Biology - ARC :: Assessment Resource Centre Course Structure The Biology Stage 6 Syllabushas a...

Biology

Stage 6

Syllabus

1999

http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au

Original published version updated:October 1999 � Board Bulletin/Official Notices Vol 8 No 8 (BOS 62/99)Nov/Dec 1999 � Board Bulletin/Official Notices Vol 8 No 9 (BOS 67/99)March 2001 � Board Bulletin/Official Notices Vol 10 No 1 (BOS 01/01)April 2001 � Fax Stream sent to Schools.

The Board of Studies owns the copyright on all syllabuses. Schools may reproducethis syllabus in part or in full for bona fide study or classroom purposes only.Acknowledgement of the Board of Studies copyright must be included on anyreproductions. Students may copy reasonable portions of the syllabus for thepurpose of research or study. Any other use of this syllabus must be referred to theCopyright Officer, Board of Studies NSW. Ph: (02) 9367 8111; fax: (02) 9279 1482.

Material on p 5 from Securing Their Future © NSW Government 1997.

© Board of Studies NSW 1999

Published byBoard of Studies NSWGPO Box 5300Sydney NSW 2001Australia

Tel: (02) 9367 8111

Internet: http://www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au

ISBN 1 7409 9009 9

2001652

Contents1 The Higher School Certificate Program of Study...............................................5

2 Rationale for Biology in the Stage 6 Curriculum................................................6

3 Continuum of Learning for Biology Stage 6 Students........................................7

4 Aim ....................................................................................................................8

5 Objectives...........................................................................................................8

6 Course Structure ................................................................................................96.1 Preliminary Course ....................................................................................96.2 HSC Course.............................................................................................106.3 Overview..................................................................................................116.4 Other Considerations...............................................................................15

7 Objectives and Outcomes ................................................................................167.1 Table of Objectives and Outcomes..........................................................167.2 Key Competencies...................................................................................18

8 Content: Biology Stage 6 Preliminary Course..................................................198.1 Biology Skills............................................................................................198.2 A Local Ecosystem ..................................................................................228.3 Patterns in Nature....................................................................................268.4 Life on Earth ............................................................................................318.5 Evolution of Australian Biota....................................................................35

9 Content: Biology Stage 6 HSC Course ............................................................409.1 Biology Skills............................................................................................409.2 Maintaining a Balance .............................................................................439.3 Blueprint of Life........................................................................................479.4 The Search for Better Health...................................................................539.5 Option � Communication .......................................................................579.6 Option � Biotechnology..........................................................................619.7 Option � Genetics: The Code Broken? ..................................................659.8 Option � The Human Story ....................................................................699.9 Option � Biochemistry............................................................................73

10 Course Requirements ......................................................................................78

11 Post-school Opportunities ................................................................................79

12 Assessment and Reporting..............................................................................8012.1 Requirements and Advice .......................................................................8012.2 Internal Assessment ................................................................................8112.3 External Examination...............................................................................8112.4 Board Requirements for the Internal Assessment Mark in Board

Developed Courses .................................................................................8212.5 Assessment Components, Weightings and Tasks ...................................8312.6 HSC External Examination Specifications...............................................8512.7 Summary of Internal and External Assessment......................................8612.8 Reporting Student Performance Against Standards ...............................87

1 The Higher School Certificate Program of Study

The purpose of the Higher School Certificate program of study is to:� provide a curriculum structure that encourages students to complete secondary

education;� foster the intellectual, social and moral development of students, in particular

developing their:� knowledge, skills, understanding and attitudes in the fields of study they

choose� capacity to manage their own learning� desire to continue learning in formal or informal settings after school� capacity to work together with others� respect for the cultural diversity of Australian society;

� provide a flexible structure within which students can prepare for:� further education and training� employment� full and active participation as citizens;

� provide formal assessment and certification of students� achievements;� provide a context within which schools also have the opportunity to foster

students� physical and spiritual development.

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Biology Stage 6 Syllabus

2 Rationale for Biology in the Stage 6 Curriculum

Biology in Stage 6 Science provides students with a contemporary and coherentunderstanding of the concepts explaining the functioning, origins and evolution ofliving things.

Biology Stage 6 explores the levels of organisation of life, from the molecular levelthrough cellular to higher levels of organisational structure and function, whichexhibit evolution as a common source of unity and diversity. It includes developingan understanding of the interactions within and between organisms and betweenorganisms and their environment.

The study of biology recognises that, while humans are part of nature, they continueto have a greater influence on the environment than any other species. The historyand philosophy of science, as it relates to the development of the understanding,utilisation and manipulation of living systems by the human species, is an integralpart of the study of contemporary biology and assists students to recognise theirresponsibility to conserve, protect, maintain and improve the quality of allenvironments for future generations.

Biology in Stage 6 draws upon, and builds onto, the knowledge and understanding,skills and values and attitudes developed in Science Stages 4�5. It further developsstudents� understanding of science as a continually developing body of knowledge,the role of experimentation in deciding between competing theories, the provisionalnature of scientific explanations, the interdisciplinary nature of science, the complexrelationship between evidence and ideas and the impact of science on society.

The study of biology involves students working individually and with others inpractical, field and interactive activities that are related to the theoretical conceptsconsidered in the course. It is expected that students studying biology will applyinvestigative and problem-solving skills, effectively communicate biologicalinformation and understanding and appreciate the contribution that a study ofbiology makes to their understanding of the world.

The Biology Stage 6 course is designed for those students who have a substantialachievement level based on the Science Stages 4�5 course performancedescriptions. The subject matter of the Biology course recognises the different needsand interests of students by providing a structure that builds upon the foundationslaid in Stage 5 yet recognises that students entering Stage 6 have a wide range ofabilities, circumstances and expectations.


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3 Continuum of Learning for Biology Stage 6 Students

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Stages 1–3Science and Technology

Stages 4–5

Science

Stage 5

Science Life Skills

For students withspecial education

needs

Stage 6

Biology Preliminary

Stage 6

Biology HSC

Workplace University TAFE Other

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Stage 6

Senior ScienceHSC

Stage 6

Science Life Skills

4 Aim

Biology Stage 6 aims to provide learning experiences through which students will:� acquire knowledge and understanding about fundamental concepts related to

living things and their environments, the historical development of theseconcepts and their application to personal, social, economic, technological andenvironmental situations

� progress from the consideration of specific data and knowledge to theunderstanding of models and concepts and the explanation of generalisedbiology terms, from the collection and organisation of information to problem-solving, and from the use of simple communication skills to those which aremore sophisticated

� develop positive attitudes towards the study of living things, the environmentand the opinions held by others, recognising the importance of evidence andthe use of critical evaluation of different scientific opinions related to variousaspects of biology.

5 Objectives

Students will develop knowledge and understanding of:1. the history of biology2. the nature and practice of biology3. applications and uses of biology4. the implications of biology for society and the environment5. current issues, research and developments in biology6. cell ultrastructure and processes7. biological diversity8. environmental interactions9. mechanisms of inheritance10. biological evolution.

Students will develop further skills in:11. planning investigations12. conducting investigations 13. communicating information and understanding14. developing scientific thinking and problem-solving techniques15. working individually and in teams.

Students will develop positive values about and attitudes towards:16. themselves, others, learning as a lifelong process, biology and the environment.


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6 Course Structure

The Biology Stage 6 Syllabus has a Preliminary course and an HSC course. ThePreliminary and HSC courses are organised into a number of modules. The Preliminarymodules consist of core content that would be covered in 120 indicative hours.

The HSC course consists of core and options organised into a number of modules.The core content covers 90 indicative hours with ONE option covering 30 indicativehours. Students are required to cover ONE of the options.

Practical experiences are an essential component of both the Preliminary and HSCcourses. Students will complete 80 indicative hours of practical/field work duringboth the Preliminary and HSC courses with no less than 35 indicative hours ofpractical experiences in the HSC course. Practical experiences must include at leastone open-ended investigation integrating skill and knowledge outcomes in both thePreliminary and HSC courses.

Practical experiences should emphasise hands-on activities, including:� undertaking laboratory experiments, including the use of appropriate computer-

based technologies� fieldwork� research, using a wide range of sources, including print materials, the Internet

and digital technologies� using computer simulations for modelling or manipulating data� using and reorganising secondary data� extracting and reorganising information in the form of flow charts, tables,

graphs, diagrams, prose and keys� using animation, video and film resources to capture/obtain information not

available in other forms.

6.1 Preliminary Course

120 indicative hours

The Preliminary course incorporates the study of:� A Local Ecosystem (25 indicative hours)� Patterns in Nature (35 indicative hours)� Life on Earth (30 indicative hours)� Evolution of Australian Biota (30 indicative hours)

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6.2 HSC Course

120 indicative hours

The HSC course builds upon the Preliminary course. The Preliminary coursecontains content that is considered assumed knowledge for the HSC course.The HSC course incorporates the study of:a) the core, which constitutes 90 indicative hours and includes:

� Maintaining a Balance (30 indicative hours)� Blueprint of Life (30 indicative hours)� The Search for Better Health (30 indicative hours)

b) ONE option, which constitutes 30 indicative hours and may comprise any one ofthe following:� Communication� Biotechnology� Genetics: The Code Broken?� The Human Story� Biochemistry


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6.3 Overview

The following diagram summarises the relationship between the various elements ofthe course.

An independent learner

creative, responsible, scientifically literate, confident, ready to take their place as a member of society

Content of each module

Contexts

to increase motivation,conceptual meaning, literacy or confidence

Prescribed Focus Areas Domain

identify emphases that contains knowledge andare applied to what is understanding, skills and valuesbeing learned and attitudes to be learned

set within a background of ongoing assessment aimed at assisting students to learn

Objectives

define in broad terms the knowledge and understandings, skills and values and attitudes

Outcomes

define the intended results of teaching

Aim

states the overall purpose of the syllabus

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Context

Contexts are frameworks devised to assist students to make meaning of thePrescribed Focus Areas and Domain. Contexts are culturally bound and thereforecommunicate meanings that are culturally shaped or defined. Contexts draw on theframework of society in all aspects of everyday life. The contexts for each moduleencourage students to recognise and use their current understanding to furtherdevelop and apply more specialised scientific understanding and knowledge.

Prescribed Focus Areas

The Prescribed Focus Areas are different curriculum emphases or purposes designedto increase students� understanding of biology as an ever-developing body ofknowledge, the provisional nature of scientific explanations in biology, the complexrelationship between evidence and ideas in biology and the impact of biology on society.

The following Prescribed Focus Areas are developed across the modules of thesyllabus.

History of biology

Knowledge of the historical background of biology is important for an adequateunderstanding of the origins, functioning and evolution of living organisms. Studentsshould develop knowledge of:� the progressive accumulation of knowledge about living things and their

environment� the part that an understanding of living things and their environment plays in

shaping society� how our understanding of living things and their environment is influenced by

society.

Nature and practice of biology

A study of biology should enable students to participate in scientific activities anddevelop knowledge of the practice of biology. Students should develop knowledge of theprovisional nature of biological explanations and the complex relationship between:� existing biological views and the evidence supporting these� the process and methods of exploring, generating, testing and relating ideas� the stimulation provided by technological advances in understanding biology � the constraints imposed on understanding biology by the limitations of current

technology and the stimulation this provides for the development of the requiredtechnology and technological advances.

Applications and uses of biology

Setting the study of biology into broader contexts allows students to deal with realproblems and applications. The study of biology should increase students� knowledge of:� the relevance, usefulness and applicability of biological concepts and principles� how increases in our understanding in biology have led to the development of

useful technologies and systems


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� the contributions biology has made to society, with particular emphasis onAustralian achievements.

Implications of biology for society and the environment

Biology has an impact on our society and the environment and students need todevelop knowledge of the importance of positive values and practices in relation tosociety and the environment. The study of biology should enable students todevelop:� understanding about the interrelatedness among people and their biophysical

surroundings� skills in decision-making about issues concerning society and the environment� an awareness of the social and environmental responsibility of a scientist� an awareness of areas of biology that relate to distinctively Australian

environments.

Current issues, research and developments in biology

Biological issues and developments are more readily known and more information isavailable to students than ever before about current issues, research anddevelopments in biology. The syllabus should develop students� knowledge of:� areas currently being researched in biology� career opportunities in biology and related fields � events reported in the media that require an understanding of some aspect of

biology.

Domain

Knowledge and understanding

As a course that focuses on one of the major disciplines of science, Biologypresents a particular way of thinking about the world. It encourages students to useinference, deductive and inductive reasoning and creativity. It presumes that theinteractions within organisms, between organisms, and between organisms and theirenvironments occur in consistent patterns that can be understood through careful,systematic study.

