BioTest 1 Review[1]

8/3/2019 BioTest 1 Review[1]

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Nucleic Acids

Nucleotides (DNA or RNA)

Phosphodiester Bonds

Base, ribose sugar, phosphate group Cytosine binds to Guanine and Thymine

(Uracil) binds to Adenine

Information molecules

Denaturation necessary for DNA replication


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Proteins

Amino Acids

Peptide bond

Primary (linear), secondary (alpha or beta),tertiary (folded) and quarternary structure

Various functions (enzymatic, structural,

antibiotic etc) Denaturation dangerous


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5Carbohydrates, Lipids, and

The Plasma Membrane


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Plants make carbohydrates

through photosynthesis andstore them as starch

We use the energy

in carbohydrates to

provide energy for

everything we do

5.1 What are carbohydrates?


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Carbohydrates: molecules in which carbon is

flanked by hydrogen and hydroxyl groups.HCOH

They contain a carbonyl (-CO) group, several

OH functional groups, and many highenergy CH bonds.

Carbohydrates have the generalized

chemical formula (CH2O)n

E.g.: C6H12O6



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Carbohydrates = sugars = saccharides

Simple sugars are called monosaccharides

Monosaccharides = monomers

Glucose, fructose, sucrose, galactose, etc.

When they link together, they are called

disaccharides (2 monosaccharides) orpolysaccharides (many monosaccharides)



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Cells use glucose (monosaccharide) as an energy

source.Exists as a straightchain or ring form.

Ring is more common:

it is more stable.



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Depending on the location of the aldehyde when

the ring forms, the OH on carbon 1 can be abovethe ring (a) or below it (b)



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a- & b- glucose are isomersof each other

Depending on the location of the aldehyde when thering forms, the OH on carbon 1 can be above the ring

(a) or below it (b)


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Monosaccharides bind together to form

polysaccharides in condensation reactions

to form glycosidic linkages.

Glycosidic linkages can be or .



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Carbohydrates are important building blocks inthe synthesis of other molecules

Their secondary structures are varied & related

to function Store chemical energy: a-glucose chains Form fibrous structure: b-glucose chains



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1. Starch

Highly branched helices2. Glycogen

a-glucose chains

Plant Energy

Storage

Animal

Energy

Storage

(liver)

Simple helices (w H-bds)



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Video 3.1 Carbohydrates


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Fibrous Structure:

Straight chains held by many h-bonds Highly packed

E.g.: Cellulose, Chitin, Peptidoglycan

b-glucose chains5.1 What are carbohydrates?


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The b-glycosidic linkages of structural

molecules like cellulose are difficult to

hydrolyze (unlike the a-glycosidic linkages in

storage polysaccharides)

Animals have enzymes that can hydrolyze a-

glycosidic links but notb-links i.e., animals

cant digestb-linkage: fiber



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How about cows?



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19

Which of the following is correctly

matched?

A. a-glucose; 1-4 linkage;

B. a-glucose; 1-6 linkage;

C. b-glucose; 1-4 linkage;

D. b-glucose; 1-6 linkage;


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Carbohydrates are used to store energy because theycontain reduced carbon atoms (C-H)

These bonds have high free energy because electrons

are shared equally by atoms with low

electronegativity.

Carbs are used as our primary energy source because

the energy they contain can be released quickly and

efficiently.



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Lipids are:

Fats and oilsenergy storage

Steroids

Phospholipidscell membranes

5.2 What Structures and Functions of Lipids?


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Consist of long chains ofhydrocarbons (C-H)

Non-polarinsoluble in water

Basic unit is the fatty acid

A fatty acid is a hydrocarbon

chain (fatty) bonded to acarboxyl group (COOH:carboxylic acid)


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Fats and oils are triglyceridessimplelipidsmade of three fatty acids and 1glycerol.

Glycerol: 3 OH groupsan alcohol

Fatty acid: nonpolar hydrocarbon with apolar carboxyl groupcarboxyl bonds withhydroxyls of glycerol in an ester linkage.


Figure 3 18 Synthesis of a Triglyceride


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Figure 3.18 Synthesis of a Triglyceride


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Saturated fatty acids: no double bondsbetween carbonsit is saturated with

hydrogen atoms (max # of Hs per C).

