " ..

s~ould not be a part of2he task set for the learner (Rahmlow & Woodley, 1979). 0

Formative Evaluation . C

A recommended method for assessing the effectivene d an ins6ctional

unit that involves media is the Dick and Carey (1985) This model

has been judged by many (Gagne, 1985; Gagne and Briggs, 1986. Martin and Briggs, 1986) to f l

Y be reliable for assessing ar&revi.sing an instructional design. According to this model,there

should be a preliminary inspection of the instructional design and materials by instruftional

designer and subject matter experts. . . \ This formative evaluation model is.a'three step process: 1) a one-to-one assessment of

- - 8 s

students from the population; 2) a small goup assessment; *and 3) a field trial of the entire

, population. ~raditionall~, sound production classej ak small, allowing sufficient access .to the

reviewing and mixing facilites. For this reason, the field trial phase is unmanagaeable: . Moreover, sound designing is a time consuming activity, requiring brainstorming learning

I

activities in small groups. Finally, the resiliency of the hsual bias is evident in sound hesign and 1

literature. Teacher feedback is most beneficial in the one to one strategy, particularly in the - mixdown sitilations.

chapter one began with a discussion of the problem of inattention to sound design in the

history of motion picture production and criticism. The consensus of expert opinion for a 1

s6Ju tion to the problem was for the radical r tion of the visual bias in order to achieve 9 wmething greater than the sum of the parts as a produ* gestalt. Expressionism, rather the

ekptessionistic conceptualization of reality, was suggested as a possible instructional strategy for

teaching learners to achieve gestalt. b _ .

are B e f o r m

Specific questions relating to the motivati nal role of AV devices in teaching sound design 4 is of lesser importance to gestaltists who believe that a more fundamental concern is the need to

know about the acttial transactions that take $lace between teacher, student and AV device. It is a

t ~ ~ c a l mistake, however, and often easier to bring in the machinery ahead of the es lishment of - P the educational objectives..~ better apbroach would be to !ocate the fundamental aducatjonal

* ?'

problems before investigating how new techniques oan help'to solve them (Miller, 1957).

Diffe ent deyices may be needed for different purposes, or a given device may have to be tailored f or used somewhat differently to serve different functions. One example would be the use of

soundless TV segments to teach sound design. Then is a need for more informatidn on how to PI

structure - - and how to organize a a particular learning situation so that audiovisual -. devices L

accomplish their intendd.,purposes and help - move the learning in the desired direction (Luchins,

-. Gestalt psychologists (Arnheirn, 1957; ~eidbredef,'l935; Luchins, 197);

Wenheimer, 1934) hold that the ?alfsis of a phenomenon should be proceded by attempts to 1 . I . ,

grasp its structural features, hd-that any analysis should deal with the, natural structural and t I . functional units of the phenomenon in attempts to understand their role and function in the

structure. Such an approach is in.keeping with what some have called "the method from above" ,

approach (Martin & Briggs, 1986; Wertheimer, 1934) to. distinguish it. from "methods from

below" which usually arbitrarily cut a phenomenon Gto its pans or elements and consider the c'

parts in isolation. Instead of descriptions based i n the and-sumtion of arbitrarily determined * '

elements, the need-in sound design instructio" is for descriptions based on the structural /

understanding that relates parts to their context. ~eaching transummative sound design wholeness f

can only become clear in the light of the research and evaluation conducted into the actual learning

activities in studying undergraduate classroom and studio production environments. '

b 3, 4

Luchins offers a "homo sapiens" conception of Tan as a useful heuristic device for

presenting Wenheimer's views on eddcational procedures. This homo sapien 'male1 is a

conception *. of man?s a creahq trying to realize the meaning and the smkcture of the world 1

V

, around-him. The values and facts he uses are not always just idiosykactically and i b t i ~ a r i l ~

related to his feelings (as in Lucins' "horn; volens model of man") but may be rooted in . _ 1 -

structural features ofobjective reality of which man's urges are only a part. Behaviour takes place .

withip a context in the gestaltists framework. To know whether or not particular factors are

.relevant to human behaviour, their relevance within'the the particular behaviour must be b

* dimvered, not judged a priori. It may seem to be justified, then, that M h i n and Briggs (1986)

have responded to Luchins' (4971) request for a taxonomy of the needs of men as e;pressed in . ,

an everyday language. They have attempted to integrate instruction with research in an effort to e

fill the everyday gaps in results. In sound design gestalt learning, as in sound design aud' , .

trailing, it is important to study the social climate as we11 as the learning theory in which

, learning takes place. It may also be advisable to take into account the meaning of audiovisual

devices in terms of the life experiences and feelings of the learner. Martin and Briggs also try to *

bring learning more in line with real world experiences by integrating cognitive q d affective

, objectives. Care should be taken, therefore, not to divide the subject matter into arbitrary parts in

order to hive parts which can be readily related to the learner's requirements of the couke

(Luchins, 1971; Martin & Briggs, 1986). * .

1 Gestalt thmries oppose asssociationistic conceptions of learningwhen they are presented as I

the prototype of all karning (Koffka, 1935). The Gagne and-~riggs instructional design

-. advocates that humanlearning should currently be interpreted in terms of qn information

processing model (Gagne, 1985). In the realm of crkative problem solving, however, "there is an

inductive leap, a combining of ideas from widely separated knowledge systems, a bbld uSe of,

pnalogy that trancends what is usually meant by generalizing wi&in a class of problem ' I

..' \%. .*.

situations" (Gagne, 1985). Theories of learning involve diverse approaches to control the

teaching-le&ing condition. These differences have important implications for practice (Luchins,

- 1'97 1). Gestaltists do noydonsider thatpractice or repetition is a condition for learning tlecessarily

(Koffka, 1935).~ Nor do they consider thai &l learning occurs through insight; that past

experience never plays a rol ing, nor tha; insight is alwayisudden in nature. Insight can

occur in h e first experience, t occur until a later experienxce4r may not occur at all

(~offka,"1935). Education s repetition without vdation as the paradigm of learning 0

is not education in the $sense of Luchins' homo sapiens notion, and may be more in line with his 3 1

homo mechanicus model. For learning that includes gained insight, the amount of practice and

number of repetitions may be less important than'tlje structure of the subject matter. ---

W t ~ s t S w . ~ h ? following list shows nine gestaltist suggesdoris for what thl r'

instructional designer cari do to stimulate reasoning ~d concept attainment using either L '

entertainment or educatio-nally-designed materials: I

1) The quality, not the qliantity of illustrations matters most. One clear and dramatic '

example is worth many mediocre ones (Luchin, 1971; Merrill& Goodman, 1972; Mielke &

obje&ives of the lesson. It may be advisable to interrupt the presentation of a device in order to %

5 .

demonstrate (verbal information) a panicular feature (~uihin, 197 1 ; MitcheIl, Wilkens & S teukel,

1981). The teacher pretests the learners with part of the illustration then waits to see what

questions and comments may develop, or she may ask the students to predict the ending;.

8) Illustrations may a necessary part of the instructor manual in order that s h e has a fm '

1 .. ' grasp of the behaviours. These illustrations may be different in some way from what the student

may receive in his instructional package, lecture, etcetera (Luchin, 1971). In a sound design unit, .

different instructional events would drovide the learner &th different illustrations of the concept,

- rule, or problem. '

9J.It is advisable to supplement, or in some cises to replace ready-made devices with '

I -

r,improvised illustrations that'are contextyally bore suitable (Luchin, 197; Mielke & Chen, 1981). . I

I t this context, a sound design unit that is cbstom-made to the target audience is called for.

e R a t i d e For Medx&kchor~ 'L

Mmin & Brig@ (1986). have atteided to#e choices h o n g gferent rnodelsinvilved in thd

selection of media in the Reiser & Gagne model, and foufid that Reiser & Gagne (1983), provide - ,

' a demystifying algorythm for the purpoies of selectin the media in line with the educational B objectives..In their text Selectine M e h For I-, Reiser & Gagne (1983) crossreferenced

nine media seleaion models that take into account the learner, the setting, and the task

characteristics for each model including categories of outcomes and events of instruction. - criteria for media selection has also &n suggested by Martin & Briggs (1986). ihese

t the inStrLIch0nal designer takes into account: "1) the capability of the learners to use the / --

media for teaching cognitive and affective objectives; 2) the capability of the learners to use the L

, , .6 - 4 media &th enjoyment andmastery; 3) the capability of the media for enhancing success, seif- -

., i "

esteem, learning strategies, and satisfying study conditions, and; 4j the capability for contributing

td Keller's four components of motivation: interest, relevance, expectancy for success, h d

. . . ' s5

4

intrinsic satisfaction with the outcome (Martin & ~ r i i ~ s , 1986. p: 392).

Media are intended to cause connections, to ediate, and having caused connections (with 7 listener/reader/viewer) to produce effects upon the thoughts and/or feelings of the receiver

(Jarnieson, 1986). To the extent that an audiovisual device may help to achieve the mastery of-

B specific sound design skills it may be regarded as intrinsic to th mastery of specific sound

design skills. To the e?tent that theaevice is intended primarily to arouse interest, entertain or

reward the qtudent, it may be regarded as extrinsic to the mastery of specific sound design skills,

The reasons for using media categories are usually connected wirh the idea that a pqicular type

of medium can best present a task having a similar classification (Reiser & Gagne, 1983). In this

context, learning a task which depends upon receipt of an auditory message may best bk

accomplished with media that includes an audio componertt (Menill & Goodman, 1972; Reiser &

Gagne, 1983). A soundles's video component is given, therefore a videocassette and monitor 1

should also be a requirement.

Moreover, the extent to which the audiovisual device attends to the prdcess of designing ' - 3

sound, or structural features of the sound designs, the more intrinsic it is to the mastery of

specific sound design skills: 1) Videocassettes may help to achieve the mastery of specificsound

design skills, since the activity of listepinglviewing videocassettes may $re ded as intrinsic to 8.c the activity of sound designing in the referent situation,.and therefore to the mastery of specific

sound design skills; 2) Since planning and scriptwriting best reveal the structure of a sound

design, scriptwriting may be regarded as intrinsic td the activity of 'sound designing in the , *

referent situation, and therefore to the mastery of specific sound designskills.

* . The Encoding S t r w and Pr&iIon 6 . .

' All educational mesgdges are coclkd$jn symbolic form which require skill for their d i n g . - - ,

A program's coding el$ents affect notiPhly skill maiery but preferences or tendencies for 9

- information processing as well (Salomon, 1979). As there are no existfng structures for

symbolically coding sound design me sages based on an extensive review of the literature, a Q composite of well-known 'structures for symbolicqlly coding visual messages may be of benefit,. . at least during the initial stages,

Every element in the illustratiori shbuld be symbolically coded to affect the mastery learning

of specific mental skills iaits listenerfviewers. Some examples of symbolically coded elements .

that may be implemented in the segments are song lyrics, silences, and polylogues. Symbols + '"

become symbol schemes by means of specific rules of prescription (e.g., a language) or

conventions of coherence (e.g., an artwork) according to which systems can be cbmbined, h

arranged, and organiz&i (Salornon, 1979). One example of a sound deqgn symbol J.

, scheme would be recurring leitmo~if coded expressionistically to exhibit the value system of the

designer, not merely filling in a gap between awkward silences or visual metaphors (Eisler, 'k

1960). Coded elernentsHhould affect cognition in three ways: 1) through the activation of skills

that transform external codes into internal anes; 2) through shortcircuiting skills by ovedy . the end result of mental transfornations that a learner should have employed; and 3)

throughmert supplantation or modeling of processes by means d f uansfo~ational codes ' . ( ' ' 7 " (Salomon, 1979). Two types of coding elements are available t~~observational learning; 1)

stationary codes; and 2) transformational codi~.'~tationar~ codes must be matched by l e ~ e r s LI

ability to generate transformations that would lead up to them, e.g., the sound effect of a

? historical event. Transformational codes can Qvertly supplant or model a skill (Salomon, 1979). '.

\ The concern of the medium, no matter how limited, is nevertheless the chief basis for . ,

~hatcvereffectiveness it has (Palmer in Schramm, 1973; ~ c ~ u h a n , 1967). sound design

4 education, this means concern for.oarefu1 designing. The challenge to researchers and producer is

' - to investigate new ways of incorporating instruction into the plotted drama format (Mielke & V

Chen, 1981; Palmer, 1969; Schramm, 1972). In sound design education, this means J .

\

investigating new ways of incorporating instruction into the plotted drama foxmat. The effects of +

symbol systems or coding elements are the mental skills they call upon in the service of . n

information extraction as determined by the task (balomon, 1979). In sound design education.

this means that the effects of sound symbol systems or coding elements should be the mental '

sk&lls (i.e., creative thinking strategies) they call upon in the service f infoxmation extraction as 9 determined by the task (i.e., the intellectual skill). The effectiveness is reflected by the interaction

between a symbol system, one's mastery of the needed mental skills, and the skill-requirement of

the task (Salomon, 1979). In sound design education, this means that the effectiveness is

reflected by the iiiteraction betweiin a symbol system of one's mastey of the needed mental skills I

(i.e., creative thinking strategies), and the skill-requirement ofathe task (i.e., the intellectual skill r .

and continued motivation tequirements within the behavioural objective).

Q - 8

a In gummation, chapter,two was concerned with the importance of the problem in the context

of the available research as support for the needs assessment. A review of . the . literature in

instructional design discussed the implementation of needs assessment using Martin and Briggs'

audit trailing and Davis, Alexander, and Yellen's RSTS as a method df determining the TPO. p e

, problem addres study was that fdm and television productio~.students and practitioners

*are not able to: original rnultiplc sound f~nctions for every sound-picture relationship -..

in the production; 2) prescribe an original multiple- srrategy sound structure for each sound - ,

I

function of every sound-picture relationship in the production; 3) write an expressioriistic

multi-layered script prescribing the sound-picture relationships throughout the production based - '

on the original structured sound functions; 4) verbally direct the audio recording and mixdown of -

an expressionistic sound design using the original mul141ayered script; and 5) write the procedure *-

used to crvte the ?riginid expressionistic sound design. The importance of this problem in the , , . context of the av-ailable research residesin the two prerequisite conditions for structuring sound , *

functions into a sound-pictljre &lationship: 1) determining two or more sound functions for

structuring, and; 2) prescribing four or more substrategies for structuring. .--- -.

' Second, the ~t i l izat i~n of Gagne and Brigg's prescriptive instructional design and Dick and

Carey's formative els were analyzed.' - t

. Finally, selection algorythrn, Salomon's -

research from the

Children's ~elevision hop provided the rationale for gelecting a modification of Reiser and

Gagne Memll and media selection models that suggested using prerecorded sound

4 .effects on compact and a wide variety of short prereco~ded videos segments on \I

small format

be concerned -. , with how a protoypical instruc fional motion picture sound w

one), and formatively evaluated (stage two) for seventeen volunteer

university studen . Chapter four will discuss some recornmendatidns for further revisions to the ! unit (stage three), .. j .

L

I

The Instructional Design Methodology '

Jnstruct~onal Deun And D e v e l o m <

This chapter-is cbncemed with how an instructional motion picture sound unkt wasdesigned "

and formahvely evaluated for a group of volunteer university students. Assessing the gaps-in-

results has been typically thought of as a necessary step to designing inshction (Dick & Carey,

9" 1985). Accor 'ngly, an audit trail (Martin & Briggs, 19.86) was set up to link life-long goals to \ t

RST's (Davis, Alexander & Yellen, 1974) and the TPO. Then, a modified version of the Gagne

and Briggs' instructional design model (1979) and Keller's four-stage motivation model i1983) . was developed. (See Mannl 1988 for details regarding the procedures and results of this

inspuctional unit.) \ '

Based on a review of the literature and current expert opinion (in Chapter One) theft were

gaps-in-results found in two sound designing situations. Figure 3.1 shows these gaps between /'

the two sktus quo situations (SQ) and their ideal referent situations (RS). According to the/

4' figure, therewere two current status quo situations (SQ's) in sound designing: Poor i n ouse -

production sound designs, and poor Mependent production sound designs. Moreover; there . . *

were two identical RS's: ~ultifu'nctional and qtructured spund. Using the audit trail, oce RST i .

related to two TPO. ' %

- SQ,: Poor ln-holyie Sound Cliche, conditioned reflex, etc. RSl:M@ti-functional, Structured, elc ,

* , ' , RS2:Multi-functional, structured: etc

1, .

7-

f ' Figure 3.1 A sound design needs assessrnent'showing the gaps-in-results rn 1

4 , * dr between two SQP and their RS'S,'

* L 8

. ,

- . n

Refr;rent-- . .

i . 1

.# - -- -

6 I . , , he referent situation test (RST) is a Aechanism for relating an RS to a TPO since both the + . , ? -

-. '

. ,: .. test hnd the obje:ti"e aracriteria of ihe achievement (Davis, Alexander & Yellon, 1974): The*

. folldwiq RSTs were established for this study:' 5

I .

: E ; .'Fh

f &I: Inhouse ~roduction. This iituation occurs at in-house motion production wits \ I

+ * r .

. L b

. . a - .such a$ . - $ the audiovislial productidri department within large companies like Teleglobe and Bell

.a > * I

* - "'-2 , - Canada. I

. - . K , / E '

' , e , i, m a m e n d e n t Roductioq. This siniation , . occurs in independent motion picture . ,, i .

8 * . ) ' . I ' * ,

w. cs \ * ~ r d u c t i o n situations such as Atlamis Film Company in Toronqj, or Souvenir Video Productions

L

'r\ h ' , , . ' 1n b q h RS'S, the strip writing, shoot ing,Iand~i t in~ inyolved requires the practitioners of

g * . , L .

the film * bPfv broductionL60mpby to-be able geri&ate new sound desknag dio~edures for . . , P '

. , . , . ' . solving problems synergistically. Sb'und design RSTstatements are listed in an'objectives for'inat \ - - 8 ' 0 63'

in the Appendix. (See Mann, . s 1988 for a &nplete stattmept of RSTs. objecti&'s, &alpisof I I * * , .

4 . *

* . ' . * . ? ~ , . . ,

+ events of idsmrction, h d instructional materials used in teaching each of these b ectives.) "j . (CI r ~' 4 1

The Audit Trail i

The RST described successFu1 RS performances in relation" tMke D O . which described '

\ successful perfomance at the end of instruction, Therefore, the TPO was designed to include the 1

closest possible approximation to the audience, behaviour, conditions, and degree of the RS as . . a'$ -

. p&s?ble: ~ u d i t trailing relatkd the volunteer's life-long media production goals,, with media v

prodlction cu&culurn goals and kith ~ound design objectives for courses. Figure 3.2 shows the .

converging'~ducational Tkchnology and ~ommuhicatichs Studies audit trai?strands dating - life-long media production goals and media prociuctibn c&iculurn goals with the sound design

C I

TPO. The sound design audit trail links the TPZ) to an ideal bet of behitiours corntnqn,to both , .

RST's.

1 , . ' Status Ouo Red i a. Product i o n 6 i t u a t i on3

Corn Studr I ' + ~ d Idea l MI+ RSz

S'i t,ua t i ons

I 06~ar imenYa I nedj a

Pbdduct ion Educat i o n RST ~ e f e r i n t S,i t ua t i on Teats

N o n p ~ r t i san : f ledia Product ion '

. I . t ~ k f e r e n t , s i tuqt i on Tests

Figure 3.2 Abdi t trkl relating goals with sound m desigp objectives , . . for . ,S c-oil'rscs: r <

. ' ' . % 6 - 1 , _

4

- I , 'sound ~ ~ s i ~ n '

" , , $ 6 -

. 8

k Goal

I I ;

. L ,

v ' ?

, k-- w rsou,d D e s i g J . _ . . * . ,, TPO .

I

I r i ~ t r u c t i o n a l ~ .

/I 'a

The TPO and two enabling objectives were matched with the two RSTs based on the. -

results of the audit trail for the target audience. The two audit mils (i.e.. ~ducational ~echnology '

and Communications Studies) were structured to reflect the philosbphy and purpose of each of

these academic programs as stated in the Concardia University calendar 1986-87 and the current

pi-ogram brochures. ' 3 '

The instructional G o d

' The formulation of the instructional goal as implemented according to Dick and Carey's L . h

($985) criteria for'deriving instructional obj tives:"The selection of instructional goals must be I .

done in terms of the following concerns: 1) that learners were available to receive the instruction; t

2) that content would be selected that could be learned in a reasonable amount of time; 3) that the . n - .

designer's exped~.in.the area (of sound design) be sufficient to deal with the subject matter; 4) - and that it be believed that this instructional design would solve the problem which led to the ' .

need for it't(p. 17, 18). ,

The instructional goal was designed to enable tk participating subjects to master the sound

design objecti- within a reasonable amount of time and thereby clpse the gaps-in-results which I -' * . .

led to the need for it. . R

J p , a . /'

\ . . e Intel

. . lectual Skills and Attitudes: Apnon P e r f m c e Ob!ectlvs

r

Behavioural objectives were derived from the audit trail procedure and hierarchically - .\ b

'c d=-'

deigned according td the Gagne and Briggs (1979) instructional design model. Each Fhavioural a

I 'objective specifiid the WCD, or th_e audience, behaviotk, learning conditions, and degne*(i.e.,

qua,ntitati~e and qualitative criteria for m~tery'of the beha\iiour). The qualitative criteria --

- --- measurini%objectives were drawn from Kellerfs (1983) motivational theory and from the

7 ' ,- Mitchell, ilke ens & Steukel (1981) creative learning paradigm. All the objectives were designed

#

' apriori since neither the wording of the objective and criteria. nor theirorder on the hierarchy had

yet been validated. Another preliminary step to designing insthction for this target audience was

the anhlysis of the concepts related to designing souid based pn the literature review (in Chapter \

Two),

Q .. / Conr;epts: S o u n & D m l s . Stratepies. and Moh

. . V i l t l Q n

Two behaviours seemed td be implicit in structuring sound functions into a sound-picture

relationship. These were discussed in some length in the previous chapter: 1) the prescription of

appropriate functions, which involves thinking creatively and distinguishing expressionisrh from Z \ ,

p realism; and 2) the prescription of appropriate strategies for structuring those functions. b - *

Figure 3.3 shows a concept map of the two behaviours implicit in structuring sound - \

- , functions, creative. thinking strategies, and rnotivatio~ in; a sound-picture relationship. The

larger squares indithte major concepts entailing other concepts. The dime of the concept is '. .,

printed in bold letters adjacent to the square (&g., expressionism;creative thinking, sound % -

functions,iornd structure, continued motivation, interdisciplinary applications, and media

appiications)..Smaller circks indicate those concepts entailed by the larger concept (e.g., rhythm,

review, delivery, infhation: qmotion, and pacing were the six strategies entailed in the concept &@'

*- , of sqjnd structure). Still smaller ellipses indicate those concepts entaiIed in tlie larger concept , . "

" (e.g., cues, counterpoints, domina!es, and undermines were%11 informational substrategies i

belonging tp the sound structure concept). A solid line indicates a strong relationship,-while a t

. broken line i'ndicates a tenuous relationship between two concepts. $ ~. he figure shows that designed sound is linked to expressignisrn. ,creative thinking skills,

. 6 . L

function and structure elements, and media and interdisiciplinary applications; not related or . . - indirectly relaied to realistic elements such as aleatoric sound, media applications, designed

0

sound, and interiiiciplinaq applications. Notably, there is no link at all to creative thinking &d , I

I .P' ',

I -'- continued motivation. -

- . .'r r, ' .

I - ' t ;, * . ' 4 ,

I ,

B .+f >* . ' . . \ " 1 . <

, ., a . , .

i.

4 , -

C

' ? . , * - , . . , .

ncsm F ~ I S SlnlZED mWP.EN7

E D I T M (NO1 11EE EN W)Z- DERNMNT)

m1Hz CHARACTER Q.

. '4

~KICLMEHTAPY MEDIA AWE< 19 & I

~i~ure'3.3 A concept map relating fimctions, structures, strktcgies, and mbtivation. '\

0

S e g , this section was concerned with mapping the intellectual skills, strategies, i 1;

,f A'

m t h s e t i v f t t i ~ s i ~ g sound that closes the gaps-in-results currently sL ,,

found in two referent situations. Assessingthe gaps-in-results has been typically thought of as a

. ' necessary f i t step to designing instruction (Dick & Cany, 1985). What follows is a description

of ?he crcative thinking strategies methodology used f& exacising executive control (Gagne, * d 0

,

. 1985) over these intellectual skills an$ attitudes. t

6 .

~veThlnkin~ - P r o w : Structurine Sound Functlou

. Dick and Carey's 0985) formative evaluation of intellectual skills and attitudes was

complemented with van Oech's (1983) prescriptive creative thinking strategies. ~rog-reisive i It *

creative thinking, in this context, referred tb the soft t h i e n g abilities in the germinal phase (van'

Oech. 1983) of each objective; the frequency and qualitywith which each subject &uld generate I

and m,~ipulate ideas in order to master the criteria (Mitchell, Wilkens & Steukel, 1981). . 4

. . v One: W t o n n i n g - for Onglnal.ldeas(Mitchell, - Wilkens & Steukel, 198 1; van

Oech, 1983). Discovery, in this context, refers to attending to the same thing as everyone else

and thinking something different (Mitchell, Wilkeni & Steukel, 1981; Torrance, 1980; uan ~ e c h ,

1983). Brainstorming, or soft thinking aloud (either alone or with others) was included in the

instructional strategy to motivate the learner's suspensi'on of disbelief and to generate unique D

responses (i.e., original humour'and using similies to coFpare ideas, conckpts, things and

people). . . .

-v Two: Flukncv and F l e w . Producing a variety of ideas that causes shifts from

' one thought pattern (or categoiy) to another seems to be another motivating influence that may be \

a possible source from which mental locks may be opened. The concept of fluency was thought +

of in terms of "odds": the ability to create rnany're~~onses to given stimulus (M.it&ell, Wilkens, '--

& S teukel, 198 1 ; Torrance, 1980; van k h , 1983). In this case, the stimuli took the form of '1 L

silent pictures and problematic soundtracks:

e: Svnect~c Svnergv. Strategy three involved the combination of three major %

notions derived from the literature: * . 1

*- 1) -me activity of uniting different and seemingly irrelevant elements synectically rntchell,

Wikens & Steukel, 1941; van Oech, 1983). This was successful only after the implementer had t

; developed both the cognitive skills for implementing an ihnovation and the affective behaviours 4

v

nec;ssary for generating positive attitudes'ioward that innovation. A syncctic union presupposed (i v

, that the emotional components of the process were more important than the rational ones ' I;

\

' 1

', (Mitchell, Wilkens & Steukel, 1981). . , ,.

t

2) problem solving transcends what is usually meant by generalizing within a class v

of problem situations (Gagne, 1985; van Oech, 1983). This activity usually involves combining

ideas from widely separate.knowledge systems: The attitude can be characterized by an inductive - C

leap manifested inla bpld use of analogy. b

3) Synergy in a script or final cut was considered to refer to the behaviours of an integral \ %

aggregate rnacr;system (e.g., the entire film or television production) unpredicted by behaviours ' Y

of any of their components (the sound design) or subassemblies of their ~ o ~ ~ o n e n t s , o $ functions

and structures (Alten, 1980; Heidbreder, 1933; Koffka, 1935; Luchin~, 1971; Schoderbek, -_- f

Schoderbek, & Kefelas, 1985*~~itchell , ilke ens & ~teukcl, 1981;)~etheimer, 1934; Gttl, ,

C .

19'13; Zuckerman, 1949). When two or more elements (e.g., locale and subjective POV sound . . .

J functionr).were j~x '&~osed in.a unique manner, the result-was greater than the sum of its parts.

r \r

In the gestalt, the partiof a whole interact and influence one another. So change in on; pan often .

.. produces changes in another. .,. I . . C

I

.- Figure 3.4 is a concept map showing creative thinking relationsiips bfsoft thinking in the '

y

5 .

germinal phase: The map shows . that . item comp&sons and similies connect the three cognitive - ?

>, . strategies. . . . - a

'P'

. ,

. ORKINM M A S

FmsmAl ANALOOY. SYMBOCK: AHALTIOY -

, Figun3.4 A conCept map of &tive &lcbg cooccptshd their nlation$hipr ..

-In summation, t h i s d o n was conccmeb with the deielopmnt of the instructional &sign; 9

' . thcint$Uectual skills and creative thinking straicgies. PrtWary steps to designing insauction . .

I . f a the smed target audience includad exposing g&s-in-results, l.inkin<of the RST and 'IPO 4

relevant to the a & . trail strands; and analyzing the appropriate concepts based on the literature t,

8 - review. me cornbibtion of intellectual skius and attitudes were &iwn h m the concept map in

9 , &la m prescribe three performance objectives. The TFO and bwa enabling objectives wen

' I

strategies far exercising a h t i v e cantrol'over t h c s c , i n t e ~ ~ ~ a l skills and a&tu&s I weie '

An instructional design structure was created to teach the sound design unit. Gagne (1985) 9

has suggested that intellectual skills are hierarchically related, wherein the learning of a complex

skill requ& the mastery of its subordinate skill. The result would be a learning hierarchy: "An

prrangement of intellectual 6bjectives into a pattern which shows the prerequisite relationships . Pamong them" (p. 300). (See Mann;1988 for a complete analysis of events of instruction and

meQia selection for each of these objectives.) *

I

The Hierarchv I

Figure 3.4 shows an a priori hierarchical instructional analysis of sound design behavioural ..

objectives one, two, and three. The ability to gewrate a new procedure for solving sound design

-.problems (TPO level) was contingent upon the ability of the learner to demonstrate the procedure ., .

0

for selecting and combining the appropriate defined concepts (i.e., expressionism, design, - I

function and structure) for a given moving image. Fwrhermore,'knowing how to demonstrath

this procedhe. was based on the understanding of each of the concepts tha were combined to /t. . ~ -. make up the procedure. These objectives are listed in the Appendix.

, 3 Generates a new Procedure for . A

' Probkmisolving Selectina and '~ombinina the appropriate ] Defined ~ o r i c e ~ t s to a, givm ~ o v i n g image 1

I Demonstrates the Procedure for Selecting m d - I Rule-Using Combirfing the appropriate Defined Concepts . . ~ I to a given Moving +age. 1 I . >

1 I ' :

4 rppvoprirte . Concept- earning Sound Designs to a given S

1 + Movhg +age.

. , c

Z

/ I , '

, .Y I

3 - ; Figure'3.4 Learning hierarchy of behavioural odjectivcs one, two, and three.

I . a , - 8 I - "

. . p \ ' . - 4 .- , 1.

tlonnl Str(?tecv

Next, an instructional strategy was created for each objective, based on Gagne a Brigg's ,

(1974) events of instfuction, and Reiser and Gagne's (1983) model for selecting media. - According to Dick and Carey (1985) "an instru6ional strategy describes the general components

..4 k!i . -

of a set of instructional materials and the procedures h a t are to be used with those matkrials to

elicit particular learning outcomes From students" (p, 136). One reliable set of components for 6 ,

designing instruction is Gagne's nine events of instruction. Gagne (1985) refers to the nine

events of instruction a,s "all the circumstances that must be considered as composing what is ,

e

called instruction" (p. 305). Table 3.0 shows an a priori instructional events timetable with the 8

nine events pf instruction along one side, and the levels of learning along the top. Time

allotun~nts per event were estimated a priori in minutes. + *

\

, . -9

. .

Media Selection

The oveniding requirements for teaching an intellectual ski11 using medii are: 1) activities . I

must be as interactive ("hands-on") as possible; 2) the instructional unit should provide p;ecise . F

corrective feedback about the learner's learni4 ha-bits (Reiser & Gagne, 1983). Therefore,

display media (i.e.; sou'ndscapes and videographs were selected to be used k nteractively (i.e.,

starting and stopping the videotape to read and write on printed materials).

\

Production Details and R ~ i r e m e n u

~ o l l o w i n ~ the devetopment of instructional events and media, the next step was to -.( %

,determine the prdduction equipment and materials necesssary to bring about the intended learning , ,

outcomes. Details and requirements for equipment (e.g., audio and video tape recorders, video - . I

playback) and materials (e.g., student manuals and prerecorded sound effects), were outlined, 4

and the learning materials were prepared (i.e., sound resources, video segments, answer sheets, 1

space, project expenses). (See Mann, 198 8 f ~ r details.) a

Graduate and undergraduate students in Communications Studies and-graduateestudents in

~ducationa1,~echnolo~~ were asked to volunteer their time to participate in this study. All . %

subjects were registered in courses at Concordia University in Montreal. ..---

I P I

J

, Forrndvt E v a l u w c

- w-va lua t ion Desien of the S t w ' $

I

- - - - - - - / Since this i n s t r u m t h ;-

cognitive and affective objectives, a I '

comprehensive evaluation was developed to measure different types of objectives. Further, three I

creative thinking strategieq would be measured by internal evaluation. Subject comments were to

, , be evaluaied oh both open-ended answers and Likert scales. A single goup \

evaluation design was selected to evaluate the intellectual skills and continued motivation for this

study (Macmillan & Schumacher, 1984). The notational system for this design (0 X 0 ) was

similar to the one used by Campbell and Stanley (1963). "0" refers to an observation, a measure

that records observations of a pretest or a posttest. "X" indicates treatment conditions.

The formative evduatio? plan was conducted in four stages. Stage ose was the subject

/ matter expert (SME) and instructional designer formative evaluations. These results would point

out revisions that removed any errors inherent in the a priori objectives, instructional analysis, a

, , and instructional materials. Stage two was a series of one-to-one trials. These results would

enable the instructional designer to gain some insight into the abilities and attitudes of the target

audience. Stage three was a small group evaluation. This procedure would suggest further

. revisions to the instructional design based on test results, an internal evaluation, and learners /

comments. Stage four was the formative evaluation of stage three, designed to yield the specific

recommendations for a new instructional design in order to exact further improvements to the

sound design unit.

89 - '~

e One: S.M.E. and I.D. Formati ve Evaluat ions ,.

Daring stage one, three SME's and an independent instructional designer were given the

complete a pnori instructional design with prototypes of the student manual, student workbook,

video segments, sound resources, answer forms, tests, and questionnaires. . ,

t Matter Exp-ative ~valu&..The function of-the SME was "to comment on

the accuracy and currency of the instruction" (Dick & Carey, 1985, p. 199): Three SME's

assessed the events of instruction, the adequacy of the studio environment, recording and . - - - - - - -- -- - - - - - . - - - - - - --

a playback equipment and materials, edited video segments, records, audiotapes, answer forms, ,

and the question*haire. Revisions were suggested and implemented based on the audiotapid

exchanges begween the SME's. /'

- ! >

I D-er Formative Eva-. An independent instructional designer was

given, both the original and reyised instructicnal design materials to assess. He located problems

in the objectives statements and the instructional analysis with respect to the definition of the

target audience. of the instructional design were based on his feedback.

. .

made to the behavioural objectives.based on feedback from the independent -

instructionhl design#r. It was thought that the size of the chunk of instruction agd the diversify of

b I skills in the criterio checklist were. too great to be included under one objective. Therefore, the

,' \

criteria under oneewere spread out under five objectives so as tofnsure greater I

ineation of tasks. It was hoped that this decision woul

tery of criteriia for each sybyt . - - ' ~ b r e 3.6 shows the fevised hierarchy of behavioural objectives based.on th) instructional

I

, designer's feedback. Behaviour and criterion statements in performance objectives one, two, and '

6 a

three were changed to discrimination level, subordinate to objectives four and five..Objective one T

(which contained mostly affective criteria) was determined to be prerequisite to objectives two, I

four, five,rix, and seven, but not prerequisite to objective three. (see Mann, 1988 for a cornple$+ 1

statement of objectives, analysis of events of instruction, and instructio?al materials used in ,

teaching each of these objectives.)

4

Gagne's nine instructional events were revised to eleven inorder to allow for "all the k. a /

0 4

84 B s

-

, * I

O b j -7 i

'write a new for solving'

circumstances that must be considered as composing what was called instruciion" (Gagne, 1985, f

Problem-solvinq/ ' Intrinsic Satisfaction/ Personal OutFome .' \

p; 305). Table 3.1 shows how *he events of instruction were revised to accomodate the scope of - . k . . sound de3igning activilies.in this time frame, and for this targelaudience. In both versions of the - - : ',- instructional events and timetable, sound designing would be taught in three lessons (i.e., as

\ / - b O b j . 6

~ule-using/Erpri trncy 'structure the unctions ,\ for success; Wr i te a Script, M i x an -

Q - '1

h . \

Cgnce~t-Learnina Functions ri -

- * - , *

. ) .

~l ;cr iminat ion-~e?rnin~ / l

Intrinsic Satisfaction/ iscriminate ~ x ~ r e , s s i o n i s m ~ Epistemic Curiousity v s Realism i n + ~ c r b t ,sound,

,% r , .

6 q'::3., $-. a . -

- - '. * I

Figure 3.6 Revised hierarchy b&ed on instructional designer feedback. , I . .

4

. -

Revised, Insauctional Events Tim3abk

a problematic video segment, <sing sound, writ( script, md pqix a r.sundtrack.

5 - - seven objectives based on the revisions). Therefore, th; boxes along the top in the revised

, '3 , i - <

. . q

version reflect the instructional events and timetable for objectives one through five, objective

six. and objective seven resbecrively; just afthey d i d m c t t v e s one, two, and thee under the

old version. The number of instructional events were increased from nine to eleven toareflect the

comblexity of creative activites in-designink sound. In the revised'version, brainstorming, ;ample

videos and answer sheets were added,to the learning activites before the pretest and practice . . 2%. 4 .

sessions in order to fu'lly-acqua.int the subjects with the insmctional materials. A pretest plus

questionnaire tdble yers added, showing minimum. times for mastery of all three lessons (6 hours 1 -

tot$. The total time for the completion qf the sound design unit (i.e., attempting and failing the v

- pretest, taking the instruction, practicing, and completing the posttests) had been increased from

six hours to over sixteen hours. Moreover, changes were made to the instructional materials, '

mv --

i -

recordingand assessing instruments. . - . p -

instructional designer feedback. -

Obj's. 1-5 O b j . 6 O b j . 7 > \ .

1

1 . Inform Learner O f ObjectiveiCriteria - 10 mins 1 5 mins. 15 mins.

2. Present Definitions /Sample Sheets 3 0 mins a 30 mins . 3 0 mins f 6 : l d

3. Screen Sample Video/Sample Brainstorm 75 mins 75 mSns . 90 mins . .

- f i e next siep was to try out these revised inskuctional materials on a one-to-one basis with - i ' I

selected representiti+es of the target audknce-.twq graduate students + (one from Educational \

4. Screen Video / PRETEST

5 . Screen ~ r a c ~ Stars Vide~/Gatn Interest

A Screen Video / Teach Brainstorming

7. stimulate Recall of ~ r i o ; Knowledge

8. Sound Desian GQided Discoveru / ' ~ u t o r % ~

9 . Screen Video /Guided Practice/Feedback

1 0 Screen Video f. POSTTEST - 1 1 Provide Voluntary Questionnaire .

PRETEST & Outst Only; it. Nos. 1,-4,11

PRETEST/ Intr 'n/Feadbrck/POST TEST I

- Technology and the aherfrom Communications Studies), arid one undergraduate 8 . - U

'~ommunicatioris s t~die~ahuden t.

. . \ . . % q.

TWO: One-To-One Fo tive F.valuatlons \

*

- . Table 3.1 Reyisedevents of instruction based on SME and independent -

I

60 mins

10 mins

15mins. - n/a .

15 mins.

30 mins ' 45 mins .

15 mins.

3:10 .

5 :05

. . The purpose of these trials was "to identify and to remove the most obvious errors in the --

, 60 mins

n/a ,

- t5mins.

10 mins.

15 mins.

30 mins

45 mins..

15mins.

3:10

5:OO '

r )

90 mins . 1 3:39

n /a . 1 0 : l O

1 5 mins.

f 0 mins.

15 rnins. 1 :SO

45 mins.. 1 1 :45 60 mins

1 5 mins.

\. 4 :OO

6 z25

2 :3Q

, 0:45

6 :J 0

16:35-

instruction, and to obtain initial reactions-to the content from dree or more learners who were * (.

-representative of the target population" (Dick BL carey, 1985; p. 199). The sources of r - ,

f f " information for implementing changes were: learner suggestions, learner performa'nce, and thq ,

s evaluator's informed commenys. Based on the diversity in these su,bjects' backgrounds and the - candid nature of one-to-one testing,'the information provided by these people could be expected

-- * to be distinctly different from those data collected from the small group -> (Dick & Carey, 1985). ,.

Thwe were two levels of investigation: objectives and criteiia. Revisions weremade to the - d

function and s cture sheetsas well as to the videos segments. These revisions became the new 0 C

instructional materials for the small group formative evaluations. (See Mann, 1988 for details

regarding the procebures;results and comments of the one to one hals.)

- Small Grouu Evaluations .3

h

Stage three in the formative evaluation process was the small group evaluation. (Results me

described fully in Mann, 1988). The of collecting and analyzing small group data was to . locate the probable causes of nonperformance in the instructional design.

'.. 4 Audience. Fourteen gaduate and undergraduate students in Communications Studies

and graduate students in Educational Tqchnology were asked to volunteer their time to paiticipate , 1 - -.

in'this study. AlI subjects were registered in courses at Concordia Universityin Monpeal. All ,

' subjects filled-in a personal questionnaire. * Q

1) When asked about he kinds of film or electronic media equipment they owned, 11 out of _ C- '.

12 reported that they owned or leased an audio sysiem (turntable, amp, and speakers), and most Le

subjeits owned or leased at least one television (7112). and in sonie cases twq. Notably, two '

' subjects did not own or lease a television. ~,

I 2) When asked about the types of film or electronic m d i a equipment rhey felt canfoflable

- operating, everyone stated that ihey could operate a stereo audio system, a reel-to-reel tape

recoidir, and an aud;'ocassette recorder. Notably, Z only 10 out of 14 respondentsated they could '

- "-

. -

1 .- - opepte a video camera and a Super 8 film camera, while 5 out of 11 stated that they were able to

- work a professional thm-rube studio or location camera.

. - c+. 3) Whe? asked about the typeiof media rive the; had edted, !he responses were uniform

! . i- for audiotape editing and splicing, videotape editing and audio overdubbing; 7 out of 12 subjects - - . stated they had previously mixed or spliced audio and/or vide6tape successfull; Z. . -

4) When asked about the types of media courses have thei had completed..only six out of . b

fourteep subjects plied that they had completed a-script&iting course: he highest freq,uency of

production courses Wen(l82/14) were large fonkit broadcast TV p;oduction courses and video

production courses without a switcher. Notably,pnly 10 out of 14 s *

studio or location video production with a switcher. The highest frequ,ency of media aesthetics .-

a

'education (8/14) was in visual dynamics and T V aesthetics courses.

5) When asked about their level of education attained, four undergraduate and one pdua t e \ - -

subject in ~ommunicaiions Studies showed that they had taken a wider ranie of courseswith . L .. ,. *

higher levels of objectives in sound, filp, and'television media, than the nine graduate subjects in I - 1 '

Educational Technology had. Also of note &re those subjects from both disciplines who slated ''

that they anticipated a poor peflormance in the study because they were tw.visually oriented,, , , . I '

I I

andlbr had little or no sound production experience (coming from art history, computer sciences,

or business). ' *

7) When asked about l&guages spokqn. 7 outof 14 subjecls stated i d r e than oAe Y F

language. Four subjects were trilingual; speaking either Italian, Chinese, Polish, or Spanish well. 0 + -- -

6) When asked abouwsical perspasions, only 5 out of 14 subjects said,that they had eyer ' P, . - - . , sung dr an instrumeni semiprofessidnally.

Formative Evaluation Procedure Followed..There were two,levels of small group - - ir&estigafion: objectives aqd criteria..-~ll eight sgctions of objectives-level in"estigations w a e

3

. a /

analyzed first, followed b) the four sections of the criterion-level investj$aiionn. -* -

The objeciives-level investigation had seven sections. The first four sections consisted of. 1.

\ * ,

. ;objectives-level analysA of the learners' abilities to master the intellectual skills a d attitudes on

, !lit pretests $d posttests: section 1) a pretest analysis; section 2) a posttest analysis; section 3) an f. J objectives-level ordered hierarchy and posttest analysis; and section 4) a pretest-posttest anal sis.

, Section 5 consisted of objectives-IeSel analyses of the learners' creative thirking strategies by the

- internal evaluator; section 6)consisted of analyses of the learners1 comments on the L ikenad i

~ ~ e i - ~ n s w e r .. portions of the questionn&e by objective. . Finally; section 7) consisted of an

objectives-level correlation of the preieit-@osttest analysis with the internal evaluations of'

learners' creative thinking strategies, and the responsds dn the Likert and open -answer portions

of the questionnaire by objective. . t

The criterion-level investigation'had four seftjonn. The first four sections consisted of

criterion-level analyses of the l evers ' abilities td.&aster the intpllectual skills and attitudeion h e

pretests and posttests: section 1) a pretest,analysis; section 2) a posttest analysis; section 3) a - cri terion-level ordered hier~chy. and posttest andy sis; end, .section 4) a crit&on-level correlation .

1 'Y * j . , of the prctest-posttest analysis with the intemal evaluations of learners' creative thinking

stiatebies, with the're'sponses on the Liken and open-ansiver portions of the qbestionn , "a ire by . - F

bbjective. 1 b

b In sumrna~ion. chapte; Thrre was concerned with the methodology of the s;udy. First, the % - 1 . ..

target audience was delineated arid an evaluation design Was specifed. S a n d , a modified ,. - " O. -

9 .' , - \ . . version of the Gagne and ~ r i i g s model (1979) and Reller's four-stage motivational' design model

I . t 3

- \(1983) was d~veloped in order to addre33 the gaps-in-results in two referent situatiorii based on , -

current expen opinion and a revipw of the literature. An audit trail was set up tb link the a priori . TPO to an ideal set qf behaviours common to-both RST~. These RSTs would insure that the

.. --

behaviour, conditions and degee of performance for the TPO were matched as.closely as e

possible to either "o f e ideal referent situations. Three objectives statements were also developed

and an instructional strategy for teaching them. The instructibnd materials were selected

A accordin; to the Reiser and G s w ' r !;983) Adia selectidn model. Finally, the strnc&.r tk *

9

instructional design was specified. A hierarchical insrmctional analysis of the objectmfshowed J

the a piiori relationships of the objectives to one another. A table - events of instructibn specified approximate times per event. A

and.Careyfs formative evaluation model (1985) was initiated 1

evaluation of the instructional materials; 2) one-to-one formative trials.with three rne&&rs of the - i /

9.

target audience; and 3) a small group evaluation. (See Mann, 1988 for complet details regarding - -

e the procedures and results of this @t\mctional unit.) revisions to the

i

* . >

instructional design basedAon these~conclusiorrs follow. - -

I

J

*

Recommendations for Revision

~ h i s ' c h a ~ t e t is concerned with the appropr$te recommendations ffor revisions to the . .I

o =*'

performance objectives, the instructidnal a&sis[the instructional strategy, and.instructiona1

material; for both types of learners. It was concluhed that five out of fourteen subjects were *

. % -

operating on q problem solving level. In these cases. the instruction was perceived as having too 0

6 , C

much sk cture. Those subjects exhibiting problem solving traits with high interest and relevance Y - .

fagtors and ariginal or altefnative (e.g., serniological) creative thinkingstrategies, required a less - <

, - > '

,x

' structured instructional treatment (such as the bption of omitting rules) in order to master , I

<, . L

<

problem Solving level of objectives. Nine out oPfourteen subjects exhibited ptedominantly 1

..- rule-usLg traits with high interest'and releyance factors Ad high to moderate creative thinking > -

# " t

' strategies, requiring a more structured instructional treatment (e.g., more relevance in the video 9

examples and nonexamples, and qo're uniformity of difficulty of media-type and of gemeltype , 4

between test items) in order to master prpiblem solving types of objectivks. Alternative , D

0 / t

instructional .,. strategies would allow for better instructions on how to apply sound designing rules '

r

for those who needed it, and the jeniency to experiment for those who didn't. (See Mann. 1988

for a'ditailed analysis of the condusions artd discussion of the results of the small group -

. . to the Perfj~rmance Ob!ecttves

0 .

- It was re&Gmended that more objcctivps be, genented, and that thew'objectives be moE . b . .

evenly weight@ with criteria. ~heref&e, a list of twenty Objectives with sGty-one attendant ' A - . criteria follows: 8 , si

/

V

L

) L 1 1 , --- - 1 ' < 9 2 -

I . .

. . . . . , m c t i v e One Iforrnerlv n t w o n 7.1 1 - w: Intrinsic satisfaction.

Given: 1) an intriguing but problematic prerecorded video segment; 2) time to take it home 1

'. Q . -

and &ink it over; 3) intellectual s h 1 s and creative thinkingstrategies; 4) blallk sound,design . - . P . I .

1 , discrimination function and structure sheets; 5) definitions of cxpiessionism, nalism, designed . t. , , \

sound, sound function, and sound structures; 6) instructions on how (to fill-in the sound design

sheets; 7) a microphone. aivideo playback unit, and free access to the search controls of the a. C.

videocassette recorder, audio mlxiqg facilities, prerecorded music and sound effects. * m: The ieamer will be able to rho&.tate an inhikic satisfaction that has been the key to

r'

developing and maintaining hisher continued motkition through;u:ut this-activity. . . -- - \ . \-.

r i e n 1: The s h t e ~ e n t or behaviour of satisfaction was voluntary. . . < '

) . . C ' . . fiterion 2: he‘ statement or behavioijr dfsatisfaction'reflects e i thg a plrof~ssional, private,

'.+. - 5

* or personal cornhittment to the task.

, . - - -

D

I. '4

I W c t i v e Two: Iformerl y criterion 9); . , - L-

P '

Topic: ~ u c c e s s ' e ~ ~ e c t a n c ~ . - a / - % \ * ' J

~ i v i f i : 1) an in-triguing but proble&tic prerecorded video segment; 2) time to 3 e ir home *-

I and think it over; 3) intellectual skills and creativalhirlking strategies; 4) blank sound design . , ,, v

P - - .. discrirninatl'on function and structure sheets; 5) definitions'of expr~ssionisrn, realism, designed

' sound, sound function, and sound structures; q) i r k -~~cdon f on how to kll-in the sound design ,

I

.* = . - sheets; 7) a microphone, a video playback unit, and free access to the search con#ols of the

k. C

videocassette recorder, audio mixing faiilities, prerecorded music and sound effects. ' J

m ? T h e learner will be able to voluntarily &ow/state an'expectancy for sucibss.

+ r Criterion 3: That s h e feels that she has personal control over $he successful completion of a -- . -

learning task: --. b , Ciiterion 4; That s h e feeli that s/hd belieqes hidher sucdeh was related to hisher personal ,

, I

ability an$ effon. ' * & -.

- 5 : Thestatement or behaviour of satisfac?iorhvas voluntary. . (. I

0 f

' ? I

ct~ve W e e : (f-1~ a -1 . . ti ve s , . ,

Q m: ~ r a i n ~ t o r m i n ~ for original ideas 8 _. Ir '

.., 1) an intriguing but problematid prerecprded video segment; 2) rime to take \ it hbmt

.-- *

and thinbit over; 3) opport~nities to discuss.the origieal ideas with peers; 4) intel1ect;al skills and 4 ,

creative thinking ~trategies; 5) blank soind design discrimination function and smct&e sheets; 6 )

1 , . - <

definitions of expressionism, re-alism, designed sound, sound function, and sound struqiures; 7) ,,,

instructions on howto fill-in the sound design sheets; 8) a microphone, a video plGb~ck,.unit, J "

and k e e access to the search controls of the videocasseffe recorder, audio mixing facilities, N , - -

cr _I. '

prerecorded music and sound seffec ts.

M: The learner will be able to brainstorm for original ideas. -

*ion 6: That brainstorming generates'soft thinking aloud or constiuctive doodling (either 0 I , I

alopi or with others), - d , . ..

on 7: Thagbrainstorming motivates the sugpension . of disbelief as evidenced in a

fantastic production idea. , *. .

-8: hat brainstorming generate3 unique responses; such as original humour; using - I

similies to compare id&, conqepts, thinps and people.

. r 1 '

w: Thought-shifting; generating fl;xibility. * .

.- 1) an intriguing bit problematic - pirecorded video segme&2) time to take it horn; \ a d thinfih over; 3) onunit unities to discuss the original ideas with peen; 4) intellectual skills and

crcative ;hinkingsrrategies; 5 ) blankbund desigli discriminidon function and structure sheets; 6) ' \

- - definitions of 'expressionism, realism: designed sound, sound function, and sound structures; 7) , %. . .

9 $ - - .1

b 2 instructions on how to fi11:in the sound design sheets; 8) a microphone, g video playback unit,

. . and free access% the search controls of the videocassette recorder, audio mixing facilities, - " ' . 5

prer&orded music ind sound effects.

T;isk: The,,learner will-k able to produce a variety of ideas (Rat causes shifts from one

. thought pattern (or category) to another . ' . - - d r i t e r i d : Blending several produdion ideas at once verbally andor on paper.

. . . . lectlve Five ( f o m c n u

Tor>ic: Real versus unreal movies. j

Give& 1) a prerecorded video-segmen~ 2) a blank discrimination sheet: 3) dcfiniti As of "i- 'exptessiodsm, rqaliSm; 4) instruction on how to fill-in the discrimination sheet.