The Biology course extends the study developed in the Science Stages 4�5 course,particularly in relation to students� knowledge and understanding of cell theory,evolution, classification of organisms and the Watson-Crick model of DNA. Thecourse builds on the fundamental knowledge and understanding of the functioning ofsystems and structures in living organisms as well as the interrelationships betweenliving things. The Biology Stage 6 course assumes that students have an elementaryknowledge and understanding of ecosystems, biosphere, biodiversity and humanimpact on the environment which are developed in the Science Stages 4�5 course.

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Skills

The Biology course involves the further development of the skills students havedeveloped in the Science Stages 4�5 course through a range of practicalexperiences in both the Preliminary and HSC courses. The skills developed inScience Stages 4�5 are fundamental to Biology Stage 6, where a moresophisticated level will be developed.

Practical experiences are an essential component of both the Preliminary and HSCcourses. Students will complete 80 indicative hours of practical/field work acrossboth the Preliminary and HSC courses with no less than 35 indicative hours ofpractical experiences in the HSC course. Practical experiences have been designedto utilise and further develop students� expertise in each of the following skill areas:� planning investigations

This involves increasing students� skills in planning and organising activities,effectively using time and resources, selecting appropriate techniques,materials, specimens and equipment to complete activities, establishingpriorities between tasks and identifying ways of reducing risks when usinglaboratory and field equipment.

� conducting investigationsThis involves increasing students� skills in locating and gathering information fora planned investigation. It includes increasing students� skills in performing first-hand investigations, gathering first-hand data and accessing and collectinginformation relevant to biology from secondary sources using a variety oftechnologies.

� communicating information and understandingThis involves increasing students� skills in processing and presentinginformation. It includes increasing students� skills in speaking, writing and usingnon-verbal communication, such as diagrams, graphs and symbols, to conveybiological information and understanding. Throughout the course, studentsbecome increasingly efficient and competent in the use of both technicalterminology and the form and style required for written and oral communicationin biology.

� developing scientific thinking and problem-solving techniquesThis involves further increasing students� skills in clarifying issues and problemsrelevant to biology, framing a possible problem-solving process, developingcreative solutions, anticipating issues that may arise, devising appropriatestrategies to deal with those issues and working through the issues in a logicaland coherent way.

� working individually and in teamsThis involves further increasing students� skills in identifying a collective goal,defining and allocating roles and assuming an increasing variety of roles inworking as an effective member of a team within the agreed time frame toachieve the goal. Throughout the course, students are provided with furtheropportunities to improve their ability to communicate and relate effectively toeach other in a team.


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Values and attitudes

By reflecting on past, present and future involvement of biology within society,students are encouraged to develop positive values and informed critical attitudes.These include a responsible regard for both the living and non-living components ofthe environment, ethical behaviour, a desire for critical evaluation of theconsequences of the applications of science and recognising their responsibility toconserve, protect and maintain the quality of all environments for future generations.

Students are encouraged to develop attitudes on which scientific investigationsdepend, such as curiosity, honesty, flexibility, persistence, critical thinking,willingness to suspend judgement, tolerance of uncertainty and an acceptance ofthe provisional status of scientific knowledge. Students need to balance these withcommitment, tenacity, a willingness to take risks and make informed judgementsand, at times, inflexibility. As well as knowing something of and/or about biology,students need to value and appreciate biology if they are to become scientificallyliterate persons.

6.4 Other Considerations

Safety Issues

Schools have a legal obligation in relation to safety. Teachers will need to ensurethat they comply with the Occupational Health and Safety Act 1983 (NSW), theDangerous Goods Act 1975 (NSW), the Dangerous Goods Regulation 1978 (NSW)and the Hazardous Substances Regulation 1996 (NSW), as well as system andschool requirements in relation to safety when implementing their programs.

Animal Research Act

Schools have a legal responsibility in relation to the welfare of animals. All practicalactivities involving animals must comply with the Animal Research Act 1985 (NSW)as described in the Animals in Schools: Animal Welfare Guidelines for Teachers,produced on behalf of the Schools Animal Care and Ethics Committee (SACEC) bythe NSW Department of Education and Training.

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7 Objectives and Outcomes

7.1 Table of Objectives and Outcomes

Objectives

Students willdevelopknowledge andunderstanding of:1 the history of

biology

2 the nature andpractice ofbiology

3 applicationsand uses ofbiology

4 implications ofbiology forsociety and theenvironment

5 current issues,research anddevelopmentsin biology

6 cellultrastructureand processes

7 biologicaldiversity

8 environmentalinteractions

9 mechanismsof inheritance

10 biologicalevolution

Preliminary CourseOutcomes

A student:

P1 outlines the historicaldevelopment of majorbiological principles,concepts and ideas

P2 applies the processes that areused to test and validatemodels, theories and laws ofscience, with particularemphasis on first-handinvestigations in biology

P3 assesses the impact ofparticular technologicaladvances on understanding inbiology

P4 describes applications ofbiology which affect societyor the environment

P5 describes the scientificprinciples employed inparticular areas of biologicalresearch

P6 explains how cell ultrastructureand the coordinated activitiesof cells, tissues and organscontribute to macroscopicprocesses in organisms

P7 describes the range oforganisms in terms ofspecialisation for a habitat

P8 analyses the interrelationshipsof organisms within theecosystem

P9 explains how processes ofreproduction ensure continuityof species

P10 identifies and describes theevidence for evolution

HSC Course Outcomes

A student:

H1 evaluates how majoradvances in scientificunderstanding and technologyhave changed the direction ornature of scientific thinking

H2 analyses the ways in whichmodels, theories and laws inbiology have been tested andvalidated

H3 assesses the impact ofparticular advances inbiology on the developmentof technologies

H4 assesses the impacts ofapplications of biology onsociety and the environment

H5 identifies possible futuredirections of biologicalresearch

H6 explains why the biochemicalprocesses that occur in cellsare related to macroscopicchanges in the organism

H7 analyses the impact of naturaland human processes onbiodiversity

H8 evaluates the impact of humanactivity on the interactions oforganisms and theirenvironment

H9 describes the mechanisms ofinheritance in molecular terms

H10 describes the mechanisms ofevolution and assesses theimpact of human activity onevolutionD

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Objectives

Students will developfurther skills in:

11 planninginvestigations

12 conductinginvestigations

13 communicatinginformation andunderstanding

14 developingscientific thinkingand problem-solving techniques

15 workingindividually and inteams

Students will developpositive values aboutand attitudestowards:16 themselves,

others, learningas a lifelongprocess, biologyand theenvironment


A student:

P11 identifies and implementsimprovements toinvestigation plans

P12 discusses the validity andreliability of data gatheredfrom first-handinvestigations andsecondary sources

P13 identifies appropriateterminology and reportingstyles to communicateinformation andunderstanding in biology

P14 draws valid conclusionsfrom gathered data andinformation

P15 implements strategies towork effectively as anindividual or as a teammember

A student:

P16 demonstrates positivevalues about and attitudestowards both the living andnon-living components ofthe environment, ethicalbehaviour and a desire fora critical evaluation of theconsequences of theapplications of science

HSC Course Outcomes

A student:

H11 justifies theappropriateness of aparticular investigation plan

H12 evaluates ways in whichaccuracy and reliabilitycould be improved ininvestigations

H13 uses terminology andreporting stylesappropriately andsuccessfully tocommunicate informationand understanding

H14 assesses the validity ofconclusions from gathereddata and information

H15 explains why aninvestigation is bestundertaken individually orby a team

A student:

H16 justifies positive valuesabout and attitudes towardsboth the living and non-living components of theenvironment, ethicalbehaviour and a desire fora critical evaluation of theconsequences of theapplications of science

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7.2 Key Competencies

Biology Stage 6 provides a context within which to develop general competenciesconsidered essential for the acquisition of effective, higher-order thinking skillsnecessary for further education, work and everyday life.

Key competencies are embedded in the Biology Stage 6 Syllabus to enhancestudent learning and are explicit in the objectives and outcomes of the syllabus. Thekey competencies of collecting, analysing and organising information andcommunicating ideas and information reflect core processes of scientific inquiryand the skills identified in the syllabus assist students to continue to develop theirexpertise in these areas.

Students work as individuals and as members of groups to conduct investigationsand, through this, the key competencies, planning and organising activities andworking with others and in teams, are developed. During investigations, studentsuse appropriate information technologies and so develop the key competency ofusing technology. The exploration of issues and investigations of problemscontribute towards students� development of the key competency solving problems.Finally, when students analyse statistical evidence, apply mathematical concepts toassist analysis of data and information and construct tables and graphs, they aredeveloping the key competency using mathematical ideas and techniques.


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A student:P11 identifies and

implementsimprovementsto investigationplans

Content

Students:11.1 identify data sources to:a) analyse complex problems to determine appropriate ways in

which each aspect may be researchedb) determine the type of data which needs to be collected and

explain the qualitative or quantitative analysis that will berequired for this data to be useful

c) identify the orders of magnitude that will be appropriate anduncertainty that may be present in the measurement of data

d) identify and use correct units for data that will be collectede) recommend the use of an appropriate technology or strategy

for data collection or gathering information that will assistefficient future analysis

11.2 plan first-hand investigations to:a) demonstrate the use of the terms �dependent� and �independent�

to describe variables involved in the investigationb) identify variables that need to be kept constant, develop

strategies to ensure that these variables are kept constant anddemonstrate the use of a control

c) design investigations that allow valid and reliable data andinformation to be collected

d) design and trial procedures to undertake investigations andexplain why a procedure, a sequence of procedures orrepetition of procedures is appropriate

e) predict possible issues that may arise during the course of aninvestigation and identify strategies to address these issues ifnecessary

11.3 choose equipment or resources by:a) identifying and/or setting up the most appropriate equipment or

combination of equipment needed to undertake the investigationb) carrying out a risk assessment of intended experimental

procedures and identifying and addressing potential hazardsc) identifying technology that could be used during investigations

and determining its suitability and effectiveness for its potentialrole in the procedure or investigations

d) recognising the difference between destructive and non-destructive testing of material and analysing the potentiallydifferent results of these two procedures

8 Content: Biology Stage 6 Preliminary Course

8.1 Biology Skills

During the Preliminary course, it is expected that students will further develop skillsin planning and conducting investigations, communicating information andunderstanding, scientific thinking and problem-solving and working individually andin teams. Each module specifies content through which skill outcomes can beachieved. Teachers should develop activities based on that content to providestudents with opportunities to develop the full range of skills.


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P12 discusses thevalidity andreliability ofdata gatheredfrom first-handinvestigationsand secondarysources

P13 identifiesappropriateterminology and reportingstyles tocommunicateinformation andunderstandingin biology

12.1 perform first-hand investigations by:a) carrying out the planned procedure, recognising where and

when modifications are needed and analysing the effect ofthese adjustments

b) efficiently undertaking the planned procedure to minimisehazards and wastage of resources

c) disposing carefully and safely of any waste materials producedduring the investigation

d) identifying and using safe work practices during investigations12.2 gather first-hand information by:a) using appropriate data collection techniques, employing

appropriate technologies, including data loggers and sensorsb) measuring, observing and recording results in accessible and

recognisable forms, carrying out repeat trials as appropriate12.3 gather information from secondary sources by:a) accessing information from a range of resources, including

popular scientific journals, digital technologies and the Internet b) practising efficient data collection techniques to identify useful

information in secondary sourcesc) extracting information from numerical data in graphs and tables

as well as from written and spoken material in all its formsd) summarising and collating information from a range of resourcese) identifying practising male and female Australian scientists, the

areas in which they are currently working and information abouttheir research

12.4 process information to:a) assess the accuracy of any measurements and calculations and

the relative importance of the data and information gatheredb) apply mathematical formulae and conceptsc) best illustrate trends and patterns by selecting and using

appropriate methods, including computer-assisted analysis d) evaluate the relevance of first-hand and secondary information

and data in relation to the area of investigation e) assess the reliability of first-hand and secondary information

and data by considering information from various sourcesf) assess the accuracy of scientific information presented in mass

media by comparison with similar information presented inscientific journals

13.1 present information by:a) selecting and using appropriate text types, or combinations

thereof, for oral and written presentationsb) selecting and using appropriate media to present data and

informationc) selecting and using appropriate formats to acknowledge

sources of informationd) using symbols and formulae to express relationships and using

appropriate units for physical quantitiese) using a variety of pictorial representations to show relationships

and present information clearly and succinctlyf) selecting and drawing appropriate graphs to convey information

and relationships clearly and accuratelyg) identifying situations where use of a curve of best fit is

appropriate to present graphical information

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P14 draws validconclusionsfrom gathereddata andinformation

14.1 analyse information to:a) identify trends, patterns and relationships as well as

contradictions in data and informationb) justify inferences and conclusions c) identify and explain how data supports or refutes an hypothesis,

a prediction or a proposed solution to a problem d) predict outcomes and generate plausible explanations related to

the observationse) make and justify generalisations f) use models, including mathematical ones, to explain

phenomena and/or make predictionsg) use cause and effect relationships to explain phenomenah) identify examples of the interconnectedness of ideas or

scientific principles14.2 solve problems by:a) identifying and explaining the nature of a problemb) describing and selecting from different strategies those which

could be used to solve a problemc) using identified strategies to develop a range of possible

solutions to a particular problemd) evaluating the appropriateness of different strategies for solving

an identified problem14.3 use available evidence to:a) design and produce creative solutions to problemsb) propose ideas that demonstrate coherence and logical

progression and include correct use of scientific principles andideas

c) apply critical thinking in the consideration of predictions,hypotheses and the results of investigations

d) formulate cause and effect relationships

8.2 A Local Ecosystem

Contextual Outline

The environment has an impact on all organisms in ways that a Biology student willlearn to recognise and explain. Students are able to draw on existing knowledge oftheir own local area and expand on their understanding of biological concepts thatcan be identified through careful analysis of the biotic and abiotic factors operating.

While the study of the relationships of organisms with each other and with theirphysical environment can be theoretically presented in a classroom setting or byusing simulations of natural populations, communities and even ecosystems, thestudy of ecology in the field is essential. Study of this module must include fieldexperience of a local terrestrial or aquatic ecosystem to observe and measure someof the abiotic parameters to which the main plant and animal species are adaptedand to study some of the trophic, competitive and symbiotic interactions betweenorganisms in that ecosystem.

Students should be encouraged to analyse and report on those aspects of the localenvironment that have been affected by people and propose realistic solutions to theproblems that exist. The report should include: a statement of purpose; a clear anddetailed definition of the area studied; any background material collected on thearea; appropriate presentation of data collected; analysis of data; suggestions of therelationships that exist in the area; and an assessment of human impact on thearea.

Assumed Knowledge

Domain: knowledge and understandingRefer to the Science Stages 4–5 Syllabus for the following:5.10a distinguish between biotic and abiotic features of the local environment5.10b describe the importance of cycles of materials in ecosystems5.10c describe some impacts of human activities on ecosystems5.10d discuss strategies used to balance human activities and needs in

ecosystems with conserving, protecting and maintaining the quality of theenvironment

5.11.2a relate pollution to contamination by unwanted substances.

Outcomes

The main course outcomes to which this module contributes are:

A student:P2 applies the processes that are used to test and validate models, theories

and laws of science, with particular emphasis on first-hand investigations inbiology

P4 describes applications of biology which affect society or the environmentP6 explains how cell ultrastructure and the coordinated activities of cells,

tissues and organs contribute to macroscopic processes in organisms


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P7 describes the range of organisms in terms of specialisation for a habitatP8 analyses the interrelationships of organisms within the ecosystemP11 identifies and implements improvements to investigation plansP12 discusses the validity and reliability of data gathered from first-hand

investigations and secondary sourcesP13 identifies appropriate terminology and reporting styles to communicate

information and understanding in biologyP14 draws valid conclusions from gathered data and informationP15 implements strategies to work effectively as an individual or as a team

memberP16 demonstrates positive values about and attitudes towards both the living and

non-living components of the environment, ethical behaviour and a desirefor a critical evaluation of the consequences of the applications of science.

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1. Thedistribution,diversity andnumbers ofplants andanimals foundin ecosystemsare determinedby biotic andabiotic factors

2. There is a flowof energy andmatter in anecosystem

Students learn to:

� recall the difference betweenabiotic and biotic features of theenvironment

� compare the abioticcharacteristics of aquatic andterrestrial environments

� identify the factors determiningthe distribution and abundanceof a species in eachenvironment

� justify the need to use samplingtechniques to make populationestimates when total countscannot be made

� recall the importance of thecycling of materials inecosystems

� analyse the flow of matterthrough a natural ecosystemusing the water, carbon/oxygenand nitrogen cycles

� identify the roles ofphotosynthesis and respirationin ecosystems

� outline the role of respiration inthe transformation of energy inecosystems

� identify the general equation foraerobic cellular respiration andoutline this as a summary of achain of biochemical reactions

� identify uses of energy byorganisms

� describe the flow of energythrough a natural ecosystem

� describe and explain the shortand long-term consequences onthe ecosystem of speciescompeting for resources

� compare the potential efficiencyof energy flow and cycling ofmatter through disturbed andundisturbed ecosystems

Students:

� choose equipment or resourcesto perform a first-handinvestigation to use transect,random quadrat methods andanalyse the advantages anddisadvantages of thesemethods

� perform an investigation usingthe capture-marking-recapturemethod to make an estimate ofa simulated population andanalyse the advantages anddisadvantages of this method

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3. Each localaquatic orterrestrialecosystem isunique

Students learn to:

� examine trends in populationestimates for some plant andanimal species within anecosystem

� outline factors that affect numbersin predator and prey populationsin the area studied

� identify examples of allelopathy,parasitism, mutualism andcommensalism in an ecosystemand the role of organisms in eachtype of relationship

� describe the role of decomposersin ecosystems

� describe how producers,consumers and decomposers arerelated using food chains andfood webs with examples from anecosystem

� explain trophic interactionsbetween organisms in anecosystem using food chains,food webs and pyramids ofbiomass and energy

� analyse qualitatively the efficiencyof energy flow and cycling ofmatter in an ecosystem studied

� define the term adaptation anddiscuss the problems associatedwith inferring characteristics oforganisms as adaptations forliving in a particular habitat

� identify some adaptations of livingthings to factors in theirenvironment

� identify and describe in detailadaptations of a plant and ananimal from the local ecosystem

� recall some impacts of humanactivities on ecosystems

� recall the relationship betweenpollution and contamination byunwanted substances

� recall strategies used to balancehuman activities and needs inecosystems to conserve, maintainand protect the quality of theenvironment

� identify the impact of humans inthe ecosystem studied

Students:

� choose equipment or resourcesand undertake a field study of alocal terrestrial or aquaticecosystem to identify data sourcesand:� measure abiotic variables in an

ecosystem being studied usingappropriate instruments andcomparing these with recordedvalues, relating this to thedistribution of organisms

� estimate the size of a plant andan animal population in anecosystem using transectsand/or random quadrats and/orcapture-recapture and/ortagging/marking techniques

� collect, analyse and presentdata to describe the distributionof the plant and animal specieswhose abundance has beenestimated

� describe two trophic interactionsfound between organisms in thearea studied

� identify data sources and gather,present and analyse data by:- tabulation of data collected in

the study- calculation of mean values

with ranges- graphing changes with time in

the measured abiotic data- evaluating variability in

measurements made duringscientific investigations

� process and analyse informationand present a report of theinvestigation of an ecosystem inwhich the purpose is introduced,the methods described and theresults shown graphically and useavailable evidence to discuss theirrelevance

� gather information from first-handand secondary sources toconstruct food chains and foodwebs to illustrate the flow of matterand energy and the relationshipsbetween member species in anecosystem

8.3 Patterns in Nature

Contextual Outline

Living things use raw materials in different ways to construct new living tissues andrepair existing tissues. All living organisms carry out similar processes to form thestructures that make up their bodies. To carry out these processes, raw materials needto be obtained. The types of raw materials and the way in which these raw materials areobtained differ between living organisms but there are more similarities than differencesin the overall processes involved, the elements used and the molecules made.

Intake of the materials required by all living organisms and the removal of wasteproducts are influenced by the surface areas of membranes through which thesenutrients and waste products must pass. In large multicellular forms, complex organsystems, with large surface area to volume ratios, have evolved to facilitatemovement of material across the membranes of these organs that are concernedwith specialised functions in the bodies of these organisms.

Assumed Knowledge

Domain: knowledge and understanding

Refer to the Science Stages 4–5 Syllabus for the following:5.7.3c construct word equations from observations and written descriptions of a

range of reactions5.8.1a explain that systems in multicellular organisms serve the needs of cells5.8.1b identify the role of cell division in growth, repair and reproduction in

multicellular organisms5.8.2c identify that information is transferred as DNA on chromosomes when cells

reproduce themselves5.8.2d identify that genes are part of DNA.

Outcomes


A student:P1 outlines the historical development of major biological principles, concepts

and ideasP3 assesses the impact of particular technological advances on understanding

in biologyP6 explains how cell ultrastructure and the coordinated activities of cells, tissues

and organs contribute to macroscopic processes in organismsP9 explains how processes of reproduction ensure continuity of speciesP11 identifies and implements improvements to investigation plansP12 discusses the validity and reliability of data gathered from first-hand


information and understanding in biology


26

P14 draws valid conclusions from gathered data and informationP15 implements strategies to work effectively as an individual or as a team


non-living components of the environment, ethical behaviour and a desire fora critical evaluation of the consequences of the applications of science.

27



28

1. Organisms aremade of cells thathave similarstructuralcharacteristics

2. Membranesaround cellsprovideseparation fromand links with theexternalenvironment

3. In multicellularorganisms,differentiatedcells performspecialisedfunctions

Students learn to:

� outline the historical developmentof the cell theory, in particular,the contributions of RobertHooke and Robert Brown

� describe evidence to support thecell theory

� discuss the significance oftechnological advances todevelopments in the cell theory

� describe impacts of currentdevelopments in light microscopythat allow living cells andorganelles to be observed

� identify cell organelles seen withcurrent light and electronmicroscopes

� describe the relationship betweenthe structure of cell organellesand their function

� identify the major groups ofsubstances found in living cellsand their uses in cell activities

� identify that there is movement ofmolecules into and out of cells

� describe the current model ofmembrane structure and explainhow it accounts for themovement of some substancesinto and out of cells

� recall that diffusion involvesrandom movement of particles

� compare the processes ofdiffusion and osmosis

� explain how the surface area tovolume ratio affects the rate ofmovement of substances intoand out of cells

� recall that systems in multicellularorganisms serve the needs ofcells

Students:

� gather and process informationand use available evidence toassess the impact of technology,including the development of themicroscope, on the developmentof the cell theory

� perform a first-hand investigationto gather first-hand informationusing a light microscope toobserve cells in plants andanimals and identify nucleus,cytoplasm, cell wall, chloroplastand vacuoles

� process information fromsecondary sources to analyseelectron micrographs of cells andidentify mitochondria,chloroplasts, Golgi bodies,lysosomes, endoplasmicreticulum, ribosomes, nucleus,nucleolus and cell membranes

� plan, choose equipment orresources and perform a first-handinvestigation to gather informationand use available evidence toidentify the following substances intissues:� glucose� starch� lipids� proteins� chloride ions� lignin

� plan, choose equipment orresources and perform a first-hand investigation to model thefunction of a cell membrane

� perform a first-hand investigation,gather information and useavailable evidence to observeand compare the differencebetween osmosis and diffusion

� perform a first-hand investigationto demonstrate the effect ofsurface area to volume ratio onrate of diffusion

� perform a first-hand investigationto gather data and use amicroscope and prepared slides to

29


4. Plants andanimals havespecialisedstructures toobtainnutrients fromtheirenvironment

5. Many plantsand animalshavespecialisedstructures forexchanginggases

Students learn to:

� identify that tissues, organs andorgan systems in multicellularorganisms consist of differenttypes of cells

� recall that systems in multicellularorganisms supply the needs ofcells

� distinguish between autotrophsand heterotrophs in terms ofnutrient requirements

� identify the materials required forphotosynthesis and its role inecosystems

� recall that word equations can beused to describe a range ofreactions

� identify the general word equationfor photosynthesis and outline thisas a summary of a chain ofbiochemical reactions

� explain the relationship betweenthe organisation of the structuresused to obtain water and mineralsin a range of plants and the needto increase the surface areaavailable for absorption

� explain the relationship betweenthe shape of leaves, thedistribution of tissues in them andtheir role

� describe the role of teeth inincreasing the surface area ofcomplex foods for exposure todigestive chemicals

� explain the relationship betweenthe length and overall complexityof digestive systems of avertebrate herbivore and avertebrate carnivore with respectto:� the chemical composition of

their diet � the functions of the structures

involved

� identify gases exchanged in plantsand animals

� compare the gas exchangesurfaces in multicellular animals,including an insect, a fish, a frogand a mammal

Students:

observe specialised cells, including:� sperm cells� red and white blood cells� plant epidermal cells

� plan, choose equipment orresources and perform first-handinvestigations to gather informationand use available evidence todemonstrate the need forchlorophyll and light inphotosynthesis

� plan, choose equipment orresources and perform a first-handinvestigation to demonstrate therelationship between surface areaand rate of reaction

� identify data sources, gather,process, analyse and presentinformation from secondarysources and use availableevidence to compare the digestivesystems of mammals, including agrazing herbivore, carnivore and anectar feeder

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources to trace the history of the:� development of understanding of

plant nutrition OR

� development of understanding ofhuman nutrition, including theidentification of the role of anamed vitamin

� gather, process information fromsecondary sources and useavailable evidence to identify andcompare the gaseous exchangesurfaces in an insect, a fish, a frogand a mammal


30

6. Transportmechanismsand systemsmove dissolvednutrients andmetabolicwastes in manyplants andanimals

7. Maintenance oforganismsrequires growthand repair

Students learn to:

� describe the role of stomates andlenticels in a range of plants

� identify the role of the circulatoryand excretory systems in humans

� identify the role of the root, stemand leaf in flowering plants

� explain the relationship betweenthe requirements of cells and theneed for transport systems inmulticellular organisms

� outline the system used totransport sugars in floweringplants

� outline the water transportsystems in plants, including:� root hair cells� xylem� stomates

� evaluate the efficiency of openand closed circulatory systemsusing one vertebrate and oneinvertebrate as examples

� compare the structure of excretorysystems in insects, fish andmammals and give reasons forthe similarities and differencesidentified

� recall the role of cell division ingrowth, repair and reproduction inmulticellular organisms

� identify mitosis as a process ofnuclear division and explain itsrole

� identify the sites of mitosis inplants, insects and mammals

� explain the need for cytokinesis incell division

� recall that information istransferred as DNA onchromosomes when cellsreproduce

� recall that genes consist of DNA� identify that mitochondria and

chloroplasts also contain DNA

Students:

� process information fromsecondary sources to compare therole of lenticels and stomates withgas exchange in algae

� perform a first-hand investigationand gather first-hand data toidentify and describe factors thataffect the rate of transpiration

� perform a first-hand investigationof the movement of materials inxylem or phloem

� identify data sources, gather,process, analyse and presentsecondary evidence for the two-way flow of material in phloemand/or xylem

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources tocompare the generalised structureof excretory systems in insects,fish and mammals and accountfor the differences identified

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources and useavailable evidence to discuss,using examples, the role oftechnologies, such as the use ofradioisotopes in tracing the path ofelements through living plants andanimals

� perform a first-hand investigationusing a microscope to gatherinformation from prepared slides todescribe the sequence of changesin the nucleus of plant or animalcells undergoing mitosis

� perform a first-hand investigationof a plant root tip to gatherinformation about the stages ofspecialisation/ differentiation aftermitosis

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources and use availableevidence to describe the activitiesof chromosomes during mitosis

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources to compare the patternsof growth of plants, insects andmammals

8.4 Life on Earth

Contextual Outline

The origins of life may be universal because life as we know it has evolved overmillions of years from the common elements found in the cosmos. Recentdiscoveries have also revealed that organic molecules, such as amino acids, exist inmeteorites. Simple terrestrial life has been found to exist in the most hostile ofconditions on Earth and evidence from Australian scientists has shown that bacteriaexist kilometres deep in the Earth�s crust and have done so for millions of years.

The violent conditions of the early Earth provided an environment in which themolecules of life could form. When these organic molecules were separated fromtheir environment by a membrane, they began to carry out the chemical reactions oflife in such a way as to sustain their existence and allow reproduction. The evolutionof photosynthesis caused a change from an anoxic to an oxic environment thatcontinues to support most of the living things on Earth today.

Over the vast periods of geological time, since the formation of Earth, fossilevidence has indicated changes in complexity and diversity of life forms. It is thediversity of living organisms that has led scientists to develop classification systemsthat group these organisms according to their structural or genetic similarity. Recentadvances in molecular biology and biochemistry have allowed scientists to betterunderstand the origins, processes and evolution of life.

Assumed Knowledge

Domain: knowledge and understandingRefer to the Science Stages 4–5 Syllabus for the following:5.8.3a discuss evidence that present-day organisms have developed from different

organisms in the distant past5.9.4b describe conditions under which fossils form5.9.4c relate the fossil record to the age of Earth and the time over which life has

been evolving.

Outcomes


A student:P2 applies the processes that are used to test and validate models, theories and

laws of science, with particular emphasis on first-hand investigations in biologyP5 describes the scientific principles employed in particular areas of biological

researchP6 explains how cell ultrastructure and the coordinated activities of cells,

tissues and organs contribute to macroscopic processes in organismsP7 describes the range of organisms in terms of specialisation for a habitatP8 analyses the interrelationships of organisms within the ecosystemP10 identifies and describes the evidence for evolution

31


P11 identifies and implements improvements to investigation plansP12 discusses the validity and reliability of data gathered from first-hand






32

33


1. Evidence fromthe analysis ofthe oldestsedimentaryrocks providesevidence forthe origin oflife

2. The fossilrecordprovidesinformationabout thesubsequentevolution ofliving things

Students learn to:

� identify the relationship between theconditions on early Earth and theorigin of organic molecules

� discuss the implications of theexistence of organic molecules inthe cosmos for the origin of life onEarth

� describe two scientific theoriesrelating to the evolution of thechemicals of life and discuss theirsignificance in understanding theorigin of life

� discuss the significance of theUrey and Miller experiments in thedebate on the composition of theprimitive atmosphere

� identify changes in technology thathave assisted in the developmentof an increased understanding ofthe origin of life and evolution ofliving things

� recall the conditions under whichfossils form

� recall that the fossil record isrelated to the time over whichliving things have been evolving onEarth

� recall evidence that present-dayorganisms have developed fromdifferent organisms in the past

� identify the major stages in theevolution of living things, includingthe formation of:� organic molecules� membranes� procaryotic heterotrophic cells� procaryotic autotrophic cells� eucaryotic cells� colonial organisms� multicellular organisms

� describe some of thepalaeontological and geologicalevidence that suggests when lifeoriginated on Earth

� explain why the change from ananoxic to an oxic atmosphere wassignificant in the evolution of livingthings

� discuss the ways in whichdevelopments in scientificknowledge may conflict with theideas about the origins of lifedeveloped by different cultures

Students:

� gather information from secondarysources to describe theexperiments of Urey and Miller anduse the available evidence toanalyse the:� reason for their experiments� result of their experiments� importance of their experiments

in illustrating the nature andpractice of science

� contribution to hypotheses aboutthe origin of life

� plan, choose equipment orresources and gather, process andanalyse information to construct atimeline of the main events thatoccurred during the evolution oflife on Earth

� gather first-hand or secondaryinformation to make observationsof a range of plant and animalfossils

� identify data sources, gather,process, analyse and presentinformation from secondarysources and use the availableevidence to evaluate the impact,historically, of increasedunderstanding of information thatthe fossil record could provide onthe development of ideas aboutthe past history of life on Earth


34

3. Furtherdevelopmentsin ourknowledge ofpresent-dayorganisms andthe discoveryof neworganismsallows forbetterunderstandingof the originsof life and theprocessesinvolved in theevolution ofliving things

4. The study ofthe differenttypes ofpresent-dayorganismsassistsincreasingunderstandingaboutorganisms andenvironmentsof the past

Students learn to:

� describe technological advancesthat have increased knowledge ofprocaryotic organisms

� describe the environment occupiedby one of the following:� Archaeobacteria� Eubacteria� Cyanobacteria, including those

that form stromatolites� nitrogen-fixing bacteria� methanogens� deep-sea bacteria

� identify the role of one of theabove organisms in its ecosystem

� explain the need for scientists toclassify organisms

� describe the selection criteria usedin different classification systemsand discuss the advantages anddisadvantages of each system

� explain how levels of organisationin a hierarchical system assistclassification

� discuss, using examples, theimpact of changes in technologyon the development and revisionof biological classification systems

� describe the main features of thebinomial system in namingorganisms and relate these to theconcepts of genus and species

� identify and discuss the difficultiesexperienced in classifying extinctorganisms

� explain how classification oforganisms can assist in developingan understanding of present andpast life on Earth

Students:

� identify data sources, gather,process and present informationfrom secondary sources and usethe available evidence to discussenvironments past and present ofone of the following:� Archaeobacteria� Eubacteria� Cyanobacteria, including those

that form stromatolites� nitrogen-fixing bacteria� methanogens

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources to discuss the diverseenvironments that living thingsoccupy today and use availableevidence to describe possiblealternative environments in whichlife may have originated

� perform a first-hand investigationand gather information to constructand use simple dichotomous keysand show how they can be used toidentify a range of plants andanimals using live and preservedspecimens, photographs ordiagrams of plants and animals

� gather information from secondarysources to compare the aminoacid sequences in similar proteinsfrom related organisms with thosefrom less related organisms

8.5 Evolution of Australian Biota

Contextual Outline

The story of modern Australia is related to the formation of the very large southernlandmass, Gondwana. This landmass persisted for some time, giving rise to an arrayof species that spread across Gondwana. When Gondwana broke up, it did so instages but eventually the Australian continent was isolated from Antarctica andSouth America.

The available evidence suggests that, as Gondwana was breaking up, a number ofglobal climatic changes were also occurring. These events affected the organismsisolated on the Australian continent. These changes in environmental conditionsimpacted on Australian ecosystems and are reflected in the fossil record. As thebiotic and abiotic features of ecosystems were altered, those organisms bestadapted to these changes survived and passed on their genetic information to theiroffspring.

The contribution of paleontology and the study of past environments is important toour understanding of how our present actions may affect our environment and thedistribution of flora and fauna in the future.

Assumed Knowledge

Domain: knowledge and understandingRefer to the Science Stages 4–5 Syllabus for the following:5.8.3a discuss evidence that present-day organisms have developed from different

organisms in the distant past5.8.1b identify the role of cell division in growth, repair and reproduction in

multicellular organisms5.8.3b relate natural selection to the theory of evolution5.9.2a discuss evidence that suggests crustal plates move over time

Outcomes


A student:P3 assesses the impact of particular technological advances on understanding

in biology P4 describes applications of biology which affect society or the environmentP5 describes the scientific principles employed in particular areas of biological

researchP6 explains how cell ultrastructure and the coordinated activities of cells,

tissues and organs contribute to macroscopic processes in organismsP7 describes the range of organisms in terms of specialisation for a habitatP8 analyses the interrelationships of organisms within the ecosystemP9 explains how processes of reproduction ensure continuity of species

35


P10 identifies and describes the evidence for evolutionP11 identifies and implements improvements to investigation plansP12 discusses the validity and reliability of data gathered from first-hand






36

37


1. Evidence fortherearrangementof crustalplates andcontinentaldrift indicatesthat Australiawas once partof an ancientsupercontinent

2. The changes inAustralian floraand fauna overmillions ofyears havehappenedthroughevolution

Students learn to:

� recall that crustal plates move overtime

� identify and describe evidence thatsupports the assertion thatAustralia was once part of alandmass called Gondwana,including:� matching continental margins� position of mid-ocean ridges� spreading zones between

continental plates� fossils in common on

Gondwanan continents,including Glossopteris andGangamopteris flora, andmarsupials

� similarities between present-dayorganisms on Gondwanancontinents

� discuss current research into theevolutionary relationships betweenextinct species, includingmegafauna and extant Australianspecies

� recall that natural selection relatesto the theory of evolution

� discuss examples of variationbetween members of a species

� identify the relationship betweenvariation within a species and thechances of survival of specieswhen environmental changeoccurs

� identify and describe evidence ofchanging environments in Australiaover millions of years

� identify changes in the distributionof Australian species, as indicatedby fossil evidence

� discuss current theories thatprovide a model to account forthese changes

� discuss Darwin�s observations ofAustralian flora and fauna andrelate these to his theory ofevolution

Students:

� identify data sources, gather,process, analyse and presentinformation from secondary sourcesto draw up a timeline that identifieskey events in the formation ofAustralia as an island continent fromits origins as part of Gondwana

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondary sourcesof a current world topographicalmap and use available evidence toidentify the positions of mid-oceanridges and spreading zones thatinfer a moving Australian continent

� identify data sources, gather,process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources and useavailable evidence to illustrate thechanging ideas of scientists in thelast 200 years about:� Australian ecosystemsOR� individual species such as the

platypusas new information andtechnologies became available

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources to develop a timeline thatidentifies key events in theformation of Australia, keyAustralian fossils, where thesefossils were found and useavailable evidence to explain howthey contribute to the developmentof understanding about theevolution of species in Australia

� perform a first-hand investigation,gather information of namedAustralian fossil samples and useavailable evidence to identifysimilarities and differencesbetween current and extinctAustralian life forms

� gather, process and presentinformation from secondarysources to discuss the Huxley�Wilberforce debate on Darwin�stheory of evolution

� perform a first-hand investigationto gather information of examplesof variation in at least two speciesof living organism


38

3. Australianplants andanimals exhibita range ofadaptations tocope withvariations intemperatureand availabilityof water

4. Continuation ofspecies hasresulted, inpart, from thereproductiveadaptationsthat haveevolved inAustralianplants andanimals

Students learn to:

� describe and assess the impact onAustralian biota of the contractionof rainforests and the spread ofsclerophyll communities andgrasslands over time

� identify areas within Australia thatexperience significant variations intemperature and/or wateravailability

� identify a range of adaptations thatassist plants and animals to copewith variations in temperature andavailability of water

� discuss, using examples, theanalysis needed by biologists tounderstand the purpose ofspecialisations found in species

� recall the role of cell division ingrowth, repair and reproduction inmulticellular organisms

� distinguish between the processesof meiosis and mitosis in terms ofthe daughter cells produced

� compare and contrast external andinternal fertilisation

� discuss the relative success ofthese forms of fertilisation inrelation to the colonisation ofterrestrial and aquaticenvironments

� describe some mechanisms foundin Australian flora for:� pollination� seed dispersal � asexual reproductionwith reference to local examples

� describe some mechanisms foundin Australian fauna to ensure:� fertilisation� survival of the embryo and of the

young after birth� explain how the evolution of these

reproductive adaptations hasincreased the chances ofcontinuity of the species in theAustralian environment

� describe the conditions underwhich asexual reproduction isadvantageous, with reference tospecific Australian examples

Students:

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources and use availableevidence to discuss therelationship between the changingAustralian biota and changingclimatic conditions on theAustralian continent

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources to tabulate the differencesthat distinguish the processes ofmitosis and meiosis

� identify data sources, gather,process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources and useavailable evidence to discuss therelative success of internal andexternal fertilisation in relation tothe colonisation of terrestrial andaquatic environments

� plan, choose equipment orresources and perform a first-handinvestigation to gather and presentinformation about flowers of nativespecies of angiosperms to identifyfeatures that may be adaptationsfor wind and insect/bird/mammalpollination

� plan, choose equipment orresources and perform a first-handinvestigation to reproduce aselection of plants asexually

39


5. A study ofpalaeontologyand pastenvironmentsincreases ourunderstandingof the possiblefuture range ofplants andanimals

Students learn to:

� explain the importance of thestudy of past environments inpredicting the impact of humanactivity in present environments

� identify the ways in whichpalaeontology assistsunderstanding of the factors thatmay determine distribution of floraand fauna in present and futureenvironments

Students:

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources and use availableevidence to describe examples ofevidence used by scientists todescribe past conditions

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources and use availableevidence to propose reasons forthe evolution, survival andextinction of species, withreference to specific Australianexamples


40

HSC CourseOutcomes

A student:

H11 justifies theappropriatenessof a particularinvestigationplan

Content

Students will learn to:11.1 identify data sources to:a) analyse complex problems to determine appropriate ways in

which each aspect may be researchedb) determine the type of data that needs to be collected and

explain the qualitative or quantitative analysis that will berequired for this data to be useful

c) identify the orders of magnitude that will be appropriate anduncertainty that may be present in the measurement of data

d) identify and use correct units for data that will be collectede) recommend the use of an appropriate technology or strategy for

data collection or gathering information that will assist efficientfuture analysis

11.2 plan first-hand investigations to:a) demonstrate the use of the terms �dependent� and �independent�

to describe variables involved in the investigationb) identify variables that need to be kept constant, develop

strategies to ensure that these variables are kept constant anddemonstrate the use of a control

c) design investigations that allow valid and reliable data andinformation to be collected

d) design and trial procedures to undertake investigations andexplain why a procedure, a sequence of procedures orrepetition of procedures is appropriate

e) predict possible issues that may arise during the course of aninvestigation and identify strategies to address these issues ifnecessary

11.3 choose equipment or resources by:a) identifying and/or setting up the most appropriate equipment or

combination of equipment needed to undertake the investigationb) carrying out a risk assessment of intended experimental

procedures and identifying and addressing potential hazardsc) identifying technology that could be used during investigations

and determining its suitability and effectiveness for its potentialrole in the procedure or investigations

d) recognising the difference between destructive and non-destructive testing of material and analysing potentially differentresults of these two procedures

9 Content: Biology Stage 6 HSC Course

9.1 Biology Skills

During the HSC course, it is expected that students will further develop skills inplanning and conducting investigations, communicating information andunderstanding, scientific thinking and problem-solving and working individually andin teams. Each module specifies content through which skill outcomes can beachieved. Teachers should develop activities based on that content to providestudents with opportunities to develop the full range of skills.

41


H12 evaluates waysin whichaccuracy andreliability couldbe improved ininvestigations

H13 usesterminology andreporting stylesappropriatelyand successfullyto communicateinformation andunderstanding

12.1 perform first-hand investigations by:a) carrying out the planned procedure, recognising where and

when modifications are needed and analysing the effect ofthese adjustments

b) efficiently undertaking the planned procedure to minimisehazards and wastage of resources

c) disposing carefully and safely of any waste materials producedduring the investigation

d) identifying and using safe work practices during investigations12.2 gather first-hand information by:a) using appropriate data collection techniques, employing

appropriate technologies, including data loggers and sensorsb) measuring, observing and recording results in accessible and

recognisable forms, carrying out repeat trials as appropriate12.3 gather information from secondary sources by:a) accessing information from a range of resources, including

popular scientific journals, digital technologies and the Internet b) practising efficient data collection techniques to identify useful

information in secondary sourcesc) extracting information from numerical data in graphs and tables

as well as from written and spoken material in all its formsd) summarising and collating information from a range of resourcese) identifying practising male and female Australian scientists, the

areas in which they are currently working and information abouttheir research

12.4 process information to:a) assess the accuracy of any measurements and calculations and

the relative importance of the data and information gatheredb) identify and apply appropriate mathematical formulae and

conceptsc) best illustrate trends and patterns by selecting and using

appropriate methods, including computer-assisted analysis d) evaluate the relevance of first-hand and secondary information

and data in relation to the area of investigation e) assess the reliability of first-hand and secondary information

and data by considering information from various sourcesf) assess the accuracy of scientific information presented in mass

media by comparison with similar information presented inscientific journals

13.1 present information by:a) selecting and using appropriate text types or combinations

thereof, for oral and written presentationsb) selecting and using appropriate media to present data and

informationc) selecting and using appropriate methods to acknowledge

sources of informationd) using symbols and formulae to express relationships and using

appropriate units for physical quantitiese) using a variety of pictorial representations to show relationships

and present information clearly and succinctlyf) selecting and drawing appropriate graphs to convey information

and relationships clearly and accuratelyg) identifying situations where use of a curve of best fit is

appropriate to present graphical information


42

H14 assesses thevalidity ofconclusionsfrom gathereddata andinformation

14.1 analyse information to:a) identify trends, patterns and relationships as well as

contradictions in data and informationb) justify inferences and conclusions c) identify and explain how data supports or refutes an hypothesis,

a prediction or a proposed solution to a problem d) predict outcomes and generate plausible explanations related to

the observationse) make and justify generalisations f) use models, including mathematical ones, to explain

phenomena and/or make predictionsg) use cause and effect relationships to explain phenomenah) identify examples of the interconnectedness of ideas or

scientific principles14.2 solve problems by:a) identifying and explaining the nature of a problemb) describing and selecting from different strategies those which

could be used to solve a problemc) using identified strategies to develop a range of possible

solutions to a particular problemd) evaluating the appropriateness of different strategies for solving

an identified problem14.3 use available evidence to:a) design and produce creative solutions to problemsb) propose ideas that demonstrate coherence and logical

progression and include correct use of scientific principles andideas

c) apply critical thinking in the consideration of predictions,hypotheses and the results of investigations

d) formulate cause and effect relationships

9.2 Maintaining a Balance

Contextual Outline

Multicellular organisms have specialised organ systems that are adapted for theuptake and transport of essential nutrients from the environment, the utilisation orproduction of energy and the removal of waste products arising from cellularactivities.

The basis of healthy body-functioning in all organisms is the health of their cells. Thephysical and chemical factors of the environment surrounding these cells mustremain within narrow limits for cells to survive. These narrow limits need to bemaintained and any deviation from these limits must be quickly corrected. Abreakdown in the maintenance of this balance causes problems for the organism.

The nervous and endocrine systems in animals and the hormone system in plantsbring about the coordinated functioning of these organ systems. They are able tomonitor and provide the feedback necessary to maintain a constant internalenvironment. Enzyme action is a prime example of the need for this balance.Enzymes control all of the chemical reactions that constitute the body�s metabolism.As enzymes normally function only within a narrow temperature range, even a smallrise in body temperature can result in the failure of many of the reactions ofmetabolism that are essential to life.

Outcomes

This module contributes to the following HSC course outcomes:A student:H4 assesses the impacts of applications of biology on society and the environmentH5 identifies possible future directions of biological researchH6 explains why the biochemical processes associated with cell organelles are

related to macroscopic changes in the organismH11 justifies the appropriateness of a particular investigation planH12 evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in

investigationsH13 uses terminology and reporting styles appropriately and successfully to

communicate information and understandingH14 assesses the validity of conclusions from gathered data and informationH15 explains why an investigation is best undertaken individually or by a teamH16 justifies positive values about and attitudes towards both the living and non-

living components of the environment, ethical behaviour and a desire for criticalevaluation of the consequences of the applications of science.

43



44

1. Mostorganisms areactive in alimitedtemperaturerange

Students learn to:

� identify the role of enzymes inmetabolism, describe theirchemical composition and use asimple model to describe theirspecificity on substrates

� identify the pH as a way ofdescribing the acidity of asubstance

� describe the effect of the followingon enzyme activity:� increased temperature� change in pH� change in substrate

concentrations� explain why the maintenance of a

constant internal environment isimportant for optimal metabolicefficiency

� describe homeostasis as theprocess by which organismsmaintain a relatively stable internalenvironment

� explain that homeostasis consistsof two stages:� detecting changes from the

stable state� counteracting changes from the

stable state� outline the role of the nervous

system in detecting andresponding to environmentalchanges using temperaturechange as an example

� outline the role of a feedbackmechanism in maintaining a stablebody temperature

� identify receptors and responsesused by humans to maintain astable internal temperature across arange of environmental conditions

� identify the broad range oftemperatures over which life isfound compared with the narrowlimits for individual species

� distinguish between the termsectotherm and endotherm, namingAustralian examples

� describe responses of Australianectothermic and endothermicorganisms to changes in theambient temperature and explainhow these responses assisttemperature regulation

� identify some responses of plantsto temperature change

Students:

� identify data sources, plan, chooseequipment or resources andperform a first-hand investigationto demonstrate the effect of:� increased temperature� change in pH� change in substrate

concentrationson the activity of a named enzyme

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources and use availableevidence to develop a model of afeedback mechanism

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources to distinguish betweenectotherms and endotherms, nameAustralian examples and useavailable evidence to describeadaptations or responses of theseorganisms that assist temperatureregulation

45


2. Plants andanimalstransportdissolvednutrients andgases in awatery medium

Students learn to:

� identify the form(s) in which eachof the following is carried inmammalian blood:� carbon dioxide� oxygen� water� salts� lipids� nitrogenous waste� other products of digestion

� explain the adaptive advantage ofhaemoglobin and discuss thephysiological responses ofmammals to decreased oxygenconcentrations experienced at highaltitudes

� compare the structure of arteries,capillaries and veins in relation totheir function

� describe the main changes in thechemical composition of the bloodas it moves around the body andidentify tissues in which thesechanges occur

� outline the need for oxygen inliving cells and explain whyremoval of carbon dioxide fromcells is essential

� outline the body�s response toincreased carbon dioxideconcentration in the blood as anexample of maintaining thebalance in blood compositionconcentrations

� describe current theories aboutprocesses responsible for themovement of materials throughplants in xylem and phloem tissue

Students:

� identify data sources, plan, chooseequipment or resources andperform a first-hand investigationto demonstrate the effect ofdissolved carbon dioxide on thepH of water

� perform a first-hand investigationusing the light microscope andprepared slides to gatherinformation to estimate the size ofred and white blood cells and drawscaled diagrams of each

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources to identify currenttechnologies that allowmeasurement of oxygen saturationand carbon dioxide concentrationsin blood and describe and explainthe conditions under which thesetechnologies are used

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources to identify and describethe products extracted fromdonated blood and the uses ofthese products

� gather, process, analyse andpresent information fromsecondary sources to report onprogress in the production ofartificial blood and use availableevidence to propose reasons whysuch research is needed

� choose equipment or resources toperform a first-hand investigationto gather first-hand data to drawtransverse and longitudinalsections of phloem and xylemtissue

� gather, process, analyse andpresent information fromsecondary sources to compare themovement of materials throughmammals and flowering plants


46

3. Plants andanimalsregulate theconcentrationof gases, waterand wasteproducts ofmetabolism incells and ininterstitial fluid

Students learn to:

� recall the role of the respiratoryand excretory systems inmaintaining humans as functioningorganisms

� identify the role of water as asolvent for metabolic reactions inliving cells and explain why theconcentration of water in cellsmust be held constant

� explain why the removal of wastesis essential for continuedmetabolic activity

� compare the waste products of arange of terrestrial and aquaticorganisms and explain why thesedifferences occur

� identify the role of the kidney inthe excretory system of fish andmammals

� explain why the processes ofdiffusion and osmosis areinadequate in removing dissolvednitrogenous wastes

� distinguish between active andpassive transport and relate theseto processes occurring in themammalian kidney

� explain how the processes offiltration and reabsorption in themammalian nephron regulate bodyfluid composition

� outline the role of the hormones,aldosterone and ADH(vasopressin), in the regulation ofwater and salt levels in blood

� define enantiostasis as themaintenance of metabolic andphysiological functions in responseto variations in the environmentand discuss its importance toestuarine organisms in maintainingappropriate salt concentrations

� describe adaptations of a range ofterrestrial Australian plants thatassist in minimising water loss

Students:

� perform a first-hand investigationof the structure of a mammaliankidney by dissection, use of amodel or visual resource andidentify the regions involved in theexcretion of waste products

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources to compare the process ofrenal dialysis with the function ofthe kidney

� gather, process, analyse andpresent information to outline thegeneral use of hormonereplacement therapy in peoplewho cannot secrete aldosteroneand use available evidence todiscuss the importance of thistherapy

� perform a first-hand investigationto gather information aboutstructures in plants that assist inthe conservation of water

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources to compare and explainthe differences in urineconcentration of terrestrialmammals, marine fish andfreshwater fish

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources and useavailable evidence to explain therelationship between theconservation of water and theproduction and excretion ofconcentrated nitrogenous wastesin a range of Australian insectsand terrestrial mammals

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources and useavailable evidence to discussprocesses used by different plantsfor salt regulation in salineenvironments

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources and useavailable evidence to assess theimpact of urban development onthe health of aquatic organismsinhabiting these waterways

9.3 Blueprint of Life

Contextual Outline

Because all living things have a finite life span, the survival of each species dependson the ability of individual organisms to reproduce. Reproduction takes many forms,grouped as either sexual or asexual, and the mode of reproduction determines thevariation from one generation to the next. The continuity of life is assured when thechemical information that defines it is passed on from one generation to the next onthe chromosomes. It is the sequence of nucleotides that carries the information thatdetermines the characteristics of an organism.

Current research continues to increase our knowledge of the genetic code and alsoincrease our understanding of how cells read and implement the coded information.Modern molecular biology is also providing opportunities to alter the informationtransferred from one generation to the next in technologies such as cloning and inthe production of transgenic species.

The segregation and independent assortment of the genetic information within aspecies provides the variation necessary to produce some individuals withcharacteristics that better suit them to surviving and reproducing in theirenvironment. Changes in the environment may act on these variations. Theidentification of mutations and their causes becomes important in preventingmutations and in identifying and potentially nullifying the effects of mutations in livingorganisms.

Outcomes


A student:H1 evaluates how major advances in scientific understanding and technology have

changed the direction or nature of scientific thinkingH4 assesses the impacts of applications of biology on society and the environmentH5 identifies possible future directions of biological researchH6 explains why the biochemical processes that occur in cells are related to

macroscopic changes in the organismH7 analyses the impact of natural and human processes on biodiversityH8 evaluates the impact of human activity on the interactions of organisms and

their environmentH9 describes the mechanisms of inheritance in molecular termsH10 describes the mechanisms of evolution and assesses the impact of human

activity on evolutionH11 justifies the appropriateness of a particular investigation planH12 evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in


communicate information and understanding

47


H14 assesses the validity of conclusions from gathered data and informationH15 explains why an investigation is best undertaken individually or by a teamH16 justifies positive values about and attitudes towards both the living and non-

living components of the environment, ethical behaviour and a desire for acritical evaluation of the consequences of the applications of science.


48

49


1. Evidence ofevolutionsuggests thatthemechanisms ofinheritance,accompaniedby selection,allow changeover manygenerations

2. GregorMendel�sexperimentshelped advanceour knowledgeof theinheritance ofcharacteristics

Students learn to:

� outline the impact on the evolutionof plants and animals of:� changes in physical conditions

in the environment� changes in chemical conditions

in the environment� competition for resources

� describe, using specific examples,how the theory of evolution issupported by the following areasof study:� palaeontology, including

transitional forms� biogeography� comparative embryology� comparative anatomy� biochemistry

� explain how Darwin/Wallace�stheory of evolution by naturalselection and isolation accountsfor adaptive radiation leading todivergent evolution and convergentevolution

� outline the experiments carried outby Gregor Mendel

� describe the aspects of theexperimental techniques used byMendel that led to his success

� describe outcomes of monohybridcrosses involving simpledominance using Mendel�sexplanations

� distinguish between homozygousand heterozygous genotypes inmonohybrid crosses

� distinguish between the termsallele and gene, using examples

Students:

� plan, choose equipment orresources and perform a first-handinvestigation to model naturalselection

� identify data sources, gather,process, analyse and presentevidence from secondary sourcesand use available evidence toprepare a case study using anAustralian example to show howchanges in physical and chemicalconditions, or increased competitionfor resources, have led to changesin a species

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to tracethe fossil record of one group oforganisms

� perform a first-hand investigation orgather information from secondarysources (including photographs/diagrams/models) to observe,analyse and compare the structureof a range of vertebrate forelimbs

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources todescribe and use availableevidence to analyse, using anamed example, how advances intechnology have changed scientificthinking about evolutionaryrelationships

� identify data sources, gather,analyse and present informationfrom secondary sources on thehistorical development of theoriesof evolution and use availableevidence to assess social andpolitical influences on thesedevelopments

� perform an investigation toconstruct pedigrees or familytrees, trace the inheritance ofselected characteristics anddiscuss their current use

� process information fromsecondary sources to analyse andsolve problems involvingmonohybrid crosses using Punnetsquares or other appropriatetechniques


50

3. Chromosomalstructureprovides thekey toinheritance

Students learn to:

� explain the relationship betweendominant and recessive genes andphenotype using examples

� outline the reasons why theimportance of Mendel�s work wasnot recognised until some timeafter it was published

� outline the roles of Sutton andBoveri in identifying theimportance of chromosomes

� describe the chemical nature ofchromosomes and genes

� explain the relationship betweenthe structure and behaviour ofchromosomes during meiosis andthe inheritance of genes

� explain the role of gameteformation and sexual reproductionin variability of offspring

� describe the inheritance of sex-linked genes, and genes thatexhibit co-dominance and explainwhy these do not produce simpleMendelian ratios

� describe the work of Morgan thatled to the identification of sexlinkage

� explain the relationship betweenhomozygous and heterozygousgenotypes and the resultingphenotypes in examples ofcodominance

� outline ways in which theenvironment may affect theexpression of a gene in anindividual

Students:

� process information fromsecondary sources to identify anddescribe examples of hybridisationin horticulture or agriculture andexplain itsadvantages/disadvantages

� perform a first-hand investigationor process and present informationfrom secondary sources to modelthe process of meiosis todemonstrate crossing over,segregation of chromosomes andthe production of haploid gametes

� process information fromsecondary sources to analyse andsolve problems involving co-dominance and sex linkage

� identify data sources and performa first-hand investigation orprocess and present informationfrom secondary sources toinvestigate the effect of theenvironment on phenotype

51


4. The structureof DNA can bechanged andsuch changesmay bereflected in thephenotype ofthe affectedorganism

5. Currentreproductivetechnologiesand geneticengineeringhave thepotential toalter the pathof evolution

Students learn to:

� outline the role of DNA in thetransmission of genes from onegeneration to the next

� describe the process of DNAreplication and explain itssignificance

� outline, using a simple model, theprocess by which DNA controlsthe production of proteins and/orpolypeptides

� identify mutations as a source ofnew alleles in organisms

� describe mutations as changes inthe DNA information on achromosome

� outline, using a simple model, howchanges in DNA sequences canresult in changes in proteinsproduced and thus changes in cellactivity

� identify that environmental factorsmay increase the rate of mutationusing examples of mutagens

� explain how an understanding ofthe source of variation inorganisms has provided supportfor Darwin�s theory of evolution bynatural selection

� describe the concept ofpunctuated equilibrium in evolutionand how it differs from the gradualprocess proposed by Darwin

� identify how the following currentreproductive techniques may alterthe genetic composition of apopulation:� artificial insemination � artificial pollination� cloning

� outline the processes used toproduce transgenic species andinclude examples of this processand reasons for its use

Students:

� perform a first-hand investigationor process information fromsecondary sources to develop asimple model for protein synthesis

� identify data sources, gather,process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to outlinethe evidence that led to Beadleand Tatum�s �one gene � oneprotein� hypothesis and to explainwhy this was altered to the �onegene � one polypeptide�hypothesis

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to illustrate,by using examples, how mountingevidence for the mutagenic natureof radiation and certain chemicalswas collected during the twentiethcentury

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to explainhow the development of antibioticresistance in bacteria orinsecticide resistance in insectpests are modern examples of�natural� selection

� process information fromsecondary sources to describeand analyse the relativeimportance of the work of:� James Watson� Francis Crick� Rosalind Franklin� Maurice Wilkinsin determining the structure ofDNA and in exemplifying the roleof collaboration and effectivecommunication in scientificresearch

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources toresearch a methodology used incloning organisms

� process, analyse and presentinformation from secondarysources to identify examples of theuse of transgenic species and useavailable evidence to debate theethical issues arising from thedevelopment and use of transgenicspecies


52

Students learn to:

� discuss the potential impact of theuse of reproduction technologiesand genetic engineering on geneticdiversity of species using a namedplant and animal example that havebeen genetically altered

� explain the need to maintainbiodiversity and identify anddiscuss a current effort to monitorbiodiversity

Students:

9.4 The Search for Better Health

Contextual Outline

Physiological processes proceed without any conscious intervention. Even whensomething malfunctions, the body tries to repair the damage automatically andunnoticed. The process is the same in all living things and it is only when theprocess fails to contain the damage that disease can be recognised.

Humans have long recognised the symptoms of disease both in themselves and theanimals and plants around them. Since the beginnings of recorded history, theyhave noted the signs that reveal that the body is malfunctioning. Increasingunderstanding of the causes of disease together with accompanying advances intechnology have changed approaches to treatment and management of disease.

The search for measures to treat and manage diseases of humans and otherorganisms continues and this search is paralleled by continued refinements intechnology.

Outcomes



changed the direction or nature of scientific thinkingH2 analyses the ways in which models, theories and laws in biology have been

tested and validatedH4 assesses the impacts of applications of biology on society and the environmentH6 explains why the biochemical processes associated with cells are related to

macroscopic changes in the organismH8 evaluates the impact of human activity on the interactions of organisms and

their environmentH11 justifies the appropriateness of a particular investigation planH12 evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in




53



54

1. What is ahealthyorganism?

2. Over 3000years ago theChinese andHebrews wereadvocatingcleanliness infood, water andpersonalhygiene

3. During thesecond half ofthe nineteenthcentury, thework ofPasteur andKochstimulated thesearch formicrobes ascauses ofdisease

4. Ronald Ross�work onmalariaidentifiedinsects asvectors ofdisease

Students learn to:

� discuss the difficulties of definingthe terms �health� and �disease�

� outline how the function of genes,mitosis, cell differentiation andspecialisation assist in themaintenance of health

� distinguish between infectious andnon-infectious disease

� explain why cleanliness in food,water and personal hygienepractices assist in control ofdisease

� identify the conditions under whichan organism is described as apathogen

� describe the role of Pasteur inidentifying the causes of disease

� describe the circumstances whichresulted in a named micro-organism being identified as thecausal agent of a disease of aplant or animal

� outline Koch�s postulates andexplain how they can be used toidentify the causative organism ofan infectious disease

� identify that infectious diseases ofanimals and plants are caused bypathogens that include:� prions� viruses� bacteria� protozoans� fungi� macro-parasites

� identify a disease that istransmitted by an insect vector,name the vector and the organisminfected by the disease

� discuss the role of quarantine inpreventing the spread of diseaseand plants and animals intoAustralia or across regions ofAustralia

Students:

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources and useavailable evidence to analyse thelinks between gene expressionand maintenance and repair ofbody tissues

� identify data sources, plan andchoose equipment or resources toperform a first-hand investigationusing appropriate materials toidentify microbes in food or inwater

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondarysources to describe ways in whichdrinking water can be treated anduse available evidence to explainhow these methods reduce therisk of infection from pathogens

� perform an investigation to modelor process information to describePasteur�s classic experiment toidentify the role of microbes indecay

� gather and process information totrace the historical development ofour understanding of the causeand prevention of a diseasecaused by a micro-organism

� identify data sources, gatherprocess and analyse informationfrom secondary sources todescribe the life cycle of onepathogen carried by an insectvector and identify and explainwhen control or prevention of thedisease is most effective

� perform an investigation toexamine plant shoots and leavesand gather first-hand informationof evidence of pathogens,including insect pests, viruses orfungi

55


5. Often werecognise aninfection by thesymptoms itcauses. Theimmuneresponse is notso obvious,until werecover

6. MacFarlaneBurnet�s workin the middle ofthe twentiethcentury led to abetterunderstandingof the immuneresponse andtheeffectivenessofimmunisationprograms

Students learn to:

� examine one named infectiousdisease in detail to describe:� cause� transmission� host response� major symptoms� treatment� prevention� control

� identify first-line defence barriersto prevent entry of pathogens inhumans:� skin� mucous membranes� cilia� chemical barriers� other body secretions

� identify antigens as molecules thattrigger the immune response

� explain why organ transplantsshould trigger an immuneresponse

� identify second-line defenceadaptations, including:� inflammation response� phagocytosis� macrophage� lymph system� cell death to seal off pathogen

� identify components of the thirdline of defence as:� antibodies� T cells� B cells

� describe and explain the immuneresponse in the human body interms of:� interaction between B and T

lymphocytes � the mechanisms that allow

interaction between B and Tlymphocytes

� the range of T lymphocyte typesand the difference in their roles

� outline the way in whichvaccinations prevent infection

� outline the reasons for thesuppression of the immuneresponse in organ transplantpatients

Students:

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources toevaluate the effectiveness ofquarantine in preventing thespread of plant and animaldisease into Australia or acrossregions of Australia

� process and analyse informationto identify the role of antibiotics incombating bacterial infections

� gather, process and presentinformation from secondarysources to show how one diseaseresults from an imbalance ofmicroflora in humans

� process, analyse and presentinformation from secondarysources to evaluate theeffectiveness of vaccinationprograms in preventing the spreadand occurrence of once commondiseases, including smallpox,diphtheria and polio


56

7. Epidemiologicalstudies involvethe collectionand carefulstatisticalanalysis oflarge quantitiesof data. Suchstudies assistthe causalidentification ofnon-infectiousdiseases

8. Modernknowledge ofdisease has ledto thedevelopment ofa wide range ofstrategies toprevent andcontrol disease

Students learn to:

� identify and describe the mainfeatures of epidemiology using anidentified case study as anexample

� identify causes of non-infectiousdisease using an example fromeach of the following categories:� inherited diseases� nutritional deficiencies� environmental diseases

� explain how one of the followingstrategies has controlled and/orprevented disease:� public health programs� pesticides� biological control� genetic engineering to produce

disease-resistant plants andanimals

� evaluate the implications of:� genetic resistance of hosts� development of drug resistance

in pathogens on the likelyspread of disease in the future

Students:

� gather, process and analyseinformation to identify the causeand effect relationship of adisease, such as melanoma orlung cancer, the cause of whichwas identified through carefulcompilation and analysis ofstatistics

� identify data sources, plan andperform a first-hand investigationor gather information fromsecondary sources to analyse andpresent information about theoccurrence, symptoms, cause,treatment/management of anamed non-infectious disease

� gather and process informationand use available evidence todiscuss the changing methods ofdealing with plant and animaldiseases, including the shift inemphasis from treatment andcontrol to management orprevention of disease

9.5 Option � Communication

Contextual Outline

Humans are social animals and, as such, are in constant communication withothers. This also occurs in the animal world. Many animals have an extensive rangeof communication strategies that include both visual and vocal signals. Part of thesocialisation of infants, especially in the higher apes and humans, involves teachingthe meaning of these communication signals. Learning these signals relies heavilyon the involvement of all the sensory organs.

The importance of communication can be identified by its use in a wide range ofdefence mechanisms displayed in the selection of food, mates and shelter as wellas in the organisation of social orders and hierarchies, in some groups of animals.While the full range of senses can be involved in communication, the relativeimportance of each of the senses differs from animal to animal. This module focuseson the two senses that are most important for most vertebrate and invertebrateanimals.

Human cultural development exploded with the development of speech and theconcurrent increasing complexity of communication. For some people, however, allthe signals are not identified effectively because of faults in the sending, receiving ordeciphering of some of the signals. With increasing advances in technology,assistance for people with difficulties in communicating continues to improve andcurrent research in areas of biophysics continues to search for ways of assistingcommunication.

Outcomes


A student:H4 assesses the impacts of applications of biology on society and the environmentH5 identifies possible future directions of biological researchH6 explains why the biochemical processes that occur in cells are related to

macroscopic changes in the organismH11 justifies the appropriateness of a particular investigation planH12 evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in




57



58

1. Humans, andother animals,are able todetect a rangeof stimuli fromthe externalenvironment,some of whichare useful forcommunication

2. Visualcommunicationinvolves theeye registeringchanges in theimmediateenvironment

3. The clarity ofthe signaltransferred canaffectinterpretationof the intendedvisualcommunication

Students learn to:

� identify the role of receptors indetecting stimuli

� explain that the response to astimulus involves:� stimulus� receptor� messenger � effector� response

� identify the limited range ofwavelengths of theelectromagnetic spectrumdetected by humans and comparethis range with those of othervertebrates and invertebrates

� describe the anatomy and functionof the human eye, including the:� conjunctiva� cornea� sclera� choroid� retina � iris� lens� aqueous and vitreous humor � ciliary body� optic nerve

� recall what is meant by therefraction of light

� identify the conditions under whichrefraction of light occurs

� identify the cornea, aqueoushumor, lens and vitreous humor asrefractive media

� identify accommodation as thefocusing of objects at differentdistances, describe itsachievement through the changein strength of the lens and explainits importance

� compare the change in therefractive power of the lens fromrest to maximum accommodation

� distinguish between myopia andhyperopia and outline howtechnologies can be used tocorrect these conditions

Students:

� identify data sources, gather andprocess information fromsecondary sources to:� identify the range of senses

involved in communication� give examples of touch, taste or

smell as forms ofcommunication in humans andother animals

� plan, choose equipment orresources and perform a first-handinvestigation of a mammalian eyeto gather first-hand data to relatestructures to functions

� perform a first-hand investigationor other secondary data to identifythe range of wavelengthsperceived by the human eye

� identify data sources, gather,process and present informationfrom secondary sources tocompare the visual acuity ofhumans with other mammals andanimals, such as insects, and useavailable evidence to suggestreasons for the differencesidentified

� plan, choose equipment orresources and perform a first-handinvestigation to model the processof accommodation by passing raysof light through convex lenses ofdifferent focal lengths

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources todescribe changes in the shape ofthe eye�s lens when focusing onnear and far objects

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources todescribe cataracts and thetechnology that can be used toprevent blindness from cataractsand use available evidence todiscuss the implications of thistechnology for society

59


4. The light signalreaching theretina istransformedinto anelectricalimpulse

5. Sound is also avery importantcommunicationmedium forhumans andother animals

Students learn to:

� identify the retina as a thin sheetof cells that containsphotoreceptor cells

� identify photoreceptor cells asthose containing light sensitivepigments and explain that thesecells convert light images intoelectrochemical signals that thebrain can interpret

� describe the differences indistribution, structure and functionof the photoreceptor cells in thehuman eye

� outline the role of rhodopsins inrods and cones

� describe rods as containing a formof rhodopsin that is sensitive toblue�green light

� identify that there are three typesof cones, each containing aseparate pigment sensitive toeither blue, red or green light

� explain that colour blindness inhumans results from the lack ofone or more of the colour-sensitivepigments in the cones

� explain how the production of twodifferent images of a view canresult in depth perception

� recall that sound is a form ofenergy that requires a medium forpropagation

� explain why sound is a useful andversatile form of communication

� explain that sound is produced byvibrating objects and that thefrequency of the sound is thesame as the frequency of thevibration of the source of thesound

� outline the structure of the humanlarynx and the associatedstructures that assist theproduction of sound

Students:

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources tocompare and describe the natureof photoreceptor cells in mammals,insects and in simple lightreceptors in one other animal

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to identifyand describe the inheritancepatterns in humans that result incolour blindness and usepedigrees to solve problems onsex-linked inheritance

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources todescribe and analyse the use ofcolour for communication inanimals and relate this to theoccurrence of colour vision inanimals

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to predictthe distribution of rods and conesin animals that are active at nightand those active during the dayand relate this to differences innight and day vision

� plan and perform a first-handinvestigation to gather first-handdata to identify the relationshipbetween wave-length, frequencyand pitch of a sound using aCathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

� perform a first-hand investigationto demonstrate the relationshipbetween the larynx, lungs, tongueand lips in producing intelligiblesounds

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to outlineand compare some of thestructures used by animals toproduce sound


60

6. Animals thatproducevibrations alsohave organs todetectvibrations

8. Signals fromthe eye and earare transmittedas electro-chemicalchanges in themembranes ofthe optic andauditorynerves

Students learn to:

� outline and compare the detectionof vibrations by insects, fish andmammals

� describe the anatomy andfunction of the human ear,including:� pinna� tympanic membrane� ear ossicles� oval window� round window � cochlea� organ of Corti� auditory nerve

� outline the role of the Eustachiantube

� outline the path of a sound wavethrough the external, middle andinner ear and identify the energytransformations that occur

� describe the relationship betweenthe distribution of hair cells in theorgan of Corti and the detection ofsounds of different frequencies

� outline the range of frequenciesdetected by humans as soundand compare this range withthose of two other mammals

� outline the role of the sonicshadow cast by the head in thelocation of sound

� identify that a nerve is a bundle ofneuronal fibres

� identify neurones as nerve cellsthat are the transmitters of signalsby electro-chemical changes intheir membranes

� identify those areas of thecerebrum involved in theperception and interpretation oflight and sound

� explain, using specific examples,the importance of correctinterpretation of signals by thebrain for the coordination ofanimal behaviour

Students:

� gather, process and analyseinformation for secondary sourceson the structure of a mammalianear to relate structures to functions

� process information fromsecondary sources to outline therange of frequencies detected byhumans as sound and comparethis range with two other mammals,discussing possible reasons for thedifferences identified

� process information fromsecondary sources to describeand analyse the use of sound forcommunication in animals andrelate this to the complexity ofvocalisations in identified animals

� process information fromsecondary sources to assess anddraw conclusions from availableevidence about the effect ofchronic exposure to sounds ofdifferent frequencies on hearing

� process information fromsecondary sources to evaluate ahearing aid and a cochlearimplant in terms of:� the position and type of energy

transfer occurring � conditions under which the

technology will assist hearing� limitations of each technology

� perform a first-hand investigationusing stained prepared slides and/or electron micrographs to gatherinformation about neurones andnerves

� perform a first-hand investigation toexamine an appropriatemammalian brain or model of ahuman brain to gather informationto distinguish the cerebrum,cerebellum and medulla oblongataand locate the regions involved inspeech, sight and sound perception

9.6 Option � Biotechnology

Contextual Outline

Humans have used other living organisms in many ways and for many purposesthroughout time. Biotechnology has been an identifiable part of human culture forthousands of years; people learned to use yeasts and other microorganisms toproduce bread, wine, yoghurt, cheeses and antibiotics.

Biotechnology now refers to the practical application of modern laboratorytechniques, such as recombinant DNA technology, to support a wide range ofhuman needs, including food and medicines. Applications of biotechnology arecurrently being investigated in areas as diverse as medicine, marine aquacultureand forensic science. Increased knowledge and understanding of biotechnologicalprocesses has promoted further applications of these processes in bioremediation,biosubstitution and the production of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). All ofthese can assist in the maintenance and protection of natural environments as wellas assisting humans.

Outcomes


A student:H2 analyses the ways in which models, theories and laws in biology have been

tested and validatedH3 assesses the impact of particular advances in biology on the development of

technologyH4 assesses the impacts of applications of biology on society and the environmentH5 identifies possible future directions of biological researchH6 explains why the biochemical processes that occur in cells are related to

macroscopic changes in the organismH8 evaluates the impact of human activity on the interactions of organisms and

their environmentH9 describes the mechanisms of inheritance in molecular termsH11 justifies the appropriateness of a particular investigation planH12 evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in


communicate information and understandingH14 assesses the validity of conclusions from gathered data and informationH15 explains why an investigation is best undertaken individually or by a teamH16 justifies positive values about and attitudes towards both living and non-living

components of the environment, ethical behaviour and a desire for a criticalevaluation of the consequences of the applications of science.

61



62

1. The origins ofbiotechnologydate back atleast 10 000years

2. Biotechnologyhas come to berecognised asthe use oflivingorganisms tomake or modifya product, toimprove plantsor animals orto utilisemicro-organisms forspecific uses

3. Classicalbiotechnologyexploitedknowledge ofcellbiochemistry toproduceindustrialfermentationprocedures

Students learn to:

� identify that Aboriginal people wereengaged in aquaculture in the useof fish farms

� describe the origins ofbiotechnology in early societieswho collected seeds of wild plantsand domesticated some speciesof wild animals

� explain that, by the collection ofseeds and breeding of animals withdesired characteristics, artificialselection began

� describe the changes in onegroup of animals and one group ofplants as a result of humanselection of characteristicssuitable for agricultural stock

� explain that for millennia, thefermentation of foods andbeverages was done withoutknowledge of the micro-organismsinvolved

� outline the key events that led tothe use of biotechnologicalpractices, including:� yeast in the manufacture of

bread � yeast and fermentation for

alcohol production� the use of other micro-

organisms for the manufactureof yoghurt and cheeses

� identify the role of Pasteur�sexperiments in making the linkbetween fermentation and micro-organisms

� identify that brewers began toproduce alcohols on a large scalein the early 1700s

� describe the expansion offermentation over the next 200years to include the production ofseveral organic compounds,including glycerol, lactic acid, citricacid and yeast biomass for baker�syeast

� describe the development of strainisolation methods in the 1940s

Students:

� identify data sources, plan, gather,process and present informationfrom secondary sources and useavailable evidence to describe thechanges in a species of grain oranimal as a result ofdomestication and agriculturalprocesses

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources and useavailable evidence to outline anancient use of aquaculture

� plan, select equipment orresources, perform a first-handinvestigation and processinformation from first-hand and/orsecondary sources on the use offermentation processes in breador alcohol production

� process secondary informationand use available evidence todemonstrate how changes intechnology and scientificknowledge have impacted ontraditional uses of biotechnologysuch as fermentation

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to:� identify and describe a named

industrial fermentation process� identify the micro-organism

used in the fermentation andthe products of the fermentation

� outline the use of the product ofthe fermentation process

� use available evidence toassess the impact of the use ofthe fermentation product onsociety at the time of itsintroduction

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4. Cell chemistryis utilised inbiotechnology

5. ModernbiotechnologyincludesrecombinantDNAtechnology

Students learn to:

� explain that the development ofstrain isolation methods led to,initially, the fermentation ofPenicillium to produce penicillinand, eventually, the production ofother antibiotics

� identify that developments in the1950s led to biotransformationtechnologies that could producerequired organic compounds suchas cortisone and sex hormones

� explain that enzymes are proteinsthat catalyse specific metabolicreactions

� explain how enzyme activity canbe regulated by temperature, pH,nature of substrate andconcentration of substrate andproduct molecules

� outline, simply, the steps in theproduction of a protein orpolypeptide in the cell, including:� the difference between DNA and

RNA� the production of messenger

RNA � the role of transfer RNA � the formation of the polypeptide

chain

� describe the three essentials ofgene manipulation as:� cutting and joining DNA� monitoring the cutting and

joining� transforming hosts, such as

bacteria, with the recombinantplasmid DNA

� outline the recombinant DNAtechniques used in biotechnology,including:� gene splicing using restriction

enzymes and ligases to producerecombinant DNA

� polymerase chain reaction toamplify or modify DNAsequences

� use of DNA vectors andmicroinjection for carrying genesinto nuclear DNA in theproduction of transgenicmulticellular organisms

Students:

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources todemonstrate how changes intechnology and scientificknowledge have modifiedtraditional uses of biotechnology,such as fermentation

� identify data sources, plan andchoose equipment or resources toperform a first-hand investigationto demonstrate the action of acatalyst

� identify data sources, plan first-hand experiences, chooseequipment or resources andperform a first-hand investigationto test the conditions that influencethe rate of enzyme activity

� perform a first-hand investigationto extract and identify DNA from asuitable source

� gather and process information toproduce a flow chart on thesequence of events that result inthe formation of recombinant DNA

� gather, process and analyseinformation to outline the purposeof a current application oftransgenic technology, naming theorganism and gene transfertechnique involved

� process and analyse secondaryinformation and describe how theprocess of cutting and joining DNAmolecules is monitored

� process and analyse secondaryinformation to identify thatcomplementary DNA is producedby reverse transcribing RNA or thepolymerase chain reaction


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6. There are manyapplicationsand areas ofresearch inbiotechnology

7. Ethical issuesrelated tobiotechnologyare consideredin decision-makingprocesses

Students learn to:

� outline one way that forensicscientists can use DNA analysis tohelp solve cases

� describe one example from thefollowing applications ofbiotechnology in medicine:� tissue engineering using skin

transplantation as an example� gene delivery by nasal sprays� production of a synthetic

hormone, such as insulin� describe one example from the

following applications of animal orplant biotechnology:� the production of monoclonal

antibodies and/or recombinantvaccines to combat virulentanimal diseases

� conservation biology and thepreservation of genetic diversity

� describe one example from thefollowing applications ofaquaculture:� the production of a

pharmaceutical from alga� the farming of a marine animal

� explain why different groups insociety may have different viewsabout the use of DNA technology

� identify and evaluate ethical issuesrelated to one of the following:� development of genetically

modified organisms (GMOs)� animal cloning� gene cloning

Students:

� identify data sources, gather,analyse and process informationand use available evidence topresent case studies onapplications of biotechnology inmedicine, animal biotechnologyand aquaculture. These casestudies should:� give details of the process used � identify the organism or tissue

involved� describe the outcome of the

biotechnological process� evaluate the efficiency of the

process and discuss advantagesand disadvantages associatedwith either the product or theprocess

� gather, process and analyseinformation from primary andsecondary sources and useavailable evidence to identify anddiscuss ethical and social issuesassociated with the use ofbiotechnology

9.7 Option � Genetics: The Code Broken?

Contextual Outline

Science has come a long way since Mendel�s important work on identifying thetransmission of inherited factors across generations. The code for transmitting thisgenetic information has been identified and models have been developed to explaingene functioning. Transcription of the information into functional proteins is now wellunderstood and models are being developed to test how genes direct the structure,function and development of an organism.

Modern genetics is moving towards an increased understanding of the biochemicalrole of individual genes. This is being enhanced by the Human Genome Project thatis sequencing the entire human genome in an attempt to identify all the encodedgenes. As technology and the understanding of the nature of chromosomesimproves so does the range of applications within biotechnology. These haveimpacted on the way in which we approach medicine, plant and animal growth andeven our understanding of the biochemical processes within the human body.

Outcomes


A student:H3 assesses the impact of particular advances in biology on the development of

technologiesH4 assesses the impacts of applications of biology on society and the environmentH5 identifies possible future directions of biological researchH6 explains why the biochemical processes associated with cells are related to

macroscopic changes in the organismH7 analyses the impact of natural and human processes on biodiversityH9 describes the mechanisms of inheritance in molecular termsH11 justifies the appropriateness of a particular investigation planH12 evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in



living components of the environment, ethical behaviour and a desire for acritical evaluation of the applications of science.

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66

1. The structureof a geneprovides thecode for aprotein orpolypeptideand this codeis expressedwhen the geneis active

2. Multiple allelesand polygenicinheritanceprovide furthervariabilitywithin a trait

3. Studies ofoffspringreflect theinheritance ofgenes ondifferentchromosomesand genes onthe samechromosomes

4. The HumanGenomeProject isattempting toidentify theposition ofgenes onchromosomesthrough wholegenomesequencing

Students learn to:

� identify that most DNA is located inthe nucleus of the cell but thatmitochondria and chloroplasts alsocontain DNA

� identify how information is coded inDNA

� describe the processes involved inthe transfer of information fromDNA through RNA to theproduction of a sequence of aminoacids in a polypeptide

� give examples of characteristicsdetermined by multiple alleles inan organism other than human

� compare the inheritance of theABO and Rhesus blood groups

� define what is meant by polygenicinheritance and describe oneexample of polygenic inheritance inhumans or other organisms

� outline the use of highly variablegenes for DNA fingerprinting offorensic samples, for paternitytesting and for the pedigreeing ofanimals

� outline the steps in the process ofmeiosis

� use the terms �diploid� and �haploid�to describe somatic and gameticcells

� describe outcomes of dihybridcrosses involving simple dominanceusing Mendel�s explanations

� predict the difference in inheritancepatterns if two genes are linked

� explain how cross-breedingexperiments can identify therelative position of linked genes

� discuss the role of chromosomemapping in identifying relationshipsbetween species

� discuss the benefits of the HumanGenome Project

� describe and explain the limitationsof data obtained from the HumanGenome Project

� outline the procedure to producerecombinant DNA

� describe the use of recombinantDNA technology to identify theposition of a gene on achromosome

Students:

� choose equipment or resources toperform a first-hand investigationto construct a model of DNA

� process information fromsecondary data to outline thecurrent understanding of geneexpression

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary data to identifyand solve problems to predict theinheritance patterns of ABO bloodgroups and the Rhesus factor

� process information fromsecondary sources to identify anddescribe one example of polygenicinheritance

� plan, choose equipment orresources and process informationfrom secondary sources to analysethe outcome of dihybrid crosseswhen both traits are inheritedindependently and when they arelinked

� perform a first-hand investigationto model the processes involved inmeiosis and relate theseprocesses to linkage

� process information fromsecondary sources to assess thereasons why the Human GenomeProject could not be achieved bystudying linkage maps

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5. Gene therapy ispossible oncethe genesresponsible forharmfulconditions areidentified

6. Mechanisms ofgenetic change

7. Selectivebreeding isdifferent to genecloning but bothprocesses maychange thegenetic natureof species

8. Plant cloninghas beenpracticed byhumans for along time butanimal cloningis a new andcontroversialarea

Students learn to:

� describe current use of genetherapy for an identified disease

� distinguish between mutations ofchromosomes, including� rearrangements � changes in chromosome number,

including trisomy, and polyploidyand mutations of genes, including � base substitution� frameshift

� outline the ability of DNA to repairitself

� describe the way in whichtransposable genetic elementsoperate and discuss their impacton the genome

� distinguish between germ line andsomatic mutations in terms of theireffect on species

� explain, using an appropriateexample from agriculture, whyselective breeding has beenpractised

� describe what is meant by �genecloning� and give examples of theuses of gene cloning

� distinguish between gene cloningand whole organism cloning interms of the processes andproducts

� explain why asexual reproductionand common horticulturalpractices, such as growing plantsfrom cuttings and runners,constitute cloning

� discuss potential problems with thecloning of plants in terms ofenvironmental change andresistance to disease

� describe a use of cloning inanimals or plants that is beneficialto humans

Students:

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to identifya current use of gene therapy tomanage a genetic disease, canceror AIDS

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to identifyand distinguish chromosomalmutations and gene mutations

� process information fromsecondary sources to identify achemical mutagen and a form ofmutagenic radiation and useavailable evidence to assess thenature of the risk involved inexposure

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to discussthe role of public education inpreventing cancers, such as skincancer caused by somaticmutations

� gather, process, analyse andpresent information fromsecondary sources to trace thehistory of the selective breeding ofone species for agriculturalpurposes and use availableevidence to describe the series ofchanges that have occurred in thespecies as a result of this selectivebreeding

OR� process information from secondary

sources to explain why wholeanimal cloning has great potentialfor agriculture

� identify data sources, chooseequipment or resources, gather,process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to describethe processes used in tissue cultureand use available evidence toevaluate the impact of tissue cultureon the horticultural industry

OR


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9. The timing ofgeneexpression isimportant inthedevelopmentalprocess

Students learn to:

� identify the role of genes inembryonic development

� summarise the role of genecascades determining limbformation in birds and mammals

� discuss debates relating towhether genes may be responsiblefor more than one trait during thelifetime of the organism

� describe the evidence whichindicates the presence of ancestralvertebrate gene homologues inlower animal classes

� discuss the evidence availablefrom current research about theevolution of genes and theiractions