Unsaturated fatty acids: some double bondsin carbon chain.

monounsaturated: one double bond

polyunsaturated: more than one


Figure 3.19 Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids


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Figure 3.19 Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids


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Saturated:

Animal fats Solid at Room

Temperature

Unsaturated:

Plant fats Liquid at Room

Temperature


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Trans fat: Unsaturated fat made of fatty acidscontaining trans isomers

Trans fats are the result of the process of partial

hydrogenation of plant oils

Can be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated

Saturated fat

Cis-unsaturated fatty acid

Trans-unsaturated fatty

acid
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Trans fats behave like saturated fats:They stay solid at room temperature

Compare to cis-unsaturated fat:
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Phospholipids: fatty acids bound to glycerol, a

phosphate group replaces one fatty acid.

Phosphate group is hydrophilicthe head

Tails are fatty acid chainshydrophobicPhospholipids are amphipathic: they have a

hydrophilic and a hydrophobic end


Figure 3.20 Phospholipids (A)
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Hydrophobic parts of phospholipids try to avoid

water as much as possible


h h f h f ll l f d l d b
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Which of the following is classified as a lipid, but

has a substantially different chemical structure

than the others?

A. Cholesterol

B. The phospholipids of a

membrane

C. Oil from a corn plant

D. The fat in dairy products
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Cell membranes are made of phospholipids

They are amphipathic

They aresemi-permeable

They let some things through easily and keep

other things out

5.3 Cell Membranes


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5.3 Cell Membranes

Size and charge affect speed of diffusion
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5.3 Cell Membranes
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The general structure of membranes is know

as the fluid mosaic model.

The phospholipid bilayer is like a lake in

which a variety of proteins float.

5.3 Cell Membranes
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40

Fluid mosaic model


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41

Whats in the membrane?


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Membrane Cholesterol

In plasma membranes,cholesterol fills spaces

between phospholipids

Polar head of cholesterol is

aligned with polar headof phospholipids
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Cholesterol restrains phospholipids movementmembrane less fluid, less permeable

Temperature reduces movement of moleculesphospholipids packed tighter, membrane lesspermeable

5.3 Cell Membranes
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Membranes contain proteins: number ofproteins varies with cell function

Some membrane proteins extend across the

lipid bilayer with hydrophobic andhydrophilic regions or domains (i.e., the

proteins are also amphipathic).

5.3 Cell Membranes

Figure 5.4 Interactions of Integral Membrane Proteins
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Two types of membrane proteins: Integral membrane proteins span the

bilayer, hydrophilic ends protrude on either

side Peripheral membrane proteins do not

penetrate the bilayer

5.3 Cell Membranes
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Membranes are dynamic constantly forming,

transforming, fusing, and breaking down.

5.3 Cell Membranes
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Final Project

5


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5Inside the Cell

7 1 C ll h F d l U i f


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7.1 Cells are the Fundamental Unit of

Life

Cell theory was the first unifying theory ofbiology.

Cells are the fundamental units of life.

All organisms are composed of cells.

All cells come from preexisting cells.

7 1 C ll th F d t l U it f
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Implications of cell theory: Functions of all cells are similar

Life is continuous

Origin of life was the origin of cells


Life

7 1 C ll th F d t l U it f


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Cells are small. Why?

Cells are small because they need a highsurface area-to-volume ratio.

Volume determines the amount of chemicalactivity in the cell per unit time.

Surface area determines the amount ofsubstances that can pass the cell boundaryper unit time.


Life

7 1 C ll th F d t l U it f Lif
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Two types of cells:

Prokaryotic: Bacteria and Archaea

Eukaryotic: Cells with DNA in a membrane-

enclosed compartment called the nucleus.

7.1 Cells are the Fundamental Unit of Life

h h h f k ll ?


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7.2 What Are the Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells?

Prokaryotic cells of bacteria and archaea are

smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cell:

Cell wall made of peptidoglycan, plasma membrane,

protein capsule Cytoplasm containing ribosomes

No nucleus

DNA loose innucleoid region

Cytoskeleton

Pili and fimbriae

Flagella

7 2 Wh t A th Ch t i ti f
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7.2 What Are the Characteristics of

Prokaryotic Cells?

Some prokaryotes swimby means offlagella,made of the protein

flagellin.

Some bacteria havepilihair-like structuresprojecting from thesurface. They help

bacteria adhere toother cells andexchange DNA throughconjugation

7 3 Wh t A th Ch t i ti f
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7.3 What Are the Characteristics of

Eukaryotic Cells?

Eukaryotic cells are up to 10 times larger

than prokaryotes.