- m: The learner will be able'lo discriminate ari expressionist^ from a realistic

conceptualiznti~n.of reality by writing your answers on the dis&imination sheet. -. ,

Criterion 10: 0

- If "no,"'was the rresponie, this means that in examining the vide6 segment as athree - ,. -

componeit syscern (i.e., script, sound, anbpictures), it can be said thai the effect

6f the production, taken as a whole was a of an expressionistic- . - .. - /.

conc~ptualization of reality (i.e., the system,can be said to describe reality). L

- If "yes" was the response, this means that ig examining the video segment as a three . - -.

component - system (i.e., script, sound, and piqtures), it can be said that the effect " e

*. m.

of the production, taken as a whole -3n example of an expressionistic a,

conceptualization of reality (i:e., th; system manioulates reality).

' - r -*If pictures only was the response, this means that only thk motion pictures

' . . *

tend toward an'expressionistic conceppalizati'on of redity, while the story 5.

and sounddesign tend toyard a realistic conceptualization of reality.

U

- \f &ugsm!j sourd t,

\ \ was the response, this means that both the sound desigh

and the motion pictures tend toward an expressionistic conceptualization of

reality, while the story ten& toward a realistic conceptualization of reality. '1

: - If sound only was the response, this means that only the sound design tends ." H-

.toward an expressionistic conceptualization *. of reality, while the story -. and \

motion pictures tend toward a realistic-cpnceptualization of reality. .s

- t - If was the response, this means that only the stoq tends toward an

expressionistic conceptualization of reality, while the motion ' a r e s and '

@ 4 sound design tend toward a realistic conceptualization of reality. %-

- If saint and icture~ was the response, this means that both the motion pictures r

tend toward an expressionistic conceptd%lization of reality, * I while tfie sound design tends toward a realistic conceprualizition of reality.

- ' 8 I -<

- - If Dictures. and s o d - ii

- was the'r&sponse, this means that all three

components tend toward an expressionistic conceptualization'of reality. i - 4

m: Planried and unplanned sound. , w; '1) aprirecorded video segment; 2) a blank discrimination sheet? 3) definitions of'

t ,

expressionism, realism, designed sound; 4) instruction on hok to fill-in the discriminition sheet. * , .

-+.

T;lsb; The learner will be ab1,e todiscriminate designed from undesigned sound by writkg the C - -

P, J F.. ..

- - answer onYhe discrimination sheet. .

Criterion 1 1 : (formerly cri tenon 5) Discrininating designed/un.designed, sound means d t i n g - ' - a statement that shows fhe sire and jhe extent ro which the video segrilent &$r'- use .

\ '

planned sound. I e

b .

-3' i - - - \

- If "yes" \ as the response, then the sound was planned, whether expressionistic or not, I L

whether t en strictly as the learner's perception, or tdcen as the learner's perception T

0

I '

of the producer's intention in making the video, whether pre or post-synchronized

or not.

- : If "no'.' was tKe qsponse, then the sound was aleatoric (wild), Or unplanned, whether

.- - eipressionis tc or not, whether taken siiictly as the learner's perception, or taken I , as tht learner's perception of the producer's intention inmaking thb video, whether t

pre or post-synchr~nizedbr not.

, rl

0 )& , . - . lechve Se ven: (fomerlv criteria,20. 32. and 40) w

. T o 3 5 Using origTnal humour. -

- E

Given; 1) an intriguing but problematic prerecdrded video segment; 2) time to take it home

. and think it over; 3) opportunities to discuss the original ideas with pews; 4) , 8'

intellectual skills and creative thinking strategies; 5) blank sound design discrimination function

and structure sheets; 6 ) definitions of expressionism, realism, designed sound, sound fpction, '

and sound structures; 7) inskctions on how t i fill-in the sound design sheets 8 ) a microphone, -

- . w

a video playback uni t,gnd free access to the search controls of the recorder, audio 9 -"

& ilities, prerecorded music and -sound effects. . m: The learqer will be ibre to discriminate humorous from mundane scripts and mixes by

\ writing the answer on-the discrimination sheet. .. 4-

. . ntennn 12: disc rim in at in^ humprous from mundane scripts and mixes means writing a C . %

statevent t h a ~ shows fie s i z e and he extent to which the video segment or does not use r, *.

humour

4

- 1f""yes" was the response, then the script or sound mix was considered to be humourous;

whether expressionistic or not, whgher taken strictly as tk.e !earner's perception, or. I - taken as the learnei's perception of the producer's intention in making the video,

' e whether pre or post-synchrbnized or not.

1

/-

- If "no" was the response, then the script or sound mix was =considered to be

'I humourous; whether expression'istic or not, wh&her taken strictly as the learner's perception, r

' V /

a taken as the learner's perceptiyqf the producer's intention in making the video, / 7

' r ( whethhr preor-post-synchronized or not.

* , . m g t i v e & g h t : Exhihitine Unusual Uses of Silence (criteria 17.29. and 371, C

To~ic : Discriminating silence from nbnsound.

1 Given: 1) an intriguing but problematic prerecorded video y e n t ; 2) time to take it home

w add think it over; 3) opportunities to discuss the origin'al ideas with peers; 4) intellectua! skills and

creative thinking strategies; 5) bl i k sound design discrimination function and structure sheets; 6) /

. definitions of expressionism, realism, designed so;nd, sound function, and sohnd structures; 7) *

I -

instruciions on how to fill-in the sound design sheets; 8) abmicrophone, a video playb'ack unit, - 2

and free access to the search controls of the videocassette &corder, audio mixing facilities, --

prerecorded music and sound effects.

&&: The learner will e to disc$minate silence from nonsound in a scrpt or mix. 3- ? ? .

on 13: Either the behaviours oS the integral aggregate macrosystem.(e.g., the entire r I

film or television production), unpredicted by behavioursof any of their components (the .

-- sound design) e

Or subassemblies of their components (the )unctions or structures). In the gestalt. /' - -

the parts of a whole interact and influence one another. Again, change in one, part A

mapproduce change in another.

Obiective Nine; \

Topic: D i s ~ m n a t i n g leamer-prohucable and nonlearner-produkable scripts and mixes. - 1 ?

Given, 1) The notion that designing sound requires functions and strategies in order to

produce audio sc6pts and mixes; 2) The notion that learner-producability.has a one-to-one

t\ correspondence with ~ 4 u i s i t e variety; 3) The notion that requisite variety in the script and mix ' ' ,

. was e&al to the requisi~e variety inthe learner; 4) an intriguing bubroblematic prerecorded \

video segment or script; 2) time to take it home and think it over; 3) opportunities to discuss the , - - -

original ideas with peers; 4) intellectual skills and creative thi ing strategies: 5)~blank sound i p" f l

design discrimination-function and structure sheets; 6) definitions of expressioni.sm. realism, " -

designed sound, sound function, and sound structures; 7) instructions on how to fill-in the sound ' . - '>I

design sheets; 8) a microphone, a video playback unit, and free access to the search controls of - '. 1 %

- the videocassette recorder, audio mixing facilities, prerecorded music and sound effects. i b &&: The learner will be able to discriminate a learner-producable from a learner-

nonproducabft script or sound mix.

Criterion '14: Making a script or mix learner-producable means reducinh the requisite variety t

(the learner-pmducability) in their sound'design system to twb (out of six) s o h d functions and. I

four (out ofsix) sound strategies;

D I

, < - If "yes" was the response, theythe script or s upd mix war considered to"coatain 4

iC - ' . . two (out of six)'s&d fupctibq! and four (out of six) sound strategies -

J

\

h, - I

..

8 I -

designed for yhe.script OF sound mix. . L . . . . f - -

. - - If "not' was theresponse, then the script or sound mi'x was considered to qontqin .

more than two (out of six) sound functions,plore than two (out of six) sound - - - , -

strategies designed for the script or s ~ u n d mix, or simply (and m&e commonIy)

multiple layers of sound effects and/or music without function or structure. L

* . \ , . . . tve Ten (fom~erlv cntenon 71;

i 3 .

' I

~ ~ s s i f ~ i n ~ at least two implied sound functions ( f r o i steps 4 through 9 on the . I

function sheet). ' 8

-1) a perecorded video segment; 2) a b l h k function sheet ,3) definitions of ... I .

. . expressionism, realism, desfgned sound, sound function, and sound strucrures; 4) instruction o n -

, s

how to fill-in the the function sheet.

i m: The learner will able to classify the, functions pf the sound in tRe ~egrnkntis ,: -

sound-picture relatiohship, by wdting the appropriate somd fun6tions on the function sheet.

. - - If atmosphere/feeling,mOOdl~was chosen, then it must imply either more o r something

w . - else about the atmosihen, a feeling, or &rhcular mood other than what has h a d y

,been stated or implied about atmosphere, a feeling; or moodin the existing picture or . * ( . - sound.

I ._ . ' 7 : I -

- If POV was chosen, then it must imply another POV or more about the POV than;w'hat has ." already been stated or implied f r m o r a b u t him/hn/it in the existing picture or souid.

a , ' \ . , L

" - , , '\ ' - -

.- If fu ture/past event was chosen, then.it musr impiy more"or something other abput ,

. . . . . .

fu[ure/piist events than what has already been stat-& or implied a b u t &e future or I

, 1 ,

'I - "

< , . - If locale was chosen, then it must imply more about ihe locale,or something elseabout

L . -. T .." - . - B . . - I

4 - .

1 - . \ . 100' \ - . . 0

\

past in the existing picture or sound. , .

it than what has alreagy been stzited or implied about locale in the eiisting picture oj * ..

1

* sound. - * ,. -

- - l?chuacterls ~e r s~na l /~ r iva t e /~~b l i c past was chosen, then i( must imply more or *

. something other a b u t the chatacter's pasf than what has already been stated or implied , . 2

about hisher past in the existin'g picture 01 sound. I

- - - H

- If character in the charact-er was chosen, then it must imply more or so .. - . ' aboyt the character than what has already been stated or implied about himher in the

. - existing picture br spund. I ,

\i . . *%

m c t i v e Ejeven (formerlv cntenon 8g 1 * 1, .

give^ 1) a prerecorded video segment; 2) a filled in function sheet: and a blank skcture

sheet; 3) definitions of expressioii,sm, realism, desi@ed solmd,'souAd function, and sound ' / " L * - ' ,

. I , structures; 4) instruction on how to fill-in the function sheit, and the structure sheer 7 +

I . -- m: The learner will 6 able to classifyat least 4 sound strategies used in the structuring , .

the sound in t4e video segment by writitig theappropriate sound strategies on the sauc4pre sheet; I

- ' at least 2 of the 3 questions asked on the - function sheet within each Sound Stiategy must be - 4 * . .

answered on bdth structure sheets (ie, How? Where? and How often?). . - . , r . - . * .

.., . - 6 one or more 'of the informational stra!egies (cuzing, coundrpointirig, +. - . dominating, and/or undermining), has been chosen for a particular sound function,

then each smtkgy sh.ould sh& the sire and the extent to which the liyner wants ,

, 1 , . ..-

to delibe;a;ely manipulate the reality suggested by the picture or on the existing 'i

#

soundtrack, bywriting'down' .-.. how, - where or how often each sound function will *. e

&,cowrpoint. dominate, andlor undermine the existing3mage. . \ . . - - _ i ...

- If one or more of-the emotional strategies (punctuate cg emoiional highlight oq ~.

define the intensity of an action), has been chosen for a particular sound function, -4 8 ,

. . d . then each strategy sh6uld show the size and the extent to which the learner wants

' /

to deliberately manipulate the'reality suggested by the picture or on the existing t"

soundtrack, by writing down hoclwhere or how of;en each sound function will . - . . punctuate an emotional highlight or define the intensity of an action.

\ ." . .

J ,

- Jf.one or more of the pacing strategy (slow or fast), has been chosen for a $

- F

particular sound function, thepeach strategy should show the size and the extent * . . to which the learner wants-to debberately manipulate the reality suggested by t h e *

picture or-on the existing soundtrack,, by writing down how, where or how'often - . each sound function will be paced slowly and quickly.

* .

v ', s . . - If one or more of !he rhythm stsategy (continuous and/or discdntinuous).'has ; , .. .rcI-.

been chosen for a particular sound function, then ekch strategy sho<ld3Gw the %

* - ' - " \

size and the extent to which the learner wants to deliberately manipulate the reality , j

- . suggested by t6e pictllre or on the existing souhdtrack,~by writingdown:how, where, - '

8 C

. or how often each sound function-will be continuous arid/or, discontinuous. , * -

. - -; - If one or more of th,i review strategies (massed, spaced, or summarized) has' 5

L 'p

been chosen for a partitular sound function, then each skategy should s h o i , . . - % .

' - I . the sim and the extent, to which the learner ka'nts to deliberately-manip&& the '

* =. >

. .

\ 4

102 .

\ - __

0

reality suggqsted by thCpicture or okthe existing soundkack, by wriling down how, . *

where or how often each sound function'will be Massed, Spaced, or ~ k a r i z e d .

$

- If ofre or more of the delivery strategies (divergent delivery or convergent delivery),

has been chosen for a particular sound function, ihen each strategy should show the . .

size and the,extent to which the learner wan'ts to deliberately manipulate the reality . -

\ I

suggested by the,picture or.on the existing soundtrack, by writing down how, where

qr how often each sound functioo will dekonsuate a divergent delivky or a 'L . .

0 . 0 ,

convergent delivery, ' ' ., 't :

. ' . x . .

k. r m c t l v e Twelve (formerlv cntena 19.3 1. an- ? -

- .TQPlr: Uniting irrdevant elements synectically; exhibiuig analogies. . % +- - b

. ~ v e n i 1). an in@iglling but problematic prerecorded video segment; 2) time to rake it honie +

' ' ..

i I

, and think it over; 3) opportunities to diicuss the original, ideas with peers; 4) intellectual skills end,

Y '

2 creative thinking sqatejies; 5) blank-sound deijgn discrimination function and slmctuk sheetsi 6) ,

, - t *.

8.. * ' . defin8ons of expressionism, r~alisrn,designed sound, sound fqnction, and s o k d structures; 7) *. '-

I ? .

instructions on how to fill-in the sound-design sheets; 8) a miqophone, a video playback unit, ' 4 . .

. , . - . and fredaccess to the sekch controls of the videocassette recorder, audio mixirig facilitiii, .

, ' ' , --. L .

prerecorded musib arld sound effects. a , l . .$

* , - h . . A - - - - ' m-: &ill be able to classify iyaecticcbnnectio~s~ by.w-riting one of*the;iollowing opposite I I ' - . . .

I.. the vjdk.segrnenr 1) scientific laws aid concepts; 2) by persqnal analogy; 3) by direct - I

J . ' I , - I 1 ' ,

: analogy, o r 4) by syrnLlic analog). . ' . I .

8 . \ * '?

tenon U: Elaborates &I sqparatk qeas thou& the development of a-chain of ideas baCdd 1

$ = * . . ' on the ernbell~t~hrnent~pf & ocginal notion. . I . ' . .

, , . . . ' . . I ntenon 18: was ail iliductive leap; a combining of ideas from -"

' . 5 2 I ' - . .

knowledge systems; a bold u5c of analogy that &nsbnds what was pdally heant by ,. , t . r .. ,

I . ' I . * ' _ - . '

I I . - " ' . , " , , , . - 1 .

, . , - 0

, - I ,

1. ' . ., .- - I "* . , : b 4 . . ,

- . 1, . . , * ' . . - , . , < 3 ' ,

I .. I . . * . " . - . .- ' - - " ,," - I , . * . ' , . . , . k - * q d - . ..

, . 2'" m r . . > " , - 0 .

' ' 'i $ 5 . . - s , , . ,r , . - . * - , . - . . "

' B .generalizing within a cl&s of problem situations. A synectic union presupposes that the - emotional components of the process are more.important than the rational ones. - F .

6 ... or if the new script uses metaphbrs to compare things by personal analogy; ,

6 ' Ex. what anibal souhds the wLy thig person looks? . ( \

. . - .. . . -... or if the-new $rip1 uses metaphors to compare things by direct analogy.

. . Ex. Bell's invention of the telephanb was based on his clinical knowledge of the

\ * , *

human ear because of his work.wiih" the deaf. , ': )..

. ' . ' -.

a 1

Y . , 8 - ' . .*.. U 1 f . - * , ..: or if the new script uses metaphors to campare t ings by symbolic analogy. This involves

. ' . . - < - * 0 1 . '

the use of objective and impersonal sounds~to'describe problems;,,eg. a woman4 * -

screams, as the traio wh,istle shrieks. . . * f l

- * , . . . , . . . ' \%. F \

I ' , . . - - " I

1 - - , m: ~lassif~ing.s~ner&. When two or marc ekmcnts (;.g. ]wale and subie~tive POV

$ '. J -* ,,/

implied sound functi ns) interact in a unique manner,: the result can be g&ater.than the Sum of its ., , /

pam. , , . - .d

' . \ -

I .

4F - . ' / 1

. - '- 1) an intriguing. but prpblt$tiatic prerecbrdkd ddeo igment; 2) time to take it home / - - /'

arid ikink it over. 3) opportunitiei to dkcuSs tKe orjginal ideas with peen; 4) intellectual skilldnd . ' .. 1 '. v

creatiC thi$ing's#ategies; 5) blank spund design discrimination function apd structke ~h&ts; 6) ,* ' , . - 8 . . - . . % . ' . . . /

dd;nitions'$f eepre3si~nisrn, . realisd, z. ~ & n e d sound, sound function, and sound stqdtures; 7) . - .... ' . 9' Y

t', r . ". . inspuctionk on how~t? kll-insthe sounddesign sheets; 8 ) s microphone, a video dlaiback unit, I d,

* , - . ' - . - -. . . . c + , $ - .. : and free access 1b tve March contfols of - the . videocas~tte , . recorder, audio mixing facilities; '

" * 6 8 / .- . - - - - , - I .

, - " s i "$rqkcc&ed,rnusic and sound, effedrs: h

, . ,>" ,. . M: -7%; l c l & r ~ i l l b e able to: 1) .&it; a script; and, 2) inix a sou&mck that exhibit;, '

' L . . " 1 " . . - . 1 - . 0 'a, 0 ' . i- . * -.. . , -

, , - a . , I - - 4 < r .I

4 ,

I ., . , - L ' &, -- - o . ., - r b . : I - . P I . . * I

X I 1': , h . - 3 - ' ..

1 " . b . ' . - I ,. - . . , - . , - . -

- 3 4 6 . . . _

C

functions and srmcture?~ interact internally in a unique manner, the result being / \

greateAhan the sum of its parts). .. , \ b

/' . . -. -- . .

. 4 / ~ : Z * ~ ~ ~ a ~ i o u n i f ihe integral aggregate macrosystem (c.;., ihe entire film or

television production), unpredicted by behaviours of any of their-componen~s (the ' 4

sound design)

, . I be;: -.

- or subassemblies of their components (the functions or smctures). In the gestdt, the '. ' w

parts of a whole interact and influence one another, Again, change in one pan mqay .- , pruduce change in another.

C '

Y .

7

*

Iv criterion 2); Objective Fourteen (former - "% '

Touic: Stating a'personal. private, or career interest.' * . . d -

C

* Given: 1) an intriguing but pr9blemitic pre ed video segment; 2) time' to take it home U . - - - an8 think it over; 3) intellec,tual skills and creative thinking strate&es, 4) bl;& functioc sheet,, -. -

6 . . structured-functi n sheets, a'nd multilayered scrjpt with the functions filled-in along the mlurnns; . . -- 5) dgfinitions ..- of expressionism, realism, designed sound, sound function, sniibund structures;

I ,.,. - -

g) instructions on the procedure for creating sound functions, Structuring the functions, and ' . - . . . ,l

writing a rnultilayered sound design script for the video segnient; 7) a microphone, a video , . ,&

phyback.upit, and free access to the search controls of the vid~ocasse'ts~recorder, audio mixing +

Q - . . . < . ,

facilities, prerecorded music,,and sound effects. ..- s S B . . * . .$

. '

m: The learner will be able to showistate ad arous& ~~is te rn ic$~r ious i t~ about the activity . ', V

' . - 4 . .

r, r L . 0 ,

of designing sound with pictur;s. , . . . , .. .!, 4 * *

. . .. . . . - 2 0 : The statement or tyhavibur d a n y && bf interest (epistc&callycurio~s - - or

. - . . , - otherwise) is voluntary. k

+ .. . , . f . . I

1 .

: The statement or behaviok of satisfactibn refllds either.i pmfcssion~l, pivyivatq.

or personal comrnittment to the tasc. A P

- m: Stdng a personal, - prihte, or carAsrelevance.

Giva : 1) an inmguing but probtemaric prerecorded video segment; 2 ) f t i ~ to take it 'home

and think it-over; 3)'iptt$lectual skills and creative thinking strategies; 4) blank function sheet,

structured-function sheets, and ,muhilayered script with the functions filled-in along the I

columns;. 5) definitions of expressionism, realism, designed sound, soynd function, and sound I

b \ structures; 6) instructions on the procedure for creating sound functions, Structuring the - . . , .

functions, and writing a rnultilayered sound desjgn~ript for the video segment; 7ja\ -

-- - 211

microphone, a video playback unit, and *to the search controls of the videocassette - . .-

recorder, audiq mixing and sound effeck. . . 0 *

I . - &&: The learner this activity has personaVprofessional . ' + ! i n s m e n t ~ value (relevance) ref& to thk indreases in motivation to accomplish an inkediate ., .

- , , .

I goal. I ' I . . -: The statement or behaviour of any type of interest (episytemically curious or .

-. . . .- otherwise) is voluntary. .- t. : - .

v , . . -: The stateppnt br behaviour of satfsfactkn reflects either a professional, private, . i t

\ ' 4

a -son4 comrnirtment to the task: . .

- 2 . 4 : Whenit is connected to an'dther goal; . . . . . -

- . I ~. - I . , - ' ' -25: That the rnetho#ology for accomppshirig an objective leads io the .

1 .

ac~ornplishrnent of an ipknediate goal; b

+ a h \ ;: . '

n 26: when it is perceived to be a desired for a t t h ing a future goal. - ,+ L . - .. .-

. >

* w; ~emonstraie h e prescribed - procedure for designing an AV sound design script to , iL b ' . . ' t

. . 5 . , ,

*. & -

* . . . .a . .d

I ,

'L , F , . " ' I ! ' - ,' , . I . .

- r0T - 4 , . . . I

4 moving pictures synergistically. d

\ , given; 1) a prerecordavideo segment; 2) a blirnk sound design sheeis (i.e:, function, -

srmcture,structured function, multi-layered AV Script, and blank script); 3 ) definitions of -

expressionism, realism, designed sound, sound function, and sou{d srmcture~; 4) instructions

on how to fill-in th furiction sheet, and the structure sheet, nlblti-layered AV script sheeti and . i " ; 6 blank script sheet.

A

m: The learner.w&l be able t ernonstrate the prescribed procedure :or writing a *

. "student-producable script b$ structuring the appropiate sound functions and programming the

0' . I

- , columns on the rn~ltilayeredscri~t sheet ~~ne;~is t ical l~.

n 27: The prescribed sound d e s h system (e.g., in terms of prescribing stated and r4 / I

implied functions, s&at&ies and substrategies into a multilayered AV script so as to produce an I . '

expressionistic conceptualization of reality) must be demonstrat& as a reflixive goal-changing . .

system (i.e., the sound.designer is considered of the system). Therefore, fie sysicrn wilJ . . , F

havb a memory with a self-orgkikng ability:

t . C

- to initiate its owncourse-of action. iii a feedback ((thebpresent state; e.g., "

# I

d

D . in tbrms of prescribing stated and implied s functions, - strategies and v." s"bstrategies

into a multilayered AV script so as to,,produce an expressibnistic c&~eptualization

. + of realify) or in a feedforward (projected future states; -e.g., in terms of,

prescribing stated and implied functions, strategies and substrategies into a

., * multilayered AV script so as to produce an expressioriistic conceptualization of A

~ a l i t y ) to changing environmental c o n d i k s (e.g., rewritten scenes, turn; in the '

' plot, ambient noise; reshot or reedited motion pictures);, 4 - .

- to choose the best alternative for a particular set of conditions (e.g,, a performer

point of view sound function w?ll.counterpoint the image of the ~eop1e in.the 't

1

'hogpiul ward in a continuous slow-paced subsrntegy at the top of the ;tory. In

thh second act, . the a design demands a subjective poini of viedsound function that' . .' dominates thk image of the people in the hospital ward in a discontinuous quicker-

paced substrategy. Finally, the subjective~point of view sound function undermines 0

the image of the people in the hospital ward with a convergent discontinuous *

summari.zing,review substrategy).

- - to reflect upon its past decision making: is i t working this way or should I ch'ange -- . ~

somelhing? (e.g., perhaps - the subjective point of view sound function that undermines.

tht image of the people in the hospi,tal ward with a divergent continuous summarizing .j

/

dview slibstrategy should be used in the third act; notthe convergent discontinuous

summarizing review substrategy. The divergent continuous substrategy would

produce a harmonious, hopeful quality, wh'iie the convergent discontinuous substrategy - -

would produce a tragic and final effect). .

8 . . M: A model of the sound design,system is constructed which includes the subject Y

I matter, the ppducer and the listener/ viewer and may be described either o n paper or verbally (to - - .. J

the understanding of a producer from outside tha in terms of prescribing stated and -

implied functions, sktegies and subsmtegies AV script so as to produce an

expx'essionistic conceptualization bf r~ality. I y

' Q I . . - 2 9 : The prescribed sound design system must be from its enqironment.

5

The boundaries of the ohginal s6und design system (e.g., in terms of prescribing stated and #

-implied functions, strategies and sabsmtegies into a multilayered AV sfript so as to produce an

@ expression is ti^ ccinoepiiualizption of reality) are delineated from its surrounding environment '

cenes, turndin the plot, ambient noises,.reshot or feedited motion pictures). E

,q - 'i . : The prescribed sound design system must be,,an p e n svste-wherein the

- - system interacts'somehow'wjth it's environment (e.g., character's memory cues or undermines, t.

his actions on the screen pt.oducing a humous effect; e.g., some Woody Allerrftlms). I . .

ntenon 3 1 - : The behaviour of the prescribed sound design syste&ust be demonstrat; in

terms of the chances in one or more of the structural properties of the system (e.g., in terms'of

prescribing stated and implied functions, strategies and subspategies into a multilayered AV '

- - i,... --d .a

.$? ir.

script so as to produce an expressiorn,~ conceptualization of reality1 or of its surrounding I .I

I;, :'>,- environment (e.g., rewritten scenes, 6 in the plot, ambient noises, reshot o r reedited motion \

pictures).

enon 32: The behaviour of the prescribzound design system must be homeostatic

(i.e., cbntinuous and always automatically sensing and comparing the system's output a s an ,.

automatic corrective action). . , J - r..

enon a: The system is demonstrated in terms of its m; its property a. a whole

(e-g., sound functions and structures working together) +within the &vironment (e.g., rewrittey P

scenes, turns in the plot, ambient noises, reshot or reedited motron pictures) t o produce attributes

not found in the individual parts of the system nor its ehironment (e.g., an prescribgd procedure \

for solving a problem synergistically using sound). 1

. . . . W ~ c n v e Seventeen (forrnerlv chtenon 1 1 I,

u: Demonstrating the prescribed proceflures for mixing sound synergistically.

Given: 1) a prerecorded video segment; 2) completed sobnd design sheets (i.e., function, a u\

structure, structured function$ multi-layered 'AV scriptrand blank script); 3) a microphone, a C

video playback unit, and free access to the seatch controls of the videocasset~ recorder, audio \

& - mixing facilities, prerecorded music and sound effects. \

m: The learner will be able to demonstrate the procedud for designing sound t o moving

, - -34: The *rescribed sound-mixi$ sys teqbg . , in terms of &ording music and

somd effects accordingto the multilayered AV scriptso as to produce an expressionistic - conceptuqlizati& of reality) must be described as a reflexive goal-changing system (i.e., the -- sound designer is considered part of the system). Therefore, the system wil l have a memory with

.i' " the self-organizing ability: b e

- - 10 initiate i t s own course of actionin a fe_edbackresDonse (the present state; e.g., in ,

.. terms of recording music and sound effects according to the multilayered AV script so ,- <

as to produce an expressionistic conceptualization of rkality) oia feedforward w n s e t..

(projected future states; e.g., what effect will the sound design have next to the motion

pictures) to changing environmental conditions (e.g., reshot or reedited motion pictures);

- to choose the best alternative for a p%ticular set of conditions (e.g., some voice-over

should be chosen over heartbeat o r breathing to create a subjective point of vi8w

sound function that will undermine the image of the people in the hospital ward ..3

with a convergent discmtinuous summarizing review substrategy).

-. - to reflect upon its past decision making: is it working this way or should I change

something? (e.g., perhaps the voice over was too heavy-handed. A very occasional I

"personal noise such as a wheeze recorded in close-yp may better project a subjective - - - point of view sound function that will undermine the imageof the k o p l e in the hospital

T

ward with a convergent discontinuous summarizing review substrategy). -

x1 . . -35: A model of the sound design-system is constructed which includes the subject '

.. matter, the producer and the listener/ viewer and may be described either on paper or verbally (to b

rhe understanding of a from outside that system) in terms of recording music and sound -,

%

effects according to the multilayend AV script so as to produce an expressionisti$,

-

conceptualization of reality. e

: The prescribed sound design system must be seDamted from its environment.

The boundaries of the original sound design system (e.g., in terms of recording music and sound 7 -

effects according to the multilayered AV script so as to produce an expressionistic

conceptualizationof reality ) are delineated from its surrounding environment (e.g., rewritten

scenes, t m s in the plot, ambient ~oises , reshoEreedited motion pictures).

Criterion 37: The prescribed sound design sysrem must be an -wherein the

system interacts somehow with its environment (e.g., character's memory cues w undermines - -

his actions on the screen ~roducing a humous effect; e.g., some Woody Allen films). . .

ntemn 38: The behaviour of the presciibed sound design system must be demonstr~ed in - terms of the f h a n w in one or more of the structural pr~penies of the system (e.g., in terms of - - "

recording music and sound effects according to the multilayered AV smpt so as to produce an

expressionistic conceptualization of reality ) or of its surrounding environment (e,g., rewritten ? \

scenes, turns in the plot, ambient noises, reshot pr reedited mtion pictdres).

tenon 39: The behaviour of the prescribed sound design system must be homeostatic

(i.e., continuous and always a;l~ornatically sensing and comparing the system's output as an

automatic corrective action). I

enon 4Q The iy is demonstrated in terms of its svnerh; its property as a whole

(e.g., sound functioris ,- working together) within the environment (e.g., rewritten

scenes, turns7in the reshot o r reedited motion pictun& to produce atui bu tes Y a

not-found in thc individual parts of the system nor its environment (e.g., an pd&ribed procedure . ,

P,

for solving a problem synergistically using sound), .

m: Describing the prescribed procedures for designing sound., 0, * \

Giverl; 1) completed sbund design sheets (i.e., function, structure, structured function,

- multi-layered AV Scnpt, and blank script); 3) definitions of. pressionism, realism, designed

> * a - Y

d d sound, soind function, a d sbund'strucmies 4) instructions on how to fill-in the func on sheet,

and the suucture sheet, multi-layered AV script sheet, and blank script sheet. P

. m: The lemer will be able to describe the procedure for designing sound to movinp - '

' , pictures synergistically. ( 3 -+fm: The prescribed sound design system (e.g., in terms of prescribing stated and

, implied functions, strategies and substrategies in ultilayered AV script so as to produce an Y \J

' expressionistic conceptualization of reality) must be deknibed as a reflexive goal-changing

system (i.e., the sound designer is considered part of the system). Therefore, the system will d a ' 1

3 have a memory with the self-organizing ability

- to initiate its pwn course of action in a feedback re& (the present state; e.g.. t

Y : a

in terms of stated and implied functions, strategies and subspategies r

inib a so as to produce an expressionistic conceptuaIizatio6 < . . >

of reality) or a -ard rwonse (p;ojectkd future states; e.g., in term$ of \ I

-I

prescribing statecband implied functions, strategies t+nf substrategies into a 6 r,'

multilayered AV scT$ so as to produce an expressionistic c~nce~tual~zation of reality)

to changing envir d nmental c.ontJitions (e.g., rewritten scenes, turns in the plot,

ambient noises, reshot or reeditedhotion pictures);

' - to choose. the best alternative f i r a particular set of conditions (e.g., a performer n -*,

4 +

- point of view siund function will cbunterpoint ;he image of the people in the L . .

: hospital wa& in a continuous slow-paced substrategy at the t , ~ ~ of the story. In the B - r

second act. the design demands a subjective po iaof view sound function that dominates \

the image of the people in the hospital ward in a discontinuous quicker-paced !' -

substrategy. Finally, .* 1

, rb 6'

C

- the subjective point of view sound function . ,

of the people in the hospitalward with a convergent di~continuous summ~zing review f

substrategy).

- to reflecr upon its past decision making: is it working his way or should 1 change

something? (e.g., perhaps - the subjective point of view sound function that undermines

the image of the people in the hospital ward with a divergent continuous hmmarizing

review substrategy should be used in the third act; not theconvergent disc6ntinuous

summarizing review substrategy. The divergent continuws substrategy would produce

a harmonious, hopeful while the convergent discontinuouss~lbstrategy would.

produce a tragic and final effect). '-, . -

. . ntenon 42: A model of the sound de;ign syst is constructed which includes the subject s .

matter, the producer and the listener1 viewer and described either on paper or verbally (to

the understanding of a producer from'outside,that system) in terms of prescribk stated and

implied functions, strategies and substrategies into a multilnyered AV script so as to produc'e an

expresiiobistic conceptualization of reality.

Criterion .43: The prescribed sound design system must be seDarated from its environment. Q

The boundaries of the driginal sound desi'gn system (e.g:, in teAs of prescribing stated and , \ .

idplied functions, strategies and substrategies into a multilayered AV script so as to produce an \ -

expressionistic conceptualization of reality) are delineated froin its'sunounding environment

(e.g., rewritten scenes,,turns in the plot, ambient noises, reshot or reedited motion pictures). i 0

Qiterion 44: The prescribed sound design sy.stem must be an -wherein the ,

' system interacts somehow with its Cnvironment (e.g., character's memory cues or undermines - . rC \ his actions on the screen producing a humous effect; e,g., some Woody Allen films). .

'a - - . . ntenon 45: The beha-viour of the prescribed sound design system must be described.in a >

4 terms of,th'e chances in one or more of the structural properties of the system (e.g., in terms of F

<

, . . prescribing stated and implied functions strategies and substrategies into a multilayered AV

script so as to produce an expressionistic conceptualization of reality) or of its surrounding . ' \

environment (e.g., rewritten scenes, turns inihe plot, ambient noises, reshot or reedited motion . pictures). I I

d .

-46: The behaviour of the prescribed sound design system must be homeostatic ',

(i.e., continuous and always automatically sensing and cqmparing the system's output as an

automatic corrective action).

enon 42: The system is described in terms of its -; its property as a whole (e.g., / d

sound functioos and structures working together) within the environment (e.g., rewritten scenes,

turns in t h i plot, ambient noises, reshot or reedited motion pictures) to produce attributes not t

found in the individual parts of the system nor its envirdnment (e.g., an prescribed procedhe for " p* , solving a problem syn'i)rgistically using sound).

m: Creating original procedures for designing sound. + .L

G& 1) completed sound design sheets (i.e., functipri, structure, struktured function, - .

multi-layered AV Script and blank script); 3) definitions of expressionism, realism, designed ..

sound, sound function, and sound structures; 4) instructions on how to fill-'in'the function sheet,

I r and the structure sheet, multi-layered AV script sheet, and blank script sheet.

The learner will be able to,generate a new procedure for solving the problem

syriergistically by mixing the prescebed soundtrack on audiotape-based on an original script . %.

script. \

. . _Cntenon 48: The original s&nd design system (e.g., a sound, an implied sound, a

oonsychronous sound, a meta or extra diegeti~ sound, a soundtrack) must be a reflexive n

goal-changing System (i.e., the sound designer is considered part of the system). Therefore, the '-

7

r

systemwill have a m e m F with the self-orga8i&ng ability: , - .

' , . .

&-A a -

Q - I ' - - to initiate its own course of a t t i ~ n in a feedback response (the present state) or . - 3 . - - - 4

-, $ - - 8

5 1

fedforward (projected future states) response tb ch'a~ging environmeqtal~condrtions.(e.g.,l - , . - .= . . - ,. C' . , . -

, - 'noises, stated sGunds, synchrdrious sounds, nondieietic sounds, motion pictures); . I

-- "

. . , f

. * . - to choose the bes! aiternativ? for a partit'ulai set ofrbndiiions (e.g., a\$rformer point $ . . , . '. I '

of view sound * . funcjion will cdunterpoint the image of the people in the hospilai bard , ' . , i . . , ',

* - I I

in a continuous slow-pqced.substrategy at the top of the story. In.,the'se&nd.act; the - . ,

' , I .

1 .. - design demands a subjective pbini ofview sound functibd that dominaris the image of . 8

the people in the hospital ward in a discontinuous quicker-paced substrateo, I * , Fiqally, . +

. . the subjective point of view sound function undkmines the image of,ihe people in the. ' -

' . hospital wan! with a conGergent discontinuous summarizing review substrategy). . . . ,

- -

W n 49: A m'qdel of the sound esign system is construc,ted which includes the subject ' "

'L matter, the and the listenw Giewerandis described on paper in words, symbols. , .

* ,

graphs; or verbally to the understanding of a producer from outside that- system. <,

I

, J

. . ~ o n b ~ : The origiql sound design systelp must be & from its environment. ~ h ; . a- . '

. I - .I

boundaries of the original sound design sistem (e.g., a sound. an implied sounti, a . * . - -

nonsychrdous sound, a mcta or extra diegetic sound. a soundtrqck) are delineated'fmm its - 4 - '1

. surrounding environment (e.g., a noise, a stated sound, a5ynchronous sound, a nondicgctic ;. .- . *

sound, a motion picture). 1

tenon 5 L: The original sound design system m&t be an -svsKmi.e., the system . . - ,' I

ihteracts somehow with its environmen a , , \

4 . . . I.

. . - - - .. -: The behaviour of the original soynd design system must show,* in one . --,

, A ', .. ,

* , oremore of the st~,uctural properties of the system (e.g., a sound, an idplied sound, a - - - _ I - .

- b , nonsych~onous sound. q meta or extra diektic sauod, a soundtrack), or of its environment (e.g.,

, - -. \ . -

, . , &noise, a stqted sodnd: a synchronous sound, a nondiegetic sound, a motidn picture). I I ,

enon 51: The behaviour ofathe original sound design system niust be $o&ostatic.(i.e., a

I . , "

c o n i i n u k and always automatically sensingand comparing the' system's output as an automatic " . . . . . corrective action).

t I . ', . . ' , . * . . - . . , , -on 54: W e sysfem~must have Svneroy't its as a whole_(e:g., sound functions

and structures working together) within the environment (e.g., the motion picture) to produce \.

attributes hot found in the individu,ai pans of the system nor its environrnelt (e.g., an*original ' I .

procedure for iolvinga problem synergisticaliy using sound). .

. . I * . 'm: ~ e s c r i bing ;he ofi.iinal procedures fbr desi&ing so"nd.. .

" 1 . . . . . . . . 1) qompleted-sounddesign - - - - . . t

- 3

. . # , 5 1 . . c .T \ . . *

- , sound, sound function, ind so&d structu~is; 4),instructions on-how to fill-in the function sheet,- L' . I

. . ' . and the structure ;he&, multi-la+ied AV scriptqsheqh pnd blank script sheet. . . - . - .

I , . Ia&tThe learner will be able to describe th2 orignal pricess used to g;nerate the new '

- 3 - . , * . -, .

procedure for'solvi'ng the problkm synergisticallyasing sound. . ' I' < .

- . . 1 ' m: The oiiginal 'sound design system (e.g., a sound, an implied sound, a , I-- . - ,'. - - , -

.' . nons;chrino;b sound, a meta dr extra diegctic sound, a soundtrack) must be describid. as,a ' - . ' I'

r . ', , "

. - reflexive goal-changing system (i.e.,she ~ound desig'ner is considered pansof tli&system): J

.. . , , . u . -

- - - - Therefore, the system will Have a rnelhory with the-self-organizing ability: . : ,* , r .

..- to initiatp its'own~course*of action ig ti fekback response (the preseht state)or a \ -. ". . . \ , - , .

feedfonvkd (drojectejl-fii cure states) responge to ckdliging ekvironrnenfal cdndi-tion s * " - - ' .

e L r ' .< ' I ( 4

(e.g., noises.'s;ited sou~dr, synchronous ~ounds :~nc$e~~t ic soynds, motion - '

, . . ' . . - - pictures); (0 . ( 1 1 .I -

\

, 7 . . I . . , L . . > , . ..

' I I .

- , . tochoose b e best aitemative.fof;iLp&ui$set of condiiions (e.g.,c~ perf&ncr . , ' _r

, - . # * - point of view sound f&nction~will counterpoint the image of the people in the hospital

. , wird io'a c o ~ t i n u o ~ s s 1 o d sub~tritkgy at the tog oi the story In. the second get, . s ' 1

' 1 , . F . r , the design demands a subjectiveboini of view sound function thatdominates the image 1

of t& people in in a discontinubus quiiker-pacedsubsmtegy. Finally, I <

w ' . ' - ,- 8

' . - - / I , - the subjective point of vi2k ~ouni'iunctio~ undermines the h a i e of the people in the . '

- . hospital waid with a convergent disc ntinuous summarizing review substrateb). .

J . . " I \

e -Lk"+-

' + ' 6 - to reflect upon itspast decision makin'g;

. . ntenon 56: "A model of the sound des io system is conshcted which includes the subject

I

I

I matter, the producer and the listener/ viewer and is described on paper in words, symbols, I I

' I

'graphs; or verbally to the understanding of a producer from outside that system,

on 57: The original sound de,sign system must be seDarated from its environment. The -

boundaries of the original wund design,system (e.g., a sound, an implied sound, a .

nqnsychqonous soun&, a meta or extra diegetic sound, a soundtrack) are deiineafdrom its ' - --- - - .

surrounding environment (e.Q., a noise, a stated sound, a syrkhronous so&d, a nondicget?c '

sound, a motion picture). , . , . . enon 58: 'The original sound design system must be an -(LC., the system

'

. 'a

2 .

interacts somehow with its environment). t P , . . -

C - : The behavhur of the original sound design system must be described in l m s . - P

. .el - of the -%in one or more of the structuriQr0~6rties of tlie syycm (e.g., a sound; an implied -

. . - . ' . . ..9

. . ',s&nd,'h, non'sychrono& iound; a meta or extra diegetic sound, a soundtrack), or of its . b . * . 0 . - " ~'nvironient (e.g., a noibe, a stated iound. a synchronous sound, a nohdisgetic sound, a modon .-

n 6Q:' ~ h e behaviour of the originar sound design system must be homeostatic (i.e., ,

* . continuou> aid always automatically seniing aidc!omparing the system's output as an automatic

. .

b *: cmective actiqn).

Q . . . - . . - cntenon 61: The system is de$ribed in terms of its synergy; its property as a whole (e.g.,.

w & .

Q

sound functions and structures working together) .within the epvironment (e.g., the, motion * , ' , . b

- . I .

', . . pir:ture) to produce attributes not faund in the individual puts of the 'system nor it& enGronment .. I + -

b (e.g., an ozginal procedure for solving a pro lem synergistically using sound). , , -

I .

ms fdr Re 6

Pa visions to the Instructional Ana 4

A revised instructional analysis recommends the expansion of the hierarchy of objectives C ) :

fi?m seven, to'twen;y, including specific creative thinking task-strategies for ~le-users. Figure . > , , . -

4.0 shows therecornmended revisians to the instructional analysis ofobjectives. Based on the I' ' . .

: conclusions.~twenty objectives should be integktd i n 6 a hieiarchical relationship. mere . , h e

now two JPO's, 6ne production oriented andone nonp&iuction biibnted. Objectives 16. 17, *

, a

, C 1

.and 19 form the top of the production strand of the hierd;chy, requiring subjects io.demonstrate a " *.

procedure and t6 generate an original. procedure for producing a-sound desighed pr4uct. 1- - .: '

, ,

. s - > I + ~ - - , I * , , ,

. . Objecifves 18 and nue@{y form asbiu;d-hat is concerned'with'the ability-to iesctibeihe creative 8

- . I . 6 ,

: i . - ... .,process only:~erefore, its instructiodal smteiies for &ati~e problem solvjngwuld be u , ' . _ I I

L ! '.

. . directed at~eaching anajytical orflaural or: yit ing skills (kg& definitions of rqo~rc~fu1neSs;

syn'etgy with twpicture and stated sound at the TPO level): ' 0

. - , . .' \

- . Kellcr's (1983P four continued rnotivahonal components are still here, now in an objectives - . L ' 2 I , ' . I

, ' fodat (i.e., objectives one and and 16). oreo over, a va+ation of van 0ech's (1983) j .

. . n * \ .I - - 8 -

w L

. . a

. ' . l 1 8 - - a? . . . .- - - .

- 1 ' * * . *

v , creative thinking strategies have 'become specific task-striitegy obj tivh by Gagne's (1985) , a

suggestion. The high& problemati~cnativ~ound c o m g o n e e ~ d , h n c e h ~ u r ) ~ ~ f . v .-..-, '

Mitchell, ~teukel, and Wilkens (1981), &d student-pmducability die poysdparaik,objectivcs. It ""

t

r: I ,

2 " I .

is recobmended that the rul&using level subjects complete all tw'entl) objectives, whili the . "

* * ,

problem-solving level subjects tackle fourteen of the' twentj objectives. ., - , . , 1

- & i

- - I I

Ob,' 19 .

.-. b

I Ob. 16 1 Ob.17 1

6rmo th; procrdur> the pfocedure' for, wr'iting a stndt- for mixing l stndt- '

produoable script Producable gndtrk '

ynirgrstically , synCgestically , , I, I ,

a I , I

I for demonstrating the I : I procrdure for designing f ,

sndtrk synergestioally P C T )

07 417n '

Maintains ~ t t r s u t e s ' Epistrrnic Instru. Value

,:obJ61. r 7 1: r0b',8w1 *

Riscrimipatr Discriminate iscriminate Designid vs HGmour vs Silencer vs . Aleatoric Snd Mundme Nonsound

Discriminate P-3 Student- Produeable vs Nonstdht-

: : t - m ) vs Realism '

. - . . - . . Figure 4.0 Recommended revisions to the hierarchical instruchonal analysis. *

i . . * 'I -

1 , . . . 2 .

.. - . . . . a

iect~ . .\ ves R ~ l n n r r - Both Ru le -Us lngd 'Problem . . iecnves One Thro~gh Five *r - - - .

The instructional needs of both rule-using and problem solving lev@.subjects may best be * ...

seffred by teachingAe first five objectives together. Martin and Briggs (1986) suggest the

following variations on Keller's (1983) motivational instructional strategy k r both the rule-using

and the problem solving level subjects. This instructional strategy incorporates one skill, two A

motivating attitudes, and two creative binking strategies together and in context. ,

ffecti . .

I ve Obiect~ves One and TWQ; 1) Teach subjects how to reward tBemselves for~ask

accomplishment; 2) demonstrate howdto match subjects tasks to present and future personalnkeds

and values; 3) discuss ways to motivate oneself to do the unpleasant tasks (e.g., show subjects I

1 how to link unllesirable tasks to future needs, desires, wants, and show subjects, how to '

I ad

break-up the large tasks into smaller units and to ceinforce each step; 4) p k v p e opportunities f o p C

subjects to continus a task away from the original learning environment; 5) use task-endogenous

rather than task-exogknous rewards; 6) use the informational rather than the controlling aspect of '

I

a reward; 7) use unexpected rewards ar~d verbal praise to maintain motivation; 8) link success to

personal attributes (abilities hd efforts); 9) provide opportunities for control of success ober the

learning situatidn (to move into the $!blern solving level of subject, or a deeper creative level

( i . ~ more technical, innovative, etc); 10) provide opbrtunities for further invqlvement with , .

topics which students already know about or believe in; 11) increase dissonance (but not through *

uninteresting subject matter in the video segments) by providing information slightly outside the

range of acceptance using novel and unexpected situations or using personal and emotional 8

materials and situations. 4

. >',L \ a v e Thinking Task@--

One: Braimrming Chgmal TBt;ilS . . . Discovery seems to consisiof listening

tollodking at the same thing as everyone else, and dnk ing something differently. Brair)storming,

* . --*

or soft thinking aloud (eithe; alone or with others), tends to motivate the suspension of disbelief

and generate bnique responses, such as original humour, using Gmilics to compare ideas, I

concepts, things and people. -- -

T w o : e n c v d FlelUfZllLty . . .

, The concept of fluency can be thought of in terns of ' . i-2 "oddsh--the'sbility to create many responses to a given stimulus. The stimulus may be silent -

pictures: a problematic soundtrack, or an unfinished script. Moreover, producing a variety of I

ideas that causes shiftqfrom one thought pattemf(o~ categoy) to another (Mitchell, Wilkens & - .

Steuke], 198 1 ; Torrance, 1980; van Oech, 1983) seems to be vother motivating influence that 1 '

C

< \

may be a possible source from which rnkntal locks may be dpen;d. '

-, ye Five ' I

I I I .

I . Objective five (i.e., discrimjnate expressionism from realism) is an intellectual skill that --* - - -

should be requirkd by both rule-users and problem solvers alike, since the content may be

unfamiliar to both. Again, exampl&s and non$xamples (rdlistic and aleatoric) of expression stic

conceptualizations of reality are prescribed. ~qwev&, the video segments should be better i representative of expressioni&n (e"en suppoAing the visuil bias to prove the point) and lesL

r I

unambiguous. k.

'"2 I

, I - . t . . A synonym for student-producability is resourcefulness- essential to the successful

completion of the sound design unit. Humorous examples of overkill using sound as we1 as II ' - , ,

several small fonnat examples showing unfinished masterpieces based on scripts that we ... -

Eleven: Functions W S m

unresourctful. , - 1 r

\ . . >.

Emphasis should beplaced on the fact that only two gut of six functions and only four out of 3 '

4

six strategies are necessary and sufficient for structuring appropriate sound functions into a - sound picture relationship.

Obiecri v e b d a n d III irteen: The Creative Thinking-Pmcess: . . Stru- - "

Progressive 4 creative thinking, in this context, refers to the soft thinking abilities in-the

germinal phase (van Oech, 1983) of each objectivi; the fiquency and quality with which each "

subject generated'and manipulated ideas in order to master the criteria (Mitchell, Wilkens & - Steukel, 1981).

Obiective Twelve: unit in^ Irrelevant Elements Svn-. The activity of uniting different

and seemingfy irrelevant elemeqts synectically can only successful when the implementer has

developed both the cognitive skills for implementing an innovation and the affective behaviours -

necessary for generating positive attitudes toward fhat innovation (Mitchell, Wilkens & Steuke1,-

1981; vb Oech, 1983). In creative problem solving, there is an inductive leap. a combining of - P

ideas from widely separated knowledge systems, a bold use of analogy that transcends what is

usually meant by generalizing within a class of problem situations ( ~ a g n e . 1985; van Oech,

3983). A synectic union presupposes that the emotional components of the process are more -t .

important than the rational ones (Mitchell, Wilkens & Steukel, 1981). .">

. . . , lechve Thirteen: I ~ ~ n r a t l n e t h e mture s v n e r m . Synergy iq a script or

final cut may be considered to refer to the behaviours of an integral aggrsgate macrosystem (e.g.,

, the entire film or television production) unpredicted by behaviours of any of their components

(the sound design) or subassemblies of their components (the functions or structures). -- - - .,

gestalt, the pqrts of a whole interact and influence one another. Again, change in one part ma

produce change in another. rl

Qbiectives Foumn and Fif tw

-;As in objectives one and two, the instructional needs of boa rule-using and problem solving* ' - %

.' / '

. level~ubjects may best be served here by taking the the two objectives together. Martin and

- Briggs (1986) suggest the following ;Gations on Keller's (1983) motivational instructional - strategy for both the rule-using and the problem solving lever subjects: 1) Teach subjects u how - to

reward themselves for task accbmplishment; 2'1 demonstrate how to match subjects tasks to -

present and future personal needs and values; 3)-discuss'ways to motivate oneself to do the '"c

unpleasant tasks (e.g., show subjects how to link undesirable tasks to future needs, desires \

wants; show subjects how to break-up the large tasks into smaller units, and to reinforce each"

step; 4) provide opportunities for subjects to continus a task away from the from the original

leaning environment; 5) use task-endogenous rather than task-exogenous rewards; 6) Use the

informational rather than the conaolling aspect of a reward; 7) use unexpected rewards and'verbal

praise to maintain motivation; 8) link success to personal attributes (abilities and efforts); 9) ',. \

" provide opportunities for control of success ober the learning situation (to move into the problem 0

solving level of subject, or a deeper creative 1e;el (i.e, more technical, innovative, etc); 10)

provide oppor&nities for further involvement with topics which students already know about or

believe in; 11) increase dissonance (but not through uninteresting subject matter in the video

segments) by providing information slightly outside the range of acceptance using novel and B

"

unexpected situations oi using personal and emotional materials and situations.

. . rectlves N~neteen and Twenty

\ It i's suggested that these two TPO's be'taqght separately, even though they tend to lend \ ' .

information to each othe; .,

neteel. ~*recornrnended that using the forms at all at this level be avoidedin. "

favour of beginning with analogizing sessions. Scripts may be verbal as long as the layers are /r

delineated. Private terminologies rnv be used as long as there are clear functions for each sound Y

idea and a strategy for it hongside the motion picture. Deviation amplifying should be .

-encourage&, both-in groups and separately. ..

- < * -C

\ 1' ,.

7 0

124 . . %

Obiective Twenty. This instructional activity shouldI be tied into objective four,

thought-shifting (i.e., producing a variety of ideas that causes shifts from one thought pattern, or

* category, to another). The difference here is that the process of describing creative pxbblem

solving is:two-fold: 1) The first type of process description requires an educational or commercial 1 *

type of needs assessment of the intented product: Who needs it? Whos going to pay for the

production? Who going to sell the product; 2) The second type of process description requires- - -

dramatic explanantionof the process used to arrive at the product: Who is she? What does she \ . want? What does she really wani? What's stopping him/her>r~m getting what s h e wants?

'*

Objectives Reauirin~ Rule-Using Instructional S t r u i e s Only

Qbiectives Six. S e n , and E i ~ h t '

' Rule-using level subjects should also be aele to master intellectua1 skills six, seven, and

eight before attempting to classify sound functions and structures or creating synectic

connectiqns.

Objective Six. It is recommended tb teach the subject how to describe bo . - - impact) and the extent (or amount of use) of deliberate sound planning throughout the video

., segment. .

Objective Seven. Seven is a new objective (formerly criteria 20,32, and 40). The criteria for " . , \*<

discriminatihg humour from nonhumour is stated in a similar manner to the criteria for

discriminating designed from undesigned sound (i,e., with the careful illmination of nui+ance

factors). The instruction should teach the subjects how to recognize a humourous-script or sound - , -

\ mix. 3 ,

f . . 9. iecnve Ei&. Eight is also a new objective (formerly criteria 17,29, and 37). The criteria

-- for discriminating silence from nonsound may be thought of system (throughout the entire

- jjroduction) and a subsystem (a scene). It is recommended to teach the subject how to descrik * * -

%

both the size (or impact) and the extent (o r 'houn t of use) of deliberate sound planning (similar

to teaching himher to discriminate designed/undesignd(SOund) throughout the video segment. t'

1 These are rule-using objectives and may tx? skipped over by problem solvers with semiotic or

personid methodoiogies for generating an original script and soundtrack. It is suggested that

objectives 16 and 17 be taught together, separately from 18. Eighteen may better be understood r-.

4 after these two abilities have been demonstrated, even though they tend to borrow3inf&iTdion *

from each other. t

ctlve Slxteeq. This behaviour requires the subjkt to be able to demonstrate the

procedure forwlriting a student-producable script synergistically. It is recommended to begin the

instructional events with the partially formed personal methodologies of the participants in an

effort to ease them away from the concept-learning (form-filling-in) lev'el. story trkat ents may ~ F be verbalized, but i t is suggested that {heir AV scripts be written out, with - all, the layers of sound

function delineated. Personal terminologies may be used as long as there are clear functions for f

R .each sound and ;strategy for it alongside the motion picture column. Deviation amplifying . behaviours should be encouraged, both in groups and separately. However,,close supervision of

. the &arning activites is essential in the form of providing h e appropriate endogenous negative 4%

feedback in order to insure,th,at the guidelines for sound structuring functions are adhered to. C

J . . . lectlve ~eventees.7his behaviour necessitates a one-dn-one mixdown session. Again, it

P • is recommend4 to begin the instructional events with the paftially formed personal

t

methodoIogies of the participants in an effort to ease them away from the concept-learning

(form-filling-in) 1evel:Story treatments may be verbalized, but it is suggested that their AV ' . I a

scripts be written out, with all the layers of sound functionhelineated. Personal terminologies

may be gseb as long as there are clear functions for each sound and a strategy

motion picture column. Deviation amplifying behaviours should be

and separately. Houfgver, close supervision of the learning activites is essential in the & of ,i

providing the appropriate endogenous negative feedback in order to insure that the guidflines foi '

sound structuring functions are aghered to. -

Obiec t d \ ive Ei~hteen. The inktmktional activity -for thi objective should be tied into objective

four's thought-shifting task strategies (i*., producing a variety of ideas that causes shifts from '

one thought pattern (or category) to another). The difference here is that the process of describing .. c;iative problem solving is two-fold: The first type of proce:ss description rdquires an educetional

t

or commercial type of needs assessment of the inte2ed product: Who needs it? Whos going to

pay for the productign? Who going to sell the product? The second type of process description

requires dramatic explanantion of the process used to amve at the product: Who is she? What

does she want? What does s h e really want? What's stopping himher from getting what s/h; L '

wants?

+ Jnstructional mate^

It is recommended that revisions be made to the criterion referenced tests, including the ,

questions asked by the evaluator, the video segments used, and the answer forms. The

voice-over soundtrack should be rerecorded on audiotape, then transferred to videotape in order

tolower the incidents of distraction among the listeners. The gments should be changed,

made more interesting. It is recommended to go back into the films and videos or use t L

new ones that present the problems (e.g, cliche, reflex, etc) without boring the listener or

dragging out the punchline. Therewould be more uniformity of media-type and sf genre-type *

between test items in the video segment#. Revised instructional materials would have more

professionally-relevant (e.g., journalistic or computer-generated) video examples and . d -

nonexamples. And finally, criterion referenced tests would have more uniformity of difficulty

between test items for any given objective. It is recommended that the revised unit be evaluated " -

independently. -

The inclusion of time-lengths and objectives i n t o ' ~ a ~ n e ' s (1985) instructional events was 0 ,

helpful during instruction of the unit and should therefore be expanded to accomodate fhe . r

objectives and st'artegies of the new instructional hierarchy.

Trible 4.0 shows the recommendations for revisions to the instructional events and times for

all 20 objectives. Notably, rule-using level subjects should complete all of the events of

instruction for 20 objectives! in under the maximum 46 hour time limit. Problem solving level

subjects should all of the events of instruction for 14 objectives in under the maximum 31 hour >

'\

time limit.

" . 1 . Inform Learner O f Object ive/Cri ter ir - - 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 S 5 5 5 - 2. Present DeTinitions /Sample Sheets 5 5 5 5 15 5 tj 10 1015 1q10 1C 10

M M - - - - M ( Y r e -

Table 4.0 Recommendations for revisions to the inskc~ional events tirnetabk.

The existing Dick and Carey (1985) formative evaluation model was supplemented with van

Oech's (1983) soft thinking strategies (i.e., brainstorming, thought-shifting, and synectic

synergy). The independent subject matter experts, external evdua\o~s, arid instructiondl designer

were of significant value in designing and revising these instructional materials. It is highly

recohended that they be consulted on an ongoing basis in order to keep tje instructional

materials current and interesting (e.g., from becoming re-edits of the same mistakes). -"-,

\ The dne to one trials exposed several criterion-level inconsistencies and with several

unwatchable (for varying reasons) video segments. Single subject trials are recommended if new . .

materials are being considered for inclusion into the unit. The smill group evaluations produced

the most feedback about the instructional design, and Wfre most helpful: A field trial of the entire , I L

student populations of educational technology and communication studies departments would be

rather unwieldy and is therefore not recommended at this time. , t

' ~e-ken t . The nonspecific nature of the existing internal evaluations of the creative

thinking strategies made measurement difficult. A task specific, creative thinking strategy was

recommended. Changes were made to the obje,ctives, criteria, hierarchy of objectives, and the

instructional strategy. Moreover, the attitude questionnaire was found to be inadequate. Greater . care should be taken in furture with respect to choosing quesrions, perhaps striving for better

e

quantification of the variables.

In summation, chapter four was concemedwith the appropriate recommendations for further %R(

revisions to the perforqance objectives, the instructional strategy ,and materials of this motion , - . 5 ,

picture sound design "nit. There doesn'tseem to be any other system in place at present for , , '

scripting, sound mixing, or applying aesthetics that has attempted to deal with the complexity of

structuring sound-functions synergistically. Nor does there seems to be any other prescription in

place for teaching the subjects how to design sound systemically. These sound design and the

. * . instructional design systems, therefore, may be considered to k an appropriate place to begin to

design instructional materials for learning these sound processis with other target audiences.

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eEZpendix A: Referent S . 9 Ituatlon T w

-,

Working Conditions. The external working conditions for both RSTl and RST2: 1) a

problematic or soundless video segment; 2) a blank sheet of paper, a blank storyboard, a blank . / '

Multi-layered Script Sheet (a script without Function labels in each column) ; 3) instructions on

the procedure for creating expressionistic sound designs for soundless video segments; 4) a

, ' microphone, a video playback unit, and free access to the search controls of the videocassette -

recorder, audio mixin'g facilities, prerecotded music and sound effects.

Behaviour. The behaviour that applies to both RSTl and RST2: the subject would be able to

generate a new p r d u r e for solving media production problems synergistically using sound. . . C

Criterion Checklist. The degree of performance for masteCy for both RSTl and RST2: -

1. Show or state that this activity had an Intrinsic Satisfaction &arhas been the key to

developing and maintaining hisher continued motivation throughout this activity.

2: Show or sfate that within the sbbjecl's methodology (oudine, sub-plotline, sketch,

treatment, scriptoid, eti),'there was a brief description of 1) the. stated picture and 2) the stated /

. -

sound, 2) the implied meanings in the pictures; i.e., 3 stated sound-picture functions. C

3. Show a dritten sho\;ing at least 2 brief descriptions (outline, s"b-plotline, sketch,

, treatment, scriptoid, etc.), about the implied meanings of the sound in the video segment; i.e., 2 9 . I

implied sound functions.

4. Show a written prescription for creating Structured Sound Functions on a Blank sheet of n

, . . \

paper (outline, sub-plotline, sketch, treatment, scriptoid, etc.), that addresses the questions how,

where, and how often should the Sound unction in this Sound Design? . - L

- 5. Writ6 a script and mix a soundtrack that exhibits how each"chosen Sound Function is

Structured in the sequence o r segment.

6. Write a script .and mix a soundtrack that exliibitswhere each Sound Function was

- .

7. Write a script and mix a soundtrack that exhibits synergy.

8. Write a script and mix a soundnack that deliberately exaggerates reality.

I ' 9. Write a script and mix a soundtrack th?t exhibits unusual uses of silence. r;p

10, Write a script and mix a soundtrack that elaborates on sep&ate ideas through the

development of a chain of ideas based on the embellishment of an W n a l notion,(ex. uses a

musical phrasing or leitmotif in the segment to relate the subtext-something implied in the story).

11. Write a script and mix a soundtrack that plays with scientific laws and concepts, by %

personal analogy, by direct analogy, or by s y m q analogy. i .

12. Write a script and mix a soundtrack that uses original humour.

J~arning Conditiom. Given: 1) a prerecorded video segment; 2) a blarlk Discrimination

Sheet, a blank function Sheet; and a blank structure Sheet; 3) Definitions of sound functions and : r

h

structures; 4) Instruction on how td'firl-in the structured function sheet.

B 3 . The subject will be able to classify the expressionistically designed functions and L

, structures of the soundbin the video segment's sound-picture relalonship by writing the, P

appropriate sound functions on thsmctured func,tion - , sheet.

Criterion Checklist. The degree of performance for objective one will be measured by: - 1. Show or state that this activity had a personal or professional instrumental value

(relevance) to the subject. 9

2. Show or stde an aroused interest (epistemic curiousity) about the activity of designing .

sound with pictures. . 3. Classify both the stated sound, and-the stated and implied picture functions on the function

Sheet. 8 \

4. Write at least 4 sound strategies on each structure Sheet used in the video segment. at least

2 of-the 3 questions a skgan the function Sheet within each Sound Strategy must be answered \

, 6 on both structure Sheets (i.e., How? Pr'here? a d ~ow'often?).

. . iecnve Two v

Given: 1) a video segment with a partially-recorded soundtrack; 2) ablank function Sheet, a, --

blank structured-function sheet sheet, a blank Multilayered Script with the functions fillEd;$

alonphe columns; 3) instructions on the prkedure'for creating sound functions, Structuring the ,, - functions, and writing a Multilayered Sound Design Script for th; video Kgment; 4) a

,/

2 microphone, a video playback unit, and freegccess to the search controls of - the videocassette

1 n -

recorder, audio mixing facilities, prerecorded-music-and sound effects. ,

W e h a v i ~ . The subject would be able to demonstrate the procedure for writing a script.

heck]& ,

1. Show or state that this activity had an Intrinsic Satisfaction that has been the key to

developing and maintaining hisher continued motivation throughout this activity. - 2. Show or state that within the subject's~methodology (outline, sub-plotline, sketch,

treatment, scriptoid, etc.), there was brief desifiption of 1) the stated picture and 2) the stated

sound, 2) the implied meanings in the pictures; i.e., 3 stated sound-picturefunctions.

3. Show at least 2 brieSdeqcriptions (outline, sub-plotline, sketch, treatment, scriptoid, etc:), J

about the implied meanings ofthe sound in the video segment; i.e., 2 implied sound functibns.

4. Show a written prescription for creating Structured-Sound Functions on a Blank Sheet of

paper (ouiline, sub-plotline, sketch, treatment, scriptoid, etc.), that addresses the questions how,

where, and how often should the Sound Function in this Sound Design?

5. The script exhibits how each chosen Sound Function is Stryctured in the sequence or - \'

segment. . Q

6. The script eihibits where each Sound Function was Structured.

7. The script exhibits synergy.

8. The script deliberately exaggerates reality, . i ' . .9. The script .exhibits unusual uses.of silence. '4

10. The script elaborates on separate ideas thhugh the development of a chain of ideas based . . *on the embellishment of an original notion,(ex. uses a musical phrasing or leitmotif in the

,3 . . --- segment to ~ ~ x t - ~ t h ~ ~ ~ s t ~ -

1 1. The script plriys with scientific laws and =Ancepts, by personal -analogy, by direct

analogy, or by symbolic analogy. ' .

12. The script uses original humour.

Qbiective Three (the TPOl

arnlnp Conditi-. Given: 1) a problematic or soundless jdeo segment; 2) a blank sheet I

\ 5 a of paper, a blank storybo'ard, a blank Multi-layered Script Sheet (a script without Function labels

in each column) ; 3) instructions on the procedure for creating expressionistic'sound designs for k

#

soundless video segments; 4) a microphone, a video playback unit,.and free access to the search . controls of the videocassette recorder, audio mixing facilities, prerecorded music and sound

. . effects.

J 3 e h a v i o u 7 ~ e subject would be able to generate a new procedure for solving media .' I

production pr&blerns synergistically using sound. ., - '

1 . - ' . The degree bfperfomance for mastery: -1

1. Show qr state that this activity had an Inmnsic satisfactid that has been the key to

developing and maintaining hisher continued motivation throuihout this activity.

02. Show or state that within the subject's methodology (outline, sub-plotline, sketch, . '

treatment, scriptoid, etc.), there wa$ a brief description of 1) the stated picture and 2) the stated

sound, 2) the implied meanings in the pictures; i.e., 3 stated sound-picture functions.

3. Show a written showing at least 2 brief descriptions (outline, sub-plqtline, sketch, a

I

treatment, scriptoid, etc,.), about the implied meanings of the sovnd in the video segment; i.e., 2

implied sound functions.

4. Show a written prescription for creating Structured Sound unctions on a Blank Sheet of

paper (outline, sub~plotline; sketch., treatment, scriptoid, etc.), that addresses the questions how, C

' 4

where;and how often should the Sound Function in this Sound Design? .- . . - -

5. ~ r i t e ' a script and mix a soundtrack that exhibits how each chosen Sound ~unction is.. . - Y

. Structured iri the sequence 2 - <- i

6. Write a script and mix a~oundtrack that exhibits where each Sound Function 6 was

7. Waite a script and mix a soundwck that exhibits synergy. : b , ' ,

8. Write a script and mix a soundtrack that deliberately exaggerates reality. h

9. Write a script and mixa soun&ac)c that exhibits unusual uses of silence. t \ -\

10. Write a script and mix a soundtrack that elaborates on separate ideas thrpugh the

developm&t of a chain of ideas based on the embellishment of an original notion,(ex. gses a

musical phrasing or l e i ~ o d f in the segment to relate the su-btixt-something fmplied in the' story). ' . . 11. Write a script and mix a soundtrack that plays with scientific laws arid concepts, by

personal analogy, by direct analogy, or by symbolic analogy.

1 i. Write wcript and mix a soundtrack that uses original hprnour.

*,

~endlx C: Seven Revised Obi- . .

Qbjective 1 9 ,,

Given: I ) a p>trecorded video segment; 2) a blank Discrimination Sheet, a blank Function

Sheet; and a blank structure Sheet; 3) Definitions of ~x~ressionism. Realism, Designed Sound.

Sound Functions and sound Structures; 4) Instruction on how to fill-in the Discrirqination Sheet, a . J

the Function Sheet, and the Structure Sheet.

' The learner has beenable to discriminate an expressionistic from a realistic conceptualization

of reality by writing your answers on the Discrimination Shee~. .*

t¶ . . ntenon 1, Showinglstating that this activity had personal/ professiond instrumental value '

(relevance) refers 9 thedincreases in m~tivatipn to accomp\ish an irnrnediatd ggal when it was , *+

connected to another and how accomplishment of one goal leads to the accomplishment of an

immediate goal when it was perceived to be a desired for attaining a future goal. .' \ *, . .

ntenon 2, Showindstating an aroused epistemic curiousity about the activity of designing ' #

.sound with pictures. . . ' tenon 3, Disqirninating an expressionistic from a realistic conceptualization of pality.

Given: 1) a prerecorded video segment; 2) a blank Discrimination Sheet, a blank Function

Sheet; and i blank Structure Sheet; 3) Definitions of ~x~i;ssionisrn, R~alism, Designed Sound, ' l b

Sound Functions and Sound Structures; 4) Insuuction on how to fill-in the Discrimination Sheet, s

' the Function Sheet, and the Structyre Sheet.

. . The learner has beinable to discriminate expressionistic from realisticscripts. pictures.-and - -- . - .

C

sounds by writing your answers on the Discrimination Sheet. 5

Discriminating which component(s) waslare expressionistic conceptualizations . \ . of reality (wheth;r takin strictly as the learner's perception, or taken as the learner's perception, of

the pr+ucer1s intention in making the video), then a written statement should show the size and

the extent to which the learner believes at thislthese componen t(s) waslare deliberate

f manipulations of reality suggested fro e scriptwriting, &om the picture, or from the P

soundtrack. "

w t i v e 3 , 6' Given: 1) a prerecordedrvideo segment; 2) a blank Discrimination Sheet, a blank Function

Sheet; and a blank Structure Sheet; 3) Definitions of Express;!onism, Realism, Designed Sound,

found ~unctibns and Sound Structures; 4) Instruction on how to fill-in the Discrimination Sheet,

the Function Sheet, and the Structure Sheet.

The learner has beenable to discriminate designed from undesigned sound by writing the \ I

answe; on the Discrimination sheet.

on 5, Discriminating Designed/Undesigned,Sound (whether expressionistic or not; 0 -- whether taken strictly as the learner's perception, or taken as the learner's perception of the

I I

prod"cer':, intention in making the video), then a written statementphould show the sire and the . ' , .

extent to which the learner believe: that $he video segment uses planned sound, whether pre or

post-synchronized. c. 1 f ' 9 8

Given: 1) i prerecorded video segment; 2) a blank Discrimination she;, a blank Function f

Sheet; and a blank Structure Sheet; 3) Definitions of Expressionism, Realism, Designed Sound, "

Sound Functions andSound Structbres; 4) Instruction on how to fill-in the Discrimination Sheet,

the Function Sheet, and the Structure Sheet. + . I 9' The learner has henable to,classify the functions of the sound in rhe segment's .

I

sound-picture relationship, by writing the appfopriatq Sound Functions on the Function Sheet. . . i

on 6. Classifying both the stated sound. and the stated and implied picture functions ,,, C '

\ (steps 1,2,3 on the Function Sheet)

. . ntenon Z. Classifying at least two implied Sound Functions (from steps 4 thmGgh 9 on the ' I

Function Sheet).

, &en: 1) a prerecorded video segment; 2) a blank Discrimination Sheet, a blank Function .

Sheet; and a blank Structufe Sheet; 3) Definitions of Expressionism, Realism, , . Designed Sound,

. Sound Functions and Sound Structures; 4) Instruction on how to fill-in the Discrimination Sheet,

the Function Sheet, and the Structure Sheet. b

The learner has beenable to classify the sound strategief'used in the structuring the sound in L

the video segment, by writing the appropriate Sound Strat gies on the Sa'ucture Sheet; , t u I

on 8, Describing at least 4 sound strategies*on each ~tructure Sheet used in the video

. / * 'L

segment, at least 2 ofthe 3 questions asked on the Function Sheet within each Sound strategy

must be,answered on both Structure Sheets (i.e., How? Where? and How Often?).

Objective 6 . - '.. Given: 1) a video &g;nent with a partially-recorded soundtrack; 2) a blank Function ~ h u f , a *

blank Structured-Function Sheet, a blank ~ u l t i l a ~ e r e d Script with the Functions filled-in along .v

the columr)~; 3) instructions on the procedure for creating Sound ~unctions,.~tructuring ;hi

Functions, and writing a MultiIhyered Sound Design Script for the video segment; 4) a :; . ,

microphone, a video playback unit, and free access to th; search controls of the videocassette

recorder, audio mixing facilities, prerei~rded music and sound effects.

The learner has beenable to demonstrate

pictures By prescribing Sound Functions on a Function Sheet, Structuring the appropriate Sound 'i

~unctiofis on a Structured-Functions Sheet, and writing'a Multi-layered Sound Design Script; 4 .' - criterion 9.,Showingstating an expectancy for success; i.e..,that s h e feel; that she had

4 '..

h

B -_.I

persona1,control over the successful completion of a learning task md who believes hisher

success was related to hisher personal ability and effort. c

. . Cntenon Creating 3 stated sound-picture functions on the Functions Sheet, there must be e

a brief description of the stated picture and stated soulid plus one statement about the implied

meanings in the pictures; i.e., 3 stated sound-picture functions.

n 1 I . Creating 2 implied sound functions per segmen&n the Functions Sheet, there \

myst be at least 2 brief descriptions about the implied meanings in each video segment; i.e., 2

implied sound functioiis per segrneAt. $ ',

I . . Cnlenon Creating at least 4 sound strategies o; each structured-~unctihn Sheet for each

(both) of the chosen Sound Functions 4 strategies, at least 2 of the 3 questions asked on the

~b;ctured- unction Sheet within each Sound Smtegy must be answered on both~tructured

Functions Sheets (i.e., How? Where? and How Often?). 0

enon 13. Writing a script that exhibits how each chosen Sound Functi?n.was structured

in the sequence or segment. # . . . . . . Cntenon Writing a script that exhibits where each Sound Function was Structured. %

enon 15, Writing a script that exhibits synergy (i.e., the Functions and Sttuctures interact

internally in a unique manner, the result being greater than the sum of its parts). ;

' 42 -t

enon. l6. Writing a script that translates, manipulates, stylips, or'othenvise deli&rately -2

exaggerates reality.

\ " on 17. Writing a script that exhibits unusual uses of silence. . 0

\

enon 18. Writing a script that elaborates on separate ideas through the development of a *

chain of ideas based on the embellishment of an original notion,(ex. uses a musical phrasing or 6

leitmotif in the! segment to relate the subtext-something implied in tbe story). I r

8 . 19, Writing a script that plays with scientific laws and concepts; Ex:what would

happen if there was no sight, only sound? -3

- or Ha pius uses metaphors to compare things by personal analogy; Ex. what

-- .

animal souhds'the way this person looks? =

- or if the new Script uses metaphors to cornpbe things by direct analogy. Ex. Bell's d

invention of the telephone was based on his clinical knowledge of the human ear because of his

work with the deat

- 03 if the new Script uses metaphors to compare things by symbolic analogy. This involves

the use of objective and impersonal sounds to describe pers nal problems; e.g., a woman L

screains, as the train whistle shrieks. ..

'. . . Cntenon Writing a script that uses original humour.

. . D m c h v e Seven: The TPQ

Given: 1) a problematic or sou'ndless video segment; 2) a blank sheet of paper, a blank

storyboard, a blank Multi-layered Script Sheet (a script without Function labels in each column) ; " +

21

3) instructions on the procedure for meating expressionistic sound designs for soundless video

segments; 4) a microphone, a video playback unit, and free access to the se&h controls of the *

videocassette recorder, audio mixing facifities, prer'ecorded music and sound effects.

The learner has beenable to generate a new procedure for solving the problem synergistically' ,

by: 1) volunt+ly stating/showing hisfher own expectations for achievement of creative .. - 8 4 .

.- seIf-expression in terms of its &ins i c rewards (outcomes3; 2) prescribing Sound Functions on 4P *

the Function Sheet; 3) Semcturing each Sound Function on the Structured-Function Sheets; 4)

I writing an original script based on the prescription on the Blank Multi-layered Script ~hekt ; 5 )

mixing rn original soundtrack on audiotape basd on the script; 6 ) describing the original procesS f . \ %

used to generate the new procedure for, solving the problem synergistically using sound. . . - . - - - - - - - - - - - -- - . . . . 0 ntenon & showing/stating4an Intrinsic Satisfaction that hadkeen the key to developing

. I

.4 aAd maintaining hisher continued motivation throughout this activity. 3

*, - ' . * enon 22, Within the learner's m$thodolog)r (outline, subplotIine, sketch, yeatrnent, %

scriptoid, etc.), there must be a brief description of 1) the stated picture and 2) the stated sound, I

2) the implied meanings in the pictures; i.e., 3 stated soundipicture functions. - .I . -

CrPtenon 23, Within the learner's methodology (outline, subploxline, sketch, treatment, !

scriptoid, etc.), there must be at least 2 brief descriptions about the implied meanings of the - , k

- sound iq the video segment; i.e., 2 implied sound functions. , \

. . Cntenon Within the learner's methodology; (outline, sub-plotline, sketch, treatment,

scriptoid, etc.), there must be there must be a written prescdbtion for creating Structured Sound \

9 Functioils on a Blank Sheet 6f pa$er;hat adhress the questions How? Where? and Hoik Often?

should the Sound Function in this Sound Design?

' / . . Cntenon Writing a script that exhibits how each chosen Sound Function was Structured

in the sequence or segment. . . f

m n ?(j. a script that exhibits whereeach Sound Function was Structured.

Criterion 27Writing a script that exhibits synergy. , . ,

I . Crrtenon Writing a script that deliberately exaggerates reality.

\ sbtenon 29 . . . Writing a scripi that exhibits unus~akuses of silence. . I Cntenon. Writing a script that elaborates on separate ideas through the development of a

.

, , chain of ideas based on the embellishment of an original notion,(ex. uses a musical phrasing or - I - - - - - - -

leitmotif in the segment to relate the subtext-something implied in the story). . , & Writing a script that plays with scientific laws and concepts, by personal .

analogy, by direct analoiy, or by symbolic analogy. , *

- or i f the new Script uses metaphbs to compare things by personal ana1ogy;Ex. what

animal sohnds the way this person l&ks? J

, 1 - v ( L - or if tk new Script "ses metaphors to eompan thhgs by d&ct analogy. Ex. Bell's __ _ ._ . - -_ -.. _ '_ _.. ." -. - . ... __._'. - -- - .- -. .-. - -*. - .

Y

invention of the telephone was based on his clinical knowledge.of the human ear because of his

work with,the deaf. '%

- or if the new Script uses metaphors to compare things by symbolic analogy. This involves a

the use bf objective an4 impersonal sounds to describe personal problems; e.'g., a woman

screams, as the trairi whistle. shrieks. A

.' e

Criterion 32, Writing a script that uses original humour. - Bterion 33. Mixing a soundtrack that exhibits how each chosen'sound Function was

Structured in the seq_uence or segment. n

criterion 34, Mixing ii soundtrack that exhibits where each Sound Function was Structured. . .

ntenon 35, Mixing a soundtrack that exhibits synergy \

. enon 36. Mixing a soundtrack that deliberately exaggerates reality.

Criterion 37, Mixing a soundtrack that exhibits unusual uses of silence.

~r i tehon 38. ~ i x i n g a soundtrack that elaborates on separate ideas based on the d

embellishment of an original notion.

, Criterion 39. Mixing a soundtrack that plays with s8entific laws and concepts, by personal -

analogy, by direct alogy, or by symbolic analggy. '?

If the new rnix.plays with 3cientific laws & concm;Ex . what would happen if there was , . no sight, only sound? ,

- or if the new mix uses metaphors to compare things by personal analogy; Ex. what animal 4 . .

sounds'the way this person looks? *

- or if the new mix usGmeiiph%rs to compare things W e c t analogy. Ex. Bell's invention w

of the-telephone was based on his clinical knowledge of theehurnan ear because of his work with

the deaf.

- or if the new mix uses metaphors to compare things b$ Qmbolic analogy. This involves . ",*

the use of objective and impersonal sounds to describe personal problems; e.g., a woman -. \ \ 4,-

screams, as the ,tram whistle shrieks,

enon 40, Mixing a soundtrack that uses original humour.

ndix D: &ht Revised Answer S h m

Discriminate Examples from ~ o n e d a m ~ l e s I

in Expressionism, and on the Sound,Wack.

Video Segment: . ' 1 , I n examin ing t h i s v i d e o segment as a 3 component system;

i e , s c r i p t , p i c t u r e s and sounds ; i t c o u l d b d a i d t h a t t h i s

U i deo Segment i i-' an examp I e o f an Express i o n i s t i c C o n c e p t u a I i z a t i o n o f r e a l i t y . ~ h y d r why n i t ? *

No .. Yes C]

\

, . (2. I f "yes" , whic'h compone,nt(s) i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n system 1 I i s / a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o be E x p r e s s i o n i s t i c

C o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n ( s ) o f r e a l i t g ? W,hy?

I ' p i c t u res o n l y a

I Pic tu res & Sound $

'-.

Sound on l y (tl . S o u n d l h S c r l p t

S c r i p t o n l y

S c r i p t &, P ic tu res

Pictures, S c r i p t &Sound

( 3 I n examin ing t h e s o u n d t r a c k o f t h i s ~ i d e o Segment ,) J

i t c o u l d b e s a i d t h a t t h i s i s dn ~ x a m p ' l e o f

des igned sound. Uhy o r why n o t ? s

1

Yes s . - . ..

Caution: Whether the Sound has been designed, or not has nothing to do

\ with whether the Sound is Exprtssionistic or Rialistic

pescribe The Functions Of..Tbe Sound Design

For Video Segment

Step 1 : What the Pictures ~ho; (Ex. Two people talking.,.) 4 ,

9

( ' ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 t h people disagree about ...)

Step 3: What the Pictures Imply (Ex.Both are unsure o f their own convictions)

* 1

\ o #

L . Step 4: What the SOUND IMPLIES about the Atmosphere : m g , o 6 o d

$ 3

1

C t

s t e p 5 : Vhat the SOUND IMPLIES about the what the Point(s1 ofbiew * ( A Subjective POV, an ObjecCive POV, the Performer's POV? a11 o f above)

Step 6: Vhat the SOUND IMPLIES about Future or Past Events

("meanwhile, several years ago/ several years hencc "%c I

Step 7: Vhat the SOUM' IMPLIES -about the Locale(~1 (Your Character's Psyche ; o r the Same Locale but di f ferent Time)

Step 8: Vhat the SOUND :IMPLIES about the ~ h a r a c ' t d s Past. '

a . a l ~ o u r Character's Personal Past (Pr ivate Past /Public Past)

-- - - - ~

' Step 9: Vhat the S O ~ D lMPLlES about the Character IN the Character, ' . - . . , ".(Who I isSs/hc? What does s/hc want? Who/Wh'at ii s/he ~ i r a i d of?)

., ' ' + , ' . \ * -

.* . % ,

'3, . - 4 ,

.. r / / I . 1 .

Create The Functions O f a The Sound besigg -'

Eor Video Segment

*tep 1 : What the Pictures Show (Ex. Two people talk in g...)

Step 2: What the Sound Says (Ex, Both peopleAisagree about ...)

Step 3 : What the Pictures Imp19 (Ex. Both are unsure of their own convictions)

k

1

*

Step 4 : What 'the SOUND SHOULD IMPLY about the Atmosphere. Feeling, o r M o o d ,

I

hat the SOUND 'SHOULD IMPLY about what the Point(2). o f V i e v

Subjective POV, ari ~ b j e c t i d e POV, the Performer's POV/ a l l o f above) C-,

'?

U

hat the SOUND SHOULD IMPLY about, Future o r Pas t Events I

("meanwhile, several years ago/ several years hence "1 . L .

* t b ,

Step 7: Vh'r t the SOUND SHOULD IMPLY about. the locale(s)-

. ' (Your Character's Psyche ; o r the Same Locale but di f ferent Time) 0

Step 8: V h a t the SOUND SHOULD IMPLY about,& Character's Past.

(Your chrr rc \erer Pwsonal Past/Pr iv i te Pas t / ~ub i iC Past)

Step 9: V h a t the SOUND SHOULD IMPLY'about the Character IN the Character '

(Who is s/hc? What does s/he want? ~ h o / ~ ' h a t i s s/he Afraid of?)

Create structured Sound unctions for Video Segment '4 for ~unc,tion:

The lnfor mational ' ~ t r a t e ~ , y ; 0 Cues The Image O Dominates the Image

'How 'J Haw.! HOW Ofterr? How Often? W h e r c ? Where?

U Counterpoints the Image. 0 Undermines the lmlgc HOW Y How:, c How Often? How 0ften'Q ..

Vhere? Where? k . .

Punctuates an Embtional Highlight ~ e f i n e s Intensity O f Aotion

HOW'; How'! <fl How Often? \ HOW o f t&? W h e r e ? Where?

The Paci ng St r8teg.y; \ . Slov-Paced Fast Paced

1 *

HOW'! 4 HOW'! How Often? How Often? Where' Where?

4 j The Rhythm Strategag; 0 Discontinuous Rhythm . Continuous Rhythm '

How'! How? How Often?' How Often?

4

Where? Where?

O blasscd R e v i e v The R e v i t v Strategy:

- Yow? Spaced Rcvfev How Often? Where? How't '

0 Summarized R t v i e v HOG often7 - WHerr? . h

Hob? '/ How Often? ,\

Where'

&I The Del ivery Strategag; .Divergent Delivery convergent Dt l ivbry

' HOW.! How'! - How Oftcn? - How Often? cc Where? , Where?

Write The Script ,

-- .*

g ~ h r procedure t o r writing the script involves; recording the lepgth o f the T- and the Pictures, for each Video Scg., then structuring every IMPLIED Sound Function under the appropriate column:

lMPLIED Locales

.r

i

IMPLIED P.O.Vgs

.- 3

. 4,

S

I ,

IMPLIED Case History

/ . .-

6

,

4

i

,

" \

?,

-u

IMPLIED Past/Future

d,

U

. I

,,

-- -

IMPLIED Character

-

. *

h

I

Time:

00 :OO ,.

\

1

IMPLIED Mood

/ ,

'.

-

. *

Stated Picture Stated Sound:

>

3

r.,

V

I

II I

,

158', 'r-

Your Own Procedures For Desigmg SouilQ, , I

for Video Segment 1.:

for Video Segment 2~

for Video Segment 3;

Write The Scrip1 %

* ' 6

for id& Segment >:-.