Birth Order & Relationships

17
BIRT H ORDER A N D RELATI ONSHIP S Family, Friends, and Sexual Partners Catherine Salmon Simon Fraser University Previous studies (Salmon 1999; Salmon and Daly 1998) have found that sex and birth order are strong predictors of familial sentiments. Middle- borns tend to be less family-oriented than firstborns or lastborns, while sex differences seem to focus on the utility of kin in certain domains. If this is a reflection of middleborns receiving a lesser degree of support from kin (particularly in terms of parental investment), are middleborns turning to reciprocal alliances outside the family, becoming friendship specialists? Are there comparable birth order differences with respect to mating strategies? In this study, the impact of birth order on attitudes to- ward family, friends, and mating were examined. Two hundred and forty- five undergraduates completed a questionnaire relating to their attitudes toward friends and family as well as some aspects of mating behavior. Birth order did have a significant impact in several areas. Middleborns ex- pressed more positive views toward friends and less positive opinions of family in general. They were less inclined to help family in need than firstborns or lastborns. Mating strategies also appeared to be influenced by birth order, most notably in the area of infidelity, with middleborns being the least likely birth order to cheat on a sexual partner. ~YWORDS: Attitudes; Birth order; Helping; Parental investment; Sociosexuality Received May 29, 2002; accepted September 30, 2002. Address all correspondence to Catherine Salmon, Psychology Department, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, British Columbia, V5A 1S6, Canada. Email: [email protected] Copyright 2003 by Walter de Gruyter, Inc., New York Human N ature, V ol. 14, No. 1, pp. 73--88. 1045-6767/03/$1.00+.10 7 3

Transcript of Birth Order & Relationships

Page 1: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 1/17

B IR TH O R D E R A N D R E L A T IO N S H I PS

Fam ily, Friends, and Sexu al Partners

C a t h e r i n e S a l m o n

S i m o n F r a se r U n i v e r s i t y

P r e v i o u s s t u d i e s ( S a l m o n 1 9 9 9 ; S a l m o n a n d D a l y 1 9 9 8 ) h a v e f o u n d t h a ts e x a n d b i r t h o r d e r a r e s tr o n g p r e d i c t o r s o f f a m i l i a l s e n t i m e n t s . M i d d l e -

b o r n s t e n d t o b e l e s s f a m i l y - o r i e n t e d t h a n f i r s t b o r n s o r l a s t b o r n s , w h i l e

s e x d i f f e r e n c e s s e e m t o fo c u s o n t h e u t i l i ty o f k i n i n c e r t a in d o m a i n s . I f

t h i s i s a r e f l e c t i o n o f m i d d l e b o r n s r e c e i v i n g a l e s s e r d e g r e e o f s u p p o r t

f r o m k i n ( p a r t ic u l a r l y i n t e r m s o f p a r e n t a l i n v e s t m e n t ) , ar e m i d d l e b o r n s

t u r n i n g t o r e c ip r o c a l a ll ia n c e s o u t s i d e t h e f a m i ly , b e c o m i n g f r i e n d s h i p

s p e c i a li s ts ? A r e t h e r e c o m p a r a b l e b i r t h o r d e r d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o

m a t i n g s t r at e g i es ? I n t h i s s t u d y , t h e i m p a c t o f b i r t h o r d e r o n a t t it u d e s t o -

w a r d f a m il y , f r ie n d s , a n d m a t i n g w e r e e x a m i n e d . T w o h u n d r e d a n d f o rt y -

f iv e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s c o m p l e t e d a q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e l a ti n g t o th e i r a tt i tu d e st o w a r d f r ie n d s a n d f a m i l y a s w e l l a s s o m e a s p e c t s o f m a t i n g b e h a v i o r .

B i r th o r d e r d i d h a v e a s i g n if i c an t i m p a c t i n s e v e r a l ar e a s. M i d d l e b o r n s e x -

p r e s s e d m o r e p o s i t iv e v i e w s t o w a r d f r ie n d s a n d l es s p o s i t i v e o p i n i o n s o f

f a m i l y i n g e n e ra l . T h e y w e r e l es s in c l i n e d t o h e l p f a m i l y i n n e e d t h a n

f i rs t b o r n s o r l a s t b o r n s . M a t i n g s t r a t e g i e s a ls o a p p e a r e d t o b e i n f lu e n c e d

b y b i r t h o r d e r , m o s t n o t a b l y i n t h e a r e a o f i n f i d e l i t y , w i t h m i d d l e b o r n s

b e i n g t h e l e a s t l i k e l y b i r t h o r d e r t o c h e a t o n a s e x u a l p a r t n e r .

~ Y W O R D S: A t t i t u d e s ; B i r t h o r d e r ; H e l p i n g ; P a r e n t a l i n v e s t m e n t ;

S o c i o s e x u a l i t y

R e c e i v e d M a y 2 9 , 2 00 2; a c c e p t e d S e p t e m b e r 3 0 , 2 00 2.

Ad dress al l correspondence to Cather ine Salmon, Psychology Department , Sim on Fraser

Univers ity , 8888 U nivers i ty D rive , Burnaby, Br i tish Columbia, V 5A 1S6, Canada. Email:

[email protected]

Co pyr ight 2003 b y W alter de Gruyter, Inc. , N ew York

Page 2: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 2/17

7 4 H u m an N a t u re , V o l. 1 4, N o . 1 , 2 0 03

T h e o r e t ic a l m o d e l s o f th e e v o l u t i o n o f p a r e n t a l i n c l in a t i o n s p r e d i c t t h a t

p a r e n t s w i l l o f t e n tr e a t t h e i r o f f s p r i n g d if f er e n ti a ll y . T h e r e a r e g r o u n d s f o r

p r e d i c t i n g d i s c r i m i n a t i v e p a r e n t a l s o l i c i t u d e i n r e l a t i o n t o a n u m b e r o f

v a r ia b l e s , i n c l u d i n g o f f s p r i n g a g e , p a r e n t a l a g e , b i r th o r d e r , o f f s p r in g s e x ,

a n d c u e s o f p a r e n t a g e ( C l u t t o n - B r o c k 1 99 1; D a l y a n d W i l s o n 1 99 5; T r i v e r s

1 97 4; T r i v e rs a n d W i ll a r d 1 97 3). T h e u n i f y i n g n o t i o n b e h i n d t h e s e t h e o r i e s

is t h a t n a t u r a l s e l e ct io n h a s s h a p e d p a r e n t a l p s y c h o l o g i e s t o fu n c t i o n a s i f

t h e y " v a l u e " i n d i v i d u a l o f f sp r i n g a n d i n v e s t m e n t s in th e i r d e v e l o p m e n t

i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e e x p e c t e d i m p a c t s o f s u c h i n v e s t m e n t s o n p a r e n t a l f i t-

n e s s ( g e n e ti c p o s t e r i ty ) i n a n c e s tr a l e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e f o c u s o f t h is p a p e r

is o n t h e i m p a c t o f b i r t h o r d e r n o t o n l y o n f am i l i al s e n t im e n t , b u t o n n o n -

k i n re c i p r o c a l r e l a t io n s h i p s ( f r i e n d s a n d s e x u a l p a r t n e r s ) .

T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l t h e o r e t ic a l a n d e m p i r ic a l r e a s o n s f o r e x p e c t i n g b i r th

o r d e r t o p l a y a r o l e i n p a r e n t a l i n v e s t m e n t . T h e a n t i c i p a t e d r e l e v a n c e o f

b i r t h o r d e r i s, i n p a r t , a c o r o l l a r y o f t h e r e l e v a n c e o f o f f s p r i n g a g e . O n e ' s

e x p e c t e d c o n t r i b u t i o n t o p a r e n t a l f i t n e s s r e s i d e s m a i n l y i n o n e ' s r e p r o -

d u c t i v e v a l u e ( e x p e c t e d f u t u r e r e p r o d u c t i o n ) a n d t h i s q u a n t i t y i n c r e a s e s

w i t h a g e u n t i l a t l ea s t p u b e r ty , m a k i n g a n o l d e r i m m a t u r e o f f s p ri n g m o r e

v a l u a b l e f r o m t h e p a r e n t a l p e r s p e c t iv e t h a n a y o u n g e r o n e . T h i s b e c o m e s

a p p a r e n t, i n h u m a n s , w h e n t o u g h c h o ic e s h a v e t o b e m a d e . W h e n o n e

c h i l d m u s t d i e s o o t h e r s c a n s u r v i v e , i t i s a p p a r e n t l y a c r o s s -c u l tu r a l u n i -

v e r s a l t h a t t h e y o u n g e s t is th e l i k e li e s t v i c t i m ( D a l y a n d W i l so n 1 98 4). F o r

t h e s e r e a s o n s , S u l l o w a y ( 19 9 5, 19 96 ) h a s a r g u e d t h a t i t i s u l t i m a t e l y t h e i r

s e c u r i ty i n t h e i r e x p e c t a t io n o f p a r e n t a l f a v o r i t i s m t h a t m a k e s f i r s tb o r n

c h i l d r e n d e f e n d e r s o f p a r e n t a l v a l u e s a n d t h e s t a t u s q u o w h i l e l a te r b o r n s

a r e r e l a t iv e l y i n c l i n e d t o b e " r e b e l s . "

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e c u r i ty o f p a r e n t a l p r e f e r e n c e s , f i rs t b o rn s h a v e a l w a y s

b e n e f i t t e d f r o m a n e a r ly a b s e n c e o f s ib l in g c o m p e t i t i o n f o r p a r e n t a l i n v e s t -

m e n t ( Ja c o bs a n d M o s s 1 9 76 ). H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s a c o u n t e r v e i l i n g e f fe c t i nt h a t a s p a r e n t s t h e m s e l v e s g r o w o l de r , t h e f i tn e s s v a l u e o f a n o f f s p r i n g o f

a n y g i v e n a g e a n d p h e n o t y p e i n c re a s e s r e la t iv e t o th e p a r en t s " re s i d u a l r e -

p r o d u c t i v e v a lu e . T h u s , o l d e r p a r e n t s w i ll h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o i n v e s t m o r e

i n o f f s p r i n g , a ll e l s e b e i n g e q u a l , t h a n y o u n g e r p a r e n t s ( C l u t t o n - B r o c k 1 98 4;

P u g e s e k 1 99 5).

A l t h o u g h t h e i r i n it ia l u n c o n t e s t e d s t a tu s a n d t h e ir g r e a t e r f i tn e s s v a l u e

g i v e s f i rs t b o rn s a n a d v a n t a g e i n th e b a t tl e o f c o u r t i n g p a r e n t a l i n v e s t m e n t

( D a v is 1 9 97 ), t h is a d v a n t a g e m a y b e o f f se t b y a g r o w i n g w i l l i n g n e s s o f

a g i n g p a r e n t s t o g i v e m o r e o f t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e i r la t e r b o r ny o u n g . M o r e o v e r , a s S u l l o w a y (1 99 6:3 05 ) n o t e s , a l a s t b o r n c h i l d h a s t h e

Page 3: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 3/17

Birth Order and Attitudes toward Family and Friends 75

p o r t t h a t m i d d l e b o r n s f in d p a r e n t s t o b e l e ss s u p p o r t i v e ( e m o t i o n a l l y a n d

f in a n c i a ll y ) t h a n d o f i r s tb o r n s a n d l a s tb o r n s .

B a s e d o n th e n o t i o n th a t e v o l v e d m o t i v a t io n a l m e c h a n i s m s h a v e b e e nd e s i g n e d t o e x p e n d a n o r g a n i s m ' s l i f e i n th e p u r s u i t o f g e n e t i c p o st e ri ty ,

o n e m i g h t e x p e c t n e p o t i s t i c s t ra t e g ie s o f i n v e s t m e n t a n d a n a t u r a l s o l id a r -

i t y b e t w e e n k in . S u c h b e h a v i o rs h a v e b e e n w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d i n m a n y

s p e c i e s ( f o r a n o v e r v i e w , s e e D a l y a n d W i l s o n 1 9 7 8 : c h a p . 3 ) , l e a d i n g t o -

w a r d a g e n e r a l e x p e c ta t io n o f b e n e v o l e n c e o r e m o t i o n a l a t t a c h m e n t t o

c lo s e k i n . S t u d ie s o f a l tr u i s m h a v e s u g g e s t e d , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t t h e r e i s a

g r e a t e r e x p e c t a t i o n o f r e c e i v i n g h e l p f r o m p a r e n t s a n d s i b li n g s th a n f r o m

c l o s e f r i e n d s o r s t r a n g e r s ( B ar -T a l e t a l. 1 97 7; C u n n i n g h a m 1 98 6).

T h i s e m p h a s i s o n f i rs t b o rn s a n d l a s tb o r n s ( in te r m s o f p a r e n t a l i n v e s t -

m e n t ) s u g g e s t s t h a t i t m a y b e t h e m i d d l e b i r t h o r d e r p o s i t i o n s t h a t d e r iv e

t h e l e a s t b e n e f i t f r o m n e p o t i s t i c s o l i d a r i t y ( K e n n e d y 1 9 8 9 ; K i d w e l l 1 9 8 2 ;

S a l m o n a n d D a l y 1 998). I n s u p p o r t , S a l m o n a n d D a l y ( 1998) f o u n d t h a t

m i d d l e b o r n s d e c l a re t h e m s e l v e s t o b e l e ss c lo s e t o p a r e n t s ( a n d m o r e s o to

f r i e n d s a n d s i b l i n g s ) t h a n f i r s t b o r n s o r l a s t b o r n s a n d l e s s l i k e l y t o b e a c -

t i v e ly i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e i r f a m i l y h i s t o r ie s , o r t o m a k e k i n t ie s a p a r t o f t h e i r

s e lf -i de n ti ty . M i d d l e b o r n s w e r e a ls o f o u n d t o b e l e s s i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e

r h e t o ri c o f k i n s h i p a n d f a m i l y s o l i d a r i t y w h e n u s e d i n e v o c a t i v e p o l i t ic a l

s p e e c h . I n fa c t, r n i d d l e b o r n s w e r e m o r e l i k e ly to b e i n f l u e n c e d b y t e r m s o f

f r i e n d s h i p ( S a l m o n 1 99 8). I f m i d d l e b o r n s a r e l e s s a f f il ia t e d w i t h f a m i l y , a r e

t h e y i n s t e a d s p e c i a li z in g i n n o n - k i n r e c i p ro c a l r e l a ti o n s h i p s ? D o t h e y h a v e

m o r e p o s i t iv e a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d f r ie n d s h i p s a n d h e l p i n g p e o p l e o t h e r t h a n

k in ? A n d w h a t a b o u t m a t e s h i p s ?

In Born to Rebel, F r a n k S u l l o w a y ' s (1996) w i d e l y d i s c u s s e d e x a m i n a t i o n

o f b i r t h o r d e r a n d p e r s o n a l it y , h e p r o p o s e s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e re n c e s in

r o m a n t i c lo v e st y le s o w e t h e m s e l v e s p r e d o m i n a n t l y to th e n o n - s h a r e d e n -

v i r o n m e n t . O t h e r s t u d i e s ( D r a p e r a n d H a r p e n d i n g 1982; S u r b e y 1990)

h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t o f fs p r in g w h o g r o w u p i n h o m e s w i t h i n c o n s i s t e n t o r

r e j e c ti n g c h i l d - r e a r i n g p r a c t i c e s t e n d t o r e a c h p u b e r t y e a r li er , to e n g a g e i n

i n t e r c o u r s e e a r l i e r , a n d t o h a v e m o r e s e x u a l p a r t n e r s t h a n c h i l d r e n w h o

h a v e g r o w n u p i n s ta b le a n d l o v in g h o m e s . I t a p p e a r s t h a t h a v i n g l e a r n e d

t h a t t h e y c a n n o t c o u n t o n p a r e n t a l i n v e s t m e n t , o f f s p ri n g f r o m u n s t a b l e

h o m e s s e e m t o b e m o r e l i k e ly to o p t f o r s h o r t - t e r m m a t i n g s tr a te g ie s . A t -

t a c h m e n t t h e o r i s t s h a v e a l so s u g g e s t e d t h a t d i f f e re n t s o r ts o f e a rl y c h i ld -

h o o d e x p e r ie n c e s m i g h t p r o d u c e i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e re n c e s in p r e f e re n c e f o r

l o n g - te r m c o m m i t t e d v e r s u s s h o r t- t e r m u n c o m m i t t e d r o m a n t i c r e l at i on -s h i p s ( B o w l b y 1 97 3; H a z e n a n d S h a v e r 1 98 7).

Page 4: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 4/17

76 H um an N ature, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2003

r e l a ti o n s h i p s w i t h f r ie n d s b u t a l so i n r e l a ti o n s h i p s w i t h m a t e s . I n s t e a d o f

e n g a g i n g i n m o r e s h o r t -t e r m m a t i n g s tr at eg ie s , t h e y m i g h t p l a c e a h i g h

v a l u e o n m a i n t a i n i n g a l o n g - t e r m c o m m i t t e d re l a ti o n s h ip , t re a t i n g t h e irm a t e i n m u c h t h e s a m e w a y a s t h e y t re a t th e i r fr i en d s , a s a v a l u e d r e c i p -

r oca l r e l a t i ons h i p .

I f m i d d l e b o r n s f e e l t h a t t h e y c a n n o t c o u n t o n p a r e n t a l i n v e s t m e n t , w i ll

t h e y t e n d t o fo l lo w a m o r e s h o r t - t e rm m a t i n g s t r at e g y ? P e r h a p s b e m o r e

p r o n e t o i n f id e l i ty ? O r w i l l t h e y b e l e s s li k e l y t o f o l lo w s u c h p a t t e r n s , i n -

t e r a c ti n g w i t h m a t e s m u c h a s t h e y d o w i t h f r i e n d s ? S o c i o se x u a l it y s c o re s

(S O I) m a y p r o v i d e s o m e i n s ig h t . I n d i v i d u a l s a t t h e l o w e n d o f th i s c o n -

s t r u c t , t h o s e w i t h a r e s t r i c t e d s o c i o s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n , t y p i c a l l y i n s is t o n

c o m m i t m e n t a n d c l o s e n e ss i n a re l a t io n s h i p p r i o r t o e n g a g i n g i n se x w i t h

a r o m a n t i c p a rt n e r. P e r s o n s a t th e h i g h e n d o f t h e c o n s t ru c t , th o s e w i t h a n

u n r e s t r i c t e d s o c i o s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n , t e n d t o f e e l r e l a t i v e l y c o m f o r t a b l e e n -

g a g i n g i n se x w i t h o u t c o m m i t m e n t o r c lo s en e ss (S i m p s o n a n d G a n g e s t a d

1 99 1). F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , t h e r e i s a c o n s i s t e n t s e x d i ff e r e n c e , w i t h m a l e s

t e n d i n g t o b e m o r e u n r e s t r i c t e d t h a n f e m a l e s , b u t t h e r e i s s u b s t a n t ia l

w i t h i n - s e x v a r i a t i o n a s w e l l . B i r th o r d e r d i f f e r e n c e s m a y a l s o e x is t, re f l e c t-

i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f n o n - k i n s e x u a l r e la t i o n s h ip s t o m i d d l e b o r n s .

T h i s s t u d y b e g i n s t o e x p l o r e t h e i d e a t h a t i f m i d d l e b o r n s a r e le s s af fi li -

a t e d w i t h f a m i ly , a r e t h e y i n s t e a d s p e c i a l i z in g i n n o n - k i n r e c i p r o c a l r e l a -

t i o n s h ip s , w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g p r e d i c ti o n s :

Prediction 1: M i d d l e b o r n s w i l l h a v e l e s s p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s t h a n f i r s t -

b o r n s o r l a st b o r n s t o w a r d f a m i l y i n g e n e r a l.

Prediction 2: M i d d l e b o r n s w i l l h a v e l e s s p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s t h a n f i r s t -

b o r n s o r l a s tb o r n s t o w a r d h e l p i n g f a m i l y i n n e e d .

Prediction 3: M i d d l e b o r n s w i ll h a v e m o r e p o s i t iv e v i e w s t h a n f i rs t b o rn s

o r l a st b o r n s t o w a r d f r i e n d s a n d f r i e n d s h i p in g e n e r a l .

Prediction 4: M i d d l e b o r n s w i l l b e l e s s li k e ly to s e e t h e m s e l v e s a s o n e o f

t h e i r p a r e n t s ' f a v o r i te s .

Prediction 5: M i d d l e b o r n s w i l l h a v e l o w e r ( m o r e re s tr i ct e d ) s o c io s e x u a l-

i t y s c o re s t h a n f i r st b o r n s o r l a s t b o r n s a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r, b e l e s s l ik e l y

t o c h e a t o n a p a r t n e r w h e n i n a c o m m i t t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p ( a s t h a t

p a r t n e r i s a n o n - k i n s o c ia l, a s w e l l a s s e x u a l , r e s o u rc e ) .

M E T H O D S

T w o h u n d r e d a n d f o rt y -f iv e S i m o n F r a s e r U n i v e r s i ty u n d e r g r a d u a t e s tu -

Page 5: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 5/17

Birth Order and Atti tu de s toward Fam ily and Friends 77

t w e n t y - s e v e n s u b je c ts . S e v e n t y s u b j ec t s w e r e m a l e , th e o t h e r o n e h u n d r e d

a n d f i f ty - s e v e n w e r e f e m a l e . T h e r e w e r e n i n e ty - s ix f i rs tb o r n s , s e v e n t y - t w o

m i d d l e b o r n s , a n d f if ty - n in e l a s tb o r n s . T h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o o k a h a l f h o u rt o c o m p l e t e , a n d s u b je c t s r a n g e d i n a g e f r o m e i g h t e e n t o t h i r t y - tw o .

N i n e t y - o n e p e r c e n t w e r e s i n g l e , t h e r e s t w e r e m a r r i e d o r l i v i n g w i t h a

p a r tn e r . T h e m a j o r i ty o f th e s u b j ec t s c a m e f r o m m i d d l e i n c o m e ( o r m i d d l e -

c l a s s ) f a m i l i e s .

S u b je c ts w e r e a s k e d a s e ri es o f d e m o g r a p h i c q u e s t i o n s . T h e y w e r e a l s o

a s k e d a b o u t p a r e n t a l f a v o r i t i s m a n d q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r a t t i -

t u d e s / b e l i e f s a b o u t f a m i l y l i f e ( t h e F a m i l i a l O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e , a d a p t e d

f r o m R u n d q u i s t a n d S l e tt o 1 93 6, w h i c h m e a s u r e s p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e a t t i-

t u d e s t o w a r d f am i ly ) . O n e e x a m p l e o f t h e t y p e o f s t a t e m e n t th a t m a k e s u p

t h is F a m i l y S e n t i m e n t s c al e is " A p e r s o n s h o u l d b e w i l l i n g t o sa c ri fi ce a n y -

t h i n g f o r o n e ' s f a m i ly . "

S u b je c ts a ls o c o m p l e t e d t w o m e a s u r e s o f h e l p i n g b e h a v i o r ( o n e se t o f

q u e s t i o n s a d d r e s s e d h e l p i n g f a m i l y m e m b e r s , t h e o t h e r s e t a d d r e s s e d

h e l p i n g s t r a n g e r s o r p e o p l e i n g e n e ra l ) . O n e e x a m p l e f r o m t h e h e l p in g -

r e l a t i v e s s c a l e w a s " A r e la t iv e i n n e e d c a n b e a n u i s a n c e " ; o n e f r o m t h e

h e l p i n g n o n - k i n s ca le w a s " I n g e n e ra l , w e s h o u l d n o t a l lo w o u r s e l v e s to

b e d i s t r e s s e d b y t h e m i s f o r t u n e o f o t h e r p e o p l e . " S u b j ec t s a ls o c o m p l e t e d

a sc a le m e a s u r i n g a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d f r i e n d s h i p ( a d a p t e d f r o m P a r k e r a n d

A s h e r 1 993). I t i n c l u d e d i t e m s l ik e " M y f r i e n d s a n d I c a n c o u n t o n e a c h

o t h e r t o k e e p p r o m i s e s . " A l l o f th e s e a t t i t u d i n a l q u e s t i o n s a s k e d f o r ra t -

i n g s o n a 5 - p o i n t L i k e r t - t y p e s c a l e , r a n g i n g f r o m s t r o n g l y a g r e e ( 5 ) t o

s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e ( 1 ) . S u b j e c t s w e r e a l s o g i v e n t h e s o c i o s e x u a l i t y s c a l e

( G a n g e s t a d a n d S i m p s o n 1 99 0) a s w e l l a s s ev e r a l o t h e r q u e s t i o n s a d d r e s s -

i n g t h e i r s e x u a l b e h a v i o r w h i l e i n a c o m m i t t e d r e l a t i o n s h ip .

T h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d s ta ti st ic a l m e a s u r e w a s t h e A N O V A (F v a l u e s

r e p o r t e d ) . I t w a s u s e d t o a n a l y z e t h e d a t a o n f a m i l y s e n t i m e n t a n d o b l ig a -

t io n , h e l p i n g a t t i t u d e s , a n d s o c io s e x u al it y . T h e c h i - sq u a r e w a s u s e d t o ex -

a m i n e t h e d a t a o n c h e a t in g o n o n e ' s p a r t n e r.

RESULTS

W h e n s u b j e c t s w e r e a s k e d a s e ri e s o f q u e s t i o n s a d d r e s s i n g f a m i l y se n t i-

m e n t a n d o b l i g a t i o n ( t h e F a m i l i a l O r i e n t a t i o n s c a l e ) , m i d d l e b o r n s e x -

p r e s s e d s i g n if ic a n t ly le s s p o s i t i v e a t t i tu d e s t o w a r d f a m i l y t h a n f i rs t b o r n so r l a s t b o r n s , F ( 2 , 1 1 1 = 6 . 9 4 , p < 0 . 0 0 1 . A T u k e y ' s H S D t e s t r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e

Page 6: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 6/17

78

40

H um an Nature , Vol . 14, No. 1 , 2003

34

_o

032

C0

. o 3 00

mo

24

20

f i rs t b o r n s m i d d l e b o r n s l a s t b o m s

B i rt h O r d e r

F i g u r e 1 . Scores on fam ily and familial ob ligation scale wit h resp ect to bir th order.H ighe r scores indicate more pos i t ive v iew s of family l ife and familial obl iga-tions.

a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d h e l p i n g k i n i n n e e d , m i d d l e b o r n s w e r e s i g n if ic a n tl y le s s

l ik e l y t h a n f i rs t b o r n s o r la s t b o r n s t o h a v e p o s i t i v e a t t it u d e s t o w a r d h e l p -i n g f a m i l y m e m b e r s i n n e e d , F ( 2,m ) = 6 .8 9 , p < 0 .0 02 . A g a i n , a T u k e y ' s H S D

t e s t r e v e a l e d s ig n i fi c an t d i f f er e n c e s b e t w e e n f i rs t b o r n s a n d m i d d l e b o r n s

( p < 0 .0 0 5) a n d b e t w e e n l a s t b o r n s a n d m i d d l e b o r n s ( p < 0 .0 0 2) , a n d n o s i g -

n i fi c a n t d i f fe r e n c e b e t w e e n f i r s tb o r n s a n d l a s tb o r n s . H o w e v e r , w h e n t h e

q u e s t i o n s a d d r e s s e d h e l p i n g s t r a n g e r s , t h e r e w e r e n o b i r t h o r d e r d i f f e r -

e n c e s , F (2 ,m ) = 0 .5 9 , n . s. A l l b i r t h o r d e r s h a d l e s s p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d

h e l p i n g s t r a n g e r s t h a n h e l p i n g k i n.

S u b j e c t s w e r e g i v e n a s e ri e s o f s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t a t t i tu d e s t o w a r d

f r ie n d s a n d f r ie n d s h i p a n d a s k e d h o w t ru e s u c h a s ta t e m e n t w a s f o r t h em .M i d d l e b o r n s e x p r e s s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e p o s i t i v e v i e w s o n f r i e n d s h i p

Page 7: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 7/17

Birth O rder and Att itud es toward Family and Friends

44 .

79

42 -

3 8 -

O

t,- 34-

0

~aa.0

C

2 6 -

Z4 .

2 2 .

2 0 4

f i r s tb o r n s m i d O l e b o m s l a s t b o m s

B ir th O r de r

Figure 2. Scores on attitudes toward helping family scale with respect to birthorder. Higher scores indicate more positive views toward helping familymembers in need.

When subjects were asked about their parents havi ng a favorite child,

very few subjects claimed to be the favorite and almost no parents were re-

port ed to share the same favorite child. Interestingly, of the 95 subjects that

responded, 64% said tha t their mother's favorite child was a son. In termsof birth order, 45% of the subjects" mothers favored a firstborn, 22% a mid-

dleborn, and 33% a lastborn child. For the 107 subjects who responded

about their father 's favorites, 60% of fathers favored a daughter. In terms

of birth order, 36% of fathers favored a firstborn, 21% a middleborn, and

43% a lastborn child. When only sibships of three were considered, mid-

dleborns were significantly less likely tha n firstborns or lastborns to be

chosen as a parenta l favorite , ~22 = 12.9, p < 0.01. Middleborns seem least

likely to be a parental favorite, and parents tend to favor an opposite-sex

offspring.In terms of the sociosexuality scores, the typical sex difference with

Page 8: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 8/17

8O

44

H um an Na ture, Vol . 14, No . 1, 2003

42

40

38

D

"~ 36u

w. 34

0

~ 320u

w 30e-

MQ 2 8

26

24

22

20

firstboms middleboms l as tboms

Bir th Order

Figure 3. Scores on at t i tude s tow ard h elping friend s and friendsh ip scale with re-spec t to bi rth order. High er scores indica te m ore po s i tive views o f f r iends a ndfriendship in general.

b i r th o r d e r e f fe c t w a s f o u n d , w i t h m i d d l e b o r n s s c o r in g l o w e r o n t h e S O I

t h a n f i r s t b o r n s o r l a s t b o r n s . I n t e r e s ti n g l y , i n t e r m s o f i n f i d e l i t y i n p a r t i c u -

la r, m i d d l e b o r n s r e p o r t e d " c h e a t in g " o n a p a r t n e r i n a " m o n o g a m o u s " r e-

l a t io n s h i p s i g n i fi c a n tl y le s s t h a n d i d f i r st b o r n s o r l a s t b o m s , ~ 2 2 -----14.30, p

< 0 .0 01 . In t e r m s o f th e n u m b e r o f t i m e s s u c h a n i n c i d e n t o f c h e a t i n g h a d

o c c u r r e d , t h e r e w a s n o s i g n if i ca n t b i r t h o r d e r d i f f e r en c e , t h o u g h f i r s tb o r n sd i d s o w i t h s l ig h t ly g r e a t e r f r e q u e n c y t h a n o t h e r b i r th o r d e r s .

I t is w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t b i r t h o r d e r e f f ec t s i n th i s s t u d y w e r e n o t a n a r t i-

f a c t o f fa m i l y si ze . O n e m i g h t e x p e c t th a t c h i l d r e n i n p a r t i c u l a r l y l a r g e

f a m i l ie s w o u l d r e c e i v e l es s a t t e n t io n a n d c a r e f r o m p a r e n t s t h a n c h i l d r e n

i n sm a l l er f a m ili es . H o w e v e r , p r e v i o u s w o r k ( S a lm o n a n d D a l y 1 99 8) h a s

s h o w n t h a t o n v a r i a b l e s o f f a m i li a l s e n t i m e n t , s i b s h i p s i z e ( w h e n f o u r o r

l e s s ) h a s n o s i g n i f i c a n t i m p a c t . I n t h i s s t u d y , a l l s u b j e c t s c a m e f r o m s i b -

s h i p s o f f o u r o r l e ss .

Page 9: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 9/17

90

80

10

-r 70" 0r

0

~ 6 o

~ 50E0

~ 4o

o 30mo

~ 2 0

m

ye s

Birth Order and Attitudes toward Fam ily and Friends 81

n o

9 firstborns

9 middleborns

lastborns

Figure 4. Percentage of subjects , by birth order, w ho hav e "ch eated" o n their part -n e t .

t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s g e n e s ( H a m i l to n 19 64 ). B a s e d o n t h e

c o n c e p t th a t e v o l v e d m o t i v a ti o n a l m e c h a n i s m s h a v e b e e n d e s i g n e d t o ex -

p e n d a n o r g a n i s m ' s l if e i n th e p u r s u i t o f g e n et ic p o s t er it y , o n e m i g h t

e x p e c t n e p o ti s ti c s t r at e g ie s o f in v e s t m e n t a n d a n a t u r a l s o l id a r i ty b e t w e e n

k i n . A c t i v i t i e s t h a t p r o m o t e s u c h g e n e t i c s u r v i v a l i n c o n s p e c i f i c s a r e r e -

f e r re d t o a s k i n i n v e s t m e n t , o f w h i c h p a r e n t a l i n v e s t m e n t i s t h e m o s t f u n -d a m e n t a l . T h i s s t u d y a d d r e s s e d i s su e s o f k i n i n v e s t m e n t i n t e rm s o f t h ei r

i n f l u e n c e o n i n d i v i d u a l s o f v a r y i n g b i r t h o r d e r s . I n p a rt ic u l a r, p r e d i c t i o n s

a b o u t t h e a tt i tu d e s t h a t m i d d l e b o r n s ( as o p p o s e d t o f ir s tb o r n s a n d l as t-

b o r n s ) h o l d t o w a r d f a m i l y , f r ie n d s , h e l p i n g b e h a v i o r , a n d p a r e n t a l f a -

v o r i t i s m w e r e e x a m i n e d , a s w e l l as th e i r s o c i o s e x u a l i ty sc o r es . T h e s e a r e a s

w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d s e p a r at e ly .

F a m i l i a l S e n t i m e n t

P r e v i o u s r e s e ar c h h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t m i d d l e b o r n s f ee l l es s cl o se to p a r -

Page 10: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 10/17

8 2 H u m an N a t u re , V o l. 1 4, N o . 1 , 2 0 03

o b l i g a t i o n , m i d d l e b o r n s e x p r e s s e d s i g n if i ca n t ly l es s p o s i t i v e a t t i tu d e s t o-

w a r d f a m i l y t h a n f i rs tb o r n s o r l a s t b o m s . I n a d d i t io n , m i d d l e b o r n s w e r e

s i g n i f ic a n t l y l e ss l i k e l y t h a n f i r s tb o r n s o r l a s t b o r n s t o h a v e p o s i t i v e a t ti -t u d e s t o w a r d h e l p i n g f a m i ly m e m b e r s in n e e d ( w h i le t h e re w e r e n o b i r t h

o r d e r d i f f e re n c e s w i t h r e s p e c t to h e l p i n g s t ra n g e r s ) .

A s m e n t i o n e d e a r li er , f i r s tb o r n s s e e m s e c u r e i n te r m s o f p a r e n t a l p r e f e r -

e n c e ( D a l y a n d W i l s o n 1 98 4); t h e y a l so g e t a h e a d s t a r t o n p a r e n t a l i n v e s t -

m e n t b y b e I n g t h e o n l y o f f s p r i n g u n t i l th e i r s ib l in g s c o m e a l o n g . B u t i t is

a ls o t r u e t h a t t h e v a l u e o f e a c h o f f s p r i n g in c r e a s e s r e l a ti v e t o e a c h p a r e n t ' s

r e s i d u a l r e p r o d u c t i v e v a l u e w i t h i n c r e a s in g p a r e n t a l a g e ( P u g e s e k 1995).

A s a r e s u lt , l a s t b o r n s s h o u l d a l so e x p e r ie n c e e n h a n c e d i n v e s t m e n t f r o m

p a r e n t s a s t h e y r e p r e s e n t t h a t l a st o p p o r t u n i t y f o r p a r e n t s t o in v e s t in d i -

r e c t o f f s p r i n g . A s a r e s u l t , m i d d l e b o r n s s e e m t o l o s e o u t i n t e r m s o f

p a r e n t a l i n v e s t m e n t . U n s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e r e f o r e , f i r s t b o r n s a n d l a s t b o r n s

a p p e a r t o id e n t i fy m o r e s t ro n g l y w i t h f a m i l y m e m b e r s a n d a re m o r e p o s -

i t i v e a b o u t h e l p i n g k i n t h a n m i d d l e b o r n s , w h o a r e l e s s p o s i t i v e t o w a r d

h e l p i n g f a m i ly a n d s e e m t o h a v e m o r e p o s i t i v e a t t i tu d e s t o w a r d f r i en d s .

F r i en d s a n d F r i e n d s h i p

T h e s i b s h i p s i n t o w h i c h h u m a n s a r e b o r n a r e c r u c i a l s o c i a l e n v i r o n -

m e n t s w i t h a s s o c ia t e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s , c o s ts , a n d " n i c h e s ," a n d i t w o u l d b e

r e m a r k a b l e i f o u r e v o l v e d s o c ia l p s y c h e s d i d n o t c o n t a i n f e a tu r e s a d a p t e d

t o t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f s i b l i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s . S u l l o w a y ( 19 9 5, 19 96 ) d e v e l -

o p e d t h e i d e a o f n i c h e d i f f e re n t ia t io n w i t h p r i n c i p a l r e f e r e n c e to t h e w a y s

i n w h i c h o n e d e a l s w i t h o n e ' s o r d i n a l p o s i t io n i n a s ib s h i p . E v o l u t i o n a r y

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s u g g e s t t h a t p a r e n t s w o u l d f a v o r t h e i r e l d e s t o f f s p r i n g

( A l e x a n d e r 1 9 79 ), a n d w h e n t o u g h c h o i c e s a re r e q u i r e d , t h e r e is e v i d e n c e

t h a t t h e y d o j u s t t h a t ( D a ly a n d W i ls o n 1 984). A s a r e s u lt , m i d d l e b o r n s a p -

p e a r t o b e l e s s a f f i l ia t e d w i t h k i n . T h e y a r e c e r t a i n l y l e s s s u s c e p t i b l e t o t h e

u s e o f k i n t e r m s i n p o l i t i c a l s p e e c h ( S a l m o n 1 99 8).

I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t if m i d d l e b o r n s a r e le s s f a m i l y o ri e n t e d , th e y

a r e i n s t e a d s p e c i a l iz i n g i n n o n - k i n r e c i p r o c a l r e l a ti o n s h i p s . I f m i d d l e b o r n s

r e ce iv e l e ss i n v e s t m e n t o n a v e r a g e f r o m k i n , th e y m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d t o s e e k

r e c ip r o c a l ti es e l se w h e r e , p e r h a p s p r i m a r i l y i n t h e b o n d s o f fr i e n d s h i p . S Ul-

l o w a y (1 99 6) h a s p r o p o s e d t h a t r e b e l l i o u s n e s s , r i s k - ta k i n g , d i v e r s i t y o f i n -

t e r e s t s , a n d c o o p e r a t i v e n e s s a r e l a t e r b o r n s t r a t e g i e s t o a c q u i r e a l a r g e r

s h a r e o f p a r e n t a l r e s o u r c e s . B u t t h e s e tr a it s m i g h t a ls o a i d m i d d l e b o r n s i np a r t i c u la r , n o t i n a c q u i r i n g p a r e n t a l i n v e s t m e n t , b u t i n e s ta b l i s h in g r e c i p -

Page 11: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 11/17

Birth Order and Atti tud es toward Family and Friends 83

g e s t i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f s u c h r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e i r l i v e s . T h i s r e s u l t

e c h o e d t h e s u s c e p t ib i li ty o f m i d d l e b o r n s t o t h e u s e o f te r m s o f f r i e n d s h i p

a s o p p o s e d t o k i n t e r m s i n p o l it ic a l r h e t o r ic ( S a l m o n 1 9 98 ). T h e s e r e s u l t sr a is e t h e p o s s ib i li ty t h a t p e e r i n f l u e n c e m i g h t a l s o b e g r e a t e r a m o n g s t m i d -

d l e b o r n c h i ld r e n , a f in d i n g th a t w o u l d m e s h w e l l w i t h c u r r e n t w o r k o n

p e e r i n f l u e n c e i n s c h o o l a g e c h i l d r e n ( H a r r i s 1 998 ). S u c h w o r k h a s s u g -

g e s t e d a l a r g e ro l e f o r p e e r i n f l u e n c e (a s o p p o s e d t o p a r e n t a l i n f l u en c e ) ,

s o m e t h i n g t h a t m i g h t b e s e e n i n h i g h e r le v e ls a m o n g t h e m a n y m i d d l e -

b o r n s i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n .

Mo m m y ' s L i t t l e Bo y a n d D a d d y ' s L i t t l e G i f tC o m m o n s a y in g s re g a r d i n g " M o m m y ' s L it t le B o y " a n d " D a d d y ' s L it t le

G i rl " b e g t h e q u e s t io n , a r e m i d d l e b o m s o f t e n l ef t o u t b e c a u s e b o t h p a r e n t s

h a v e a f a v o r i te c h i l d a n d t h e m i d d l e o n e i s n ' t a fa v o r it e ? W h e n s u b je c ts

l i s t e d a p a r e n t a l f a v o r i t e , m o t h e r ' s f a v o r i t e t e n d e d t o b e a f i r s t b o r n s o n ,

w h i l e d a d d y ' s f a v o r it e w a s m o s t li k el y a l a st b o rn d a u g h t e r . M i d d l e b o r n s

d o a p p e a r t o b e t h e l e as t n u m e r o u s b i rt h o r d e r a m o n g p a r e n t a l f av o ri te s ,

a n d p a r e n t s t e n d e d t o f a v o r a n o p p o s i te - s e x o ff s p ri n g .

W h i le e x a m i n i n g b i r t h o r d e r a n d p a r e n t a l f a v o ri ti s m is s o m e w h a t n o v e l ,

t h e r e h a s b e e n p r e v i o u s w o r k o f a t h e o r e t i c a l a n d e m p i r i c a l n a t u r e o n

p a r e n t - o f f s p r i n g c o n f li c t a n d w h e t h e r i t is s e x - li n k e d . F r e u d ' s t h e o r ie s

(1910 , 1953) a b o u t p a r e n t - o f f s p r i n g f a n t a s i e s a r e w e l l k n o w n , f a n t a s i e s

a b o u t m a t i n g w i t h t h e o p p o s i te - se x p a r e n t a n d r e s e n ti n g th e s a m e - s e x p a r -

e n t a s a r i v a l ( F r e u d 1 92 5). D a l y a n d W i ls o n ( 19 89 ) h a v e e l e g a n t l y c r i t i q u e d

t h is p e r s p e c t i v e , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t F r e u d c o l l a p s e d t w o d i s ti n c t f a th e r - s o n

c o n fl ic ts in t o o n e : a n e a r l y c o n f li c t o v e r h o w a w o m a n ' s r e p r o d u c t i v e r e -

s o u r c e s a r e to b e a l l o c a t e d ( i nt o h e r e x i st in g s o n v s . m o r e m a t i n g s ) a n d a

l a te r r i v a l ry t h a t is s e x u a l b u t i n v o l v e s w o m e n o t h e r t h a n t h e m o t h e r , s u c h

a s ju n i o r w i v e s i n a p o l y g a m o u s s o c i e t y (B o o n e 1 9 88 ; L e V i n e 1 9 65 ).

Ma t i n g S t r a t e g i e s

W a l le r a n d S h a v e r (1 99 4) d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n r o -

m a n t ic l o v e st y le s a r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y o w i n g t o n o n - s h a r e d e n v i r o n m e n t s ,

r a i si n g t h e p o s s i b il it y t h a t l o v e s t y l es m a y b e r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e f a m i l y e n -

v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h a n i n d i v i d u a l h a s b e e n r a i s e d . R e s e a r c h h a s a l s o

s h o w n , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t o f f s p ri n g r a i s e d i n h o u s e s w i t h i n c o n s i s t e n t o rr e j e c ti n g c h i l d - r e a r i n g p r a c t ic e s t e n d t o r e a c h p u b e r t y e a r l i e r, e n g a g e i n i n -

Page 12: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 12/17

84 H um an N ature, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2003

m i g h t b e m o r e l ik e l y t h a n t h e i r o l d e r s ib s t o e n g a g e i n h i g h - r i sk s t r a te g i e s

s u c h a s m a t e p o a c h i n g a n d i nf id e li ty .

A s h a s b e e n f o u n d i n p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s ( G a n g e s t a d a n d S i m p s o n 1 9 9 0 ;G a n g e s t a d e t al. 19 92 ), m a l e s h a d h i g h e r S O I s c o r e s i n g e n e r a l . W h e n t h e

i n te r a c ti o n b e t w e e n s ex a n d b i rt h o r d e r w a s e x a m i n e d , it b e c a m e c le a r

t h a t , fo r f e m a l e s b u t n o t m a l e s , t h e r e w a s a s i g n i fi c a n t i m p a c t o f b i r t h

o r d e r, w i t h m i d d l e b o r n s h a v i n g l o w e r S O I s c or e s t h a n f ir s tb o r n s o r la s t-

b o r n s . H o w e v e r , th e r e w a s n o s u c h e f fe c t i n m a l e s, p e r h a p s b e c a u s e w h i l e

f e m a l e s a r e a s e x u a l r e s o u r c e f o r m a l e s , t h e y a r e l e s s l i k e l y to b e a s o c i a l re -

s o u r c e in t h e w a y m a l e s u p p o r t c a n b e f o r f e m a l es . I t i s a ls o p o s si b le t h a t

t h e m a l e i n c l i n a t i o n t o w a r d u n r e s t r i c t e d s o c i o s e x u a l i t y c r e a t e s a f lo o r e f -

f ec t. I n d i r e c t t e r m s o f in f id e li ty , m i d d l e b o r n s r e p o r t e d h a v i n g c h e a t e d a t

l e a s t o n c e o n a s t e a d y p a r t n e r s i g n i f i c a n t ly l e ss t h a n f i r st b o r n s o r l a s t b o r n s

f o r b o t h s ex e s. So it lo o k s a s t h o u g h m i d d l e b o r n s a r e i n t e r a c t in g w i t h

m a t e s i n m u c h t h e s a m e w a y a s t h e y i n te r a ct w i t h f r ie n d s , b e i n g c a r e fu l to

m a i n t a i n h i g h - q u a l i t y r e l a ti o n s h i p s i n b o t h a r ea s .

O t h e r C o n s i d e r a t io n s

O n e f r a m e w o r k t h a t m a y b e u s e f u l f o r a c o n s i d e r a t io n o f t h e s e r e s u lt s is

t h a t o f a l te r n a t iv e s tr a te g i e s, w h i c h c o n c e r n s m o r p h o l o g i c a l , p h y s i o l o g i c a l

a n d b e h a v i o r a l d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e p h e n o t y p e s w i t h i n s p e c i e s

( G r o s s 19 96 ). T h e i d e a o f a l t e r n a t i v e s t r a te g i e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o h u m a n p e r -

s o n a l i t y h a s b e e n d i s c u s s e d b y G a n g e s t a d (1 99 6). R e s e a r c h o n a l t e r n a t i v e

s tr a te g i e s i n n o n - h u m a n a n i m a l s h a s s h o w n t h a t in m o s t c a s e s t h e e n v i-

r o n m e n t p l a y s a l a r g e ro l e i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p u r s u i t o f p a r t ic u l a r t a ct ic s

w i t h i n a s t r a t e g y ( G r o s s 1 99 6). T h i s e m p h a s i s o n t e c h n i c a l p l a s t i c i ty i n r e -

s p o n s e t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t m e s h e s w e l l w i t h t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t s ib li ng s

p u r s u e c o n t i n g e n t ta c ti cs in r e s p o n s e t o t h e f a m i l ia l e n v i r o n m e n t .

A l t h o u g h t h i s s t u d y a d d r e s s e s s o m e o f t h e is s u e s o f m i d d l e b o r n s ' r e la -

t i o n s h ip s w i t h f a m i l y, f r ie n d s , a n d m a t e s , a d d i t i o n a l q u e s t i o n s a r e r e l e v a n t

t o t h e s e is s u e s. A n e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e re l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n b i r t h o r d e r , e x -

c h a n g e o ri e n ta t io n , a n d t h e v a l u e o f i te m s e x c h a n g e d w i t h f r ie n d s w o u l d

s e e m p a r t i c u l a r ly f r u it f u l w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e n a t u r e o f m i d d l e b o r n s a s re c i-

p r o c i t y s p ec ia li st s. I n a d d i t i o n , m o r e w o r k n e e d s t o b e d o n e o n b i r th o r d e r

a n d m e a s u r e s o f p a r e n t a l i n v e st m e n t . S o m e s t u d ie s h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t

m i d d l e b o r n s r e c e i v e l es s fi n a n ci a l s u p p o r t f r o m p a r e n t s ( K e n n e d y 1 98 9)

w h i l e o t h e r s h a v e s h o w n t h a t m i d d l e b o r n s c l e a rl y p e r c e iv e t h e m s e l v e s asl o s in g o u t i n t e r m s o f p a r e n t a l i n v e s t m e n t ( S a lm o n a n d D a l y 1 998 ; S a l m o n

Page 13: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 13/17

Birth O rder and Attitu des toward Family and Friends 85

i m p a c t o f b i r t h o r d e r o n m a t i n g s t ra t e g ie s a l s o c l e a rl y n e e d s f u r t h e r e x a m -

i n at io n . I t m a y b e t h a t in a l a rg e r s a m p l e , t h e m i d d l e b o r n s w o u l d h a v e

s h o w n s i g n if ic a n t ly l o w e r S O I s c o re s . T h e y c e r ta i n l y w e r e l e s s l ik e l y toh a v e c h e a t e d o n a p a r t n e r w h i l e i n a c o m m i t t e d r e l a ti o n s h ip . I t w o u l d b e

b e n e f ic i a l t o l o o k a t th i s q u e s t i o n w i t h n o t o n l y a l a rg e r s a m p l e b u t w i t h o n e

m o r e d i v e r s e in a g e, si n ce a c o m m i t t e d r e l a t io n s h ip m a y m e a n s o m e t h i n g

q u i t e d i f f e r e n t a t 2 0 y e a r s o f a g e t h a n i t d o e s a t 3 0.

C O N C L U S I O N S

T h e s e r e s u l t s e c h o p r e v i o u s o n e s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t b i r t h o r d e r h a s a

s i g n i f i c a n t i m p a c t o n f a m i l i a l s e n t i m e n t , w i t h m i d d l e b o r n s b e i n g l e s s

f a m i l y - o r i e n t e d t h a n f i rs t b o rn s o r l a s tb o r n s . T h i s s t u d y a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t

m i d d l e b o r n s p l a c e g r e a te r i m p o r t a n c e o n a n d h a v e m o r e p o s i ti v e v i e w s o f

n o n - k i n f r i e n d s h i p s t h a n f i rs t b o rn s o r la s t b o r n s, a g a i n s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e y

a r e s p e c i a l is t s in n o n - k i n r e c i p r o c a l a ll ia n c e s . T h i s i s s u e o f b i r t h o r d e r a n d

m a t i n g s t r a t e g ie s c l ea r ly n e e d s f u r t h e r e x p l o r a t io n . H o w e v e r , f e m a l e m i d -

d l e b o r n s ( n o t m a l e s ) h a v e l o w e r S O l sc o r es , a n d b o t h m a l e a n d f e m a l e

m i d d l e b o r n s w e r e l e s s li k e ly th a n f i rs t b o rn s o r l a s t b o r n s t o r e p o r t c h e a t i n go n t h e i r p a r t n e r s w h i l e i n a s t e a d y r e la t io n s h ip . O v e r a l l , t h e s e b i r t h o r d e r

d i f fe r e n c e s s u g g e s t t h e p o s s i b i li t y o f a l t e rn a t i v e s t ra t e g i e s b e i n g p u r s u e d

b y i n d i v i d u a l s i b li n g s a s a r e s p o n s e t o d i ff e r e n c e s i n t h e ir e x p e r i e n c e s o f

t h e fa m i l y e n v i r o n m e n t . S u c h s tr a te g ie s m a y i n d e e d b e w h y m i d d l e b o r n s

a p p e a r t o b e n o n - k i n r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s p e c ia l is t s.

The author w ou ld l ike to thank Frank S ul low ay and Char les Craw ford for theirsugges tions and supp or t as wel l a s two anon ym ous rev iewers fo r thei r he lp fu l

comments .

Catherine Salmon, Ph.D., is curre ntly a Michael Smith Fo und ation fo r H ealth Re-search Pos t-Doctoral Fel low in the Psyc holog y Dep ar tme nt of S imon Fraser Uni-versity in Burnaby, Brit ish Columbia. Her research interests include bir th order

and relat ionships , the l ink betw een reproduct ive supp ress ion an d anorexic be hav-ior , female sexual ity, an d the evolut ion ary s tu dy of l i tera ture an d the med ia .

REFERENCES

Page 14: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 14/17

86 H um a n Na tu r e , Vo l . 14, No . 1 , 2003

Bo one, J . L.

1 9 8 8 P a r e n ta l I n v e s t m e n t , S o ci al S u b o r d i n a t i o n , a n d P o p u l a t i o n P r o c e s se s

a m o n g t h e 1 5 t h a n d 1 6 th C e n t u r y P o r t u g u e s e N o b i li ty . I n H um an Reproduc ti veBehavior: A D arw inian Perspective , L. B e tz ig , M . B or ge r hof f M ulde r , a n d P .

Tur ke , e ds . P p . 201- 219. C a m br idge : C a m br id ge U n ive r s i ty P r es s .

Bow lby, J.

1973 A t t a c h m e n t a n d L o s s, Vo l. 2. Separa t ion: Anx ie ty and Anger . N ew York: Bas ic

Books .

Clut ton-B rock, T . H.

1 9 8 4 R e p r o d u c t i v e E f f o rt a n d T e r m i n a l I n v e s t m e n t i n I t e ro p a r o u s A n i m a ls .

American Natural is t 123:212-229.

1991 The Evolut ion of Parental Care . P r inc e ton : P r inc e ton U n ive r s i ty P r e ss .

C u n n i n g h a m , M . R .

1986 Le v i t e s a nd B r o the r ' s Ke e pe r s : A S oc iob io log ic al P e r spe c t ive on P r osoc ia l

Behavior . H um bol t Journal o f Social Relations 13:35--67.

Daly , M. , and M. W ilson

1978 Sex, Evolution, and Behavior. B e lm ont , C a l i f o rn ia : Wa dsw or th .

1984 A S oc iob io log ic a l An a lys i s o f H um a n I n f a n ti c ide. I n Infanticide: Compara-

tive an d Evolutionary Perspectives , G. H au sfa te r a nd S .B. Hrd y, eds . Pp . 503--520.

N e w York : A ld ine .

1989 I s P a r e n t - O f f sp r ing C onf l i c t S e x- L inke d? F r e ud ia n a nd Da r win ia n M od -

els. Journal o f Personality 58:163-189.1995 Disc r im ina t ive P a r e n ta l S o l i c i tude a nd the R e le va nc e o f Ev o lu t io na r y

M ode l s to the Ana lys i s o f M ot iva t iona l S ys te m s . I n The Cogni t ive Neuro-

sciences, M . Ga z z a n iga , e d . P p . 1269- 1286 . C a m br idge , M a ssa c huse t t s : M I T

Press.

Dav is , J. N.

1997 B i r th Or de r , S ibsh ip S ize , a nd S ta tus in M od e m C a na da . H u m a n N a t u r e

8:205-230.

D r a p e r , P., a n d H . H a r p e n d i n g

1 98 2 F a t h e r A b s e n c e a n d R e p r o d u c t i v e S tr a te g y : A n E v o l u t i o n a r y P e r s p e ct iv e .

Journal of Anthropolog ical R esearch 38:255-273.F r e ud , S .

1910 A S pec ial Type o f C ho ic e o f Ob je c t M a de by M e n ( C o n t r ibu t ions to the

P syc ho lo gy o f Lov e , I) . I n Standard Edition, Vol. 11, J . Stachn ey, ed. a nd trans.

Pp. 163-175. N ew York: W. W. Nor to n .

1 9 2 5 S o m e P s y c hi c al C o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e A n a t o m i c a l D i s t in c t io n b e t w e e n t h e

Sexes. In Standard Edition, Vol. 19, J . Stachn ey, ed. a nd trans. P p. 241-258. N ew

York: W. W. N or to n .

1 9 5 3 The Interpretation of Dreams. In S tandard Edi t ion, J . S tachney, ed . a nd t rans .

Vol. 4, pp. 1-338; Vol. 5, pp. 339-721. New York: W. W. Norton. (Originally

pub l i she d in 1900)Ga n ge s ta d , S . W.

Page 15: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 15/17

Bir th Order and At t i tudes toward Fam ily and F riends 87

Ga n ge s ta d , S . W. , J . A . S im pso n , M . DiG e r on im o , a nd M . B ie k

1992 Di f f e re n t i al Ac c ur a c y in P e r son P e r c e p t ion a cr oss Tr a it s: Ex a m ina t ion o f a

F u n c t i o n a l H y p o t h e s i s . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 62:688-689.Ga nge s ta d , S . W. , a n d J . A . S im pso n

1990 Tow a r d a n Ev o lu t io na r y H is to r y o f F e m a le S oc iose xua l Va r ia t ion . Journal

of P ersonality 58:69-96.

Gr oss , M . R .

1996 Al t e r na t ive R e pr od uc t iv e S t r a t e g ie s a nd Ta ctic s: D ive r s i ty w i th in S e xes .

Trends in Ecology and Evolution 11:92-98.

H a m i l t o n , W . D .

1964 The Ge ne t i c a l Ev o lu t ion o f S oc ial B e ha v iour , I a nd II. Journal o f Theoretical

Biology 7:1-52.

Ha r r is , J . R .

1998 The Nur ture Assumption: W hy Chi ldren Turn Ou t the Way They Do. N e w

York: S im on & Schu ste r .

H a z e n , C ., a nd P. S ha ve r

1 98 7 R o m a n t ic L o v e C o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s a n A t t a c h m e n t P r o ce s s. Journal of Per-

sonality and Social Psychology 52:502-511.

Jacobs , B . S ., an d H . A. M oss

1976 B i r th O r de r a nd S e x o f S ib ling a s De te r m in a n t s o f M othe r - I n f a n t I n t e r a c -

t ion . Child Development 47:315-322.

K e n n e d y , G . E .1989 M idd le b or ns P e r c e p t ion s o f F a m i ly R e la t ionsh ips . Psychological Reports

64:755-760.

Kid we l l , J. S .

1981 N um be r o f S ib lings, S ib l ing S pa c ing , S e x , a nd B i r th Or d e r : The i r E ff e c ts

o n P e r c e i v e d P a r e n t - A d o l e s c e n t R e l at io n s h i ps . Journal of Marr iage and the Fam-

ily 43:315-332.

1982 The Ne g le c te d B i r th Or d e r : M idd le bor n s . Journal of Marr iage and the Fam -

ily 44:225-235.

LeVine , R . A.

1965 I n te r ge ne r a t iona l Te ns ions a nd Ex te n de d F a m i ly S t r uc tu r e s in Af r i ca . I nSocial Structure and the Fam ily Generational Relations, E. S ha na s a nd G . E S t r e ib ,

eds . Pp . 188-204. E ng lew oo d Cl if f s, N ew Je rsey: Prent ice -H al l .

Parker , J . G. , and S . R . A she r

1 99 3 F r i e n d s h i p a n d F r i e n d s h i p Q u a l i t y i n M i d d l e C h i l d h o o d : L i n k s w i t h P e e r

G r ou p A c c e p ta nc e a nd F e e l ings o f Lon e l ine ss a nd S oc ia l D i s sa ti s fa c t ion . D e-

velopmental Psychology 29:611-621.

P uge se k , B . H .

1995 Of f sp r ing Gr o w th in the C a l i f o r n ia Gu l l : R e pr od uc t ive Ef f o r t a nd

P a r e n t a l E x p e r i e n c e H y p o t h e s i s . Anim al Behav ior 49:611-647.

Ru nd qu is t , E . A. , an d R. E S le t to1936 Perso nal i ty n the Depression: A Stu dy in the Measurement of At t itudes. M in-

Page 16: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 16/17

88 H um a n N a tu r e , Vo l. 14, No . 1 , 2003

1 99 9 O n t h e I m p a c t o f S e x a n d B i rt h O r d e r o n C o n t a c t w i t h K i n . H um an Na t ure10:183-197.

S a lm on , C . A ., a nd M . Da ly1 99 8 T h e I m p a c t o f B i rt h O r d e r o n F a m i l ia l S e n ti m e n t : M i d d l e b o r n s A r e D i f-

fe rent . H um an Behavior and Evolut ion 19:299-312.

S im p son , J . A . , a nd S . W. Ga nge s ta d

1 9 9 1 I n d i v i d u a l D i f fe r en c e s i n S o c i os e x u al it y : E v i d e n c e f o r C o n v e r g e n t a n d

D iscr im inan t V a lidi ty . Journal of Person ality and Social Psycholog y 60:870--883.Sul low ay, E J .

1 99 5 B i r th O r d e r a n d E v o l u t i o n a r y P s y c h o l o g y : A M e t a -A n a l y t ic O v e r v i e w .

Psychological Inq uiry 6:75-80.

1996 B or n To Rebel: Birth Order, Fam ily Dynam ics, and Creat ive Lives. Ne w Yor k :

Ox f o r d Un ive r s i ty P re s s .Surbey, M. K.

1 99 0 F a m i l y C o m p o s i t io n , S tr es s, a n d t h e T i m i n g o f H u m a n M e n a r c h e . I n The

Socioendocrinology of Primate Reproduction, E B. Bercov i tch an d T. E . Ze ig le r ,

eds. P p. 11-32. N ew York: A lan R. Liss.

Triv ers, R. L.

1974 P a r e n t - O f f sp r ing C onf l ic t . Am erican Zoologist 14:249-264.Tr ivers , R . L ., and D. W il la rd

1973 Na tu r a l S e le c t ion o f P a r e n ta l Ab i l i ty to Va r y the S ex- R a t io o f Of f sp r ing .Science 179:90-92.

Waller, N . G. , and P . R . S h a v e r

1 99 4 T h e I m p o r t a n c e o f N o n g e n e f i c I n f lu e n c e s o n R o m a n t i c L o v e S ty l es : A

Twin F a m i ly S tudy . Psychological Science 5:268-274.

Page 17: Birth Order & Relationships

8/2/2019 Birth Order & Relationships

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/birth-order-relationships 17/17

Reproducedwithpermissionof thecopyrightowner. Further reproductionprohibitedwithoutpermission.