Eukaryotic cells have membrane-enclosed

compartments called organelles.

Organelles have specific functions.

Compartmentalization allowed eukaryoticcells to specializeforming tissues and

organs into multicellular organisms.

Figure 4.7 Eukaryotic CellsAnimal Cells (Part 1)
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Cell Factory
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58

DNA

RNA

Protein

DNA Replication

Transcription

Translation

Nucleus Nucleolus

Ribosomes

(RNA)

Proteins

Cytosol

Golgi

Rough ER

Cell MembraneLysosome

Smooth ER

Cell Factory

Mitochondria

What path does a protein in the secretory
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pathway take, starting from the site of its

synthesis?A. Rough ER, Golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles, plasma

membrane

B. Golgi apparatus, rough ER, secretory vesicles, plasma

membrane

C. Plasma membrane, secretory vesicles, Golgi apparatus,

rough ER

D. Rough ER, secretory vesicles, Golgi apparatus, plasmamembrane



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pathway take, starting from the site of its

synthesis?A. Rough ER, Golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles, plasma

membrane

B. Golgi apparatus, rough ER, secretory vesicles, plasma

membrane

C. Plasma membrane, secretory vesicles, Golgi apparatus,

rough ER

D. Rough ER, secretory vesicles, Golgi apparatus, plasma

membrane

Figure 4.7 Eukaryotic CellsAnimal Cells (Part 2)
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Ribosomessites of protein synthesis.Occur in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic

cells.

In eukaryotes, ribosomes are free in thecytoplasm, attached to the endoplasmic

reticulum, or inside

mitochondria andchloroplasts.

Figure 4.11 The Golgi Apparatus (Part 2)


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7 3 Wh t A th Ch t i ti f E k ti C ll ?
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Chloroplasts:

Site of photosynthesis

light energy is converted

to the energy of chemical bonds.

Chloroplasts have a double membrane.

7.3 What Are the Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells?
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7 3 What Are the Characteristics of Eukar otic Cells?
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Plant and protist cells have vacuoles:

Store waste products and toxic compoundsmay deterherbivores

Provide structure for plant cells: turgor


7 3 What Are the Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells?


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Fungi, algae, and plants have a stiff outer

cell wall that protects the cell. It bringssolidity & turgidity to the cell.

Note: this is different from thecell membrane. Cell walls

do not usually play a role inregulating transport in orout of a cell

Question: what monomer isthe cell wall madeof in plants?


7 3 What Are the Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells?
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Centrioles are made of microtubules.

Involved in formation of the mitotic spindle -pull chromosomes apart during cell

division


O i ti l f hi h f th


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Oxygen is essential for which of the

following processes to occur?

A. Chloroplasts to convert sunlights kineticenergy into chemical potential energy

B. Lysosomes to digest a proteins into their

component amino acidsC. Mitochondria to use the chemical potential

energy in glucose to form ATP molecules

D. Centrosomes to pull a cells duplicatedchromosomes apart during cell division

O i ti l f hi h f th


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Oxygen is essential for which of the

following processes to occur?

A. Chloroplasts to convert sunlights kineticenergy into chemical potential energy

B. Lysosomes to digest a proteins into their

component amino acidsC. Mitochondria to use the chemical potential

energy in glucose to form ATP molecules

D. Centrosomes to pull a cells duplicatedchromosomes apart during cell division

7 4 How Do Large Molecules Enter and


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7.4 How Do Large Molecules Enter and

Leave a Cell?

Macromolecules (proteins, polysaccharides,

nucleic acids) are too large to cross the

membrane.

They can be taken in or excreted by means of

vesicles through endocytosis (in) or

exocytosis (out).

7 4 How Do Large Molecules Enter and Leave a Cell?


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Phagocytosis: molecules or entire cells are

engulfed. Some protists feed in this way.

Some white blood cells engulf foreign

substances.

A food vacuole or a phagosome forms, which

fuses with a lysosome.

7.4 How Do Large Molecules Enter and Leave a Cell?



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Pinocytosis: a vesicle forms to bring small

dissolved substances or fluids into a cell.

Vesicles much smaller than in

phagocytosis.

Pinocytosis is constant in endothelial

(capillary) cells.




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Receptor mediated endocytosis highly

specific

Depends on receptor proteins integral

membrane proteins to bind to specificsubstances

Sites are called coated pits coated with

other proteins such as clathrin

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BioTest 1 Review[1]

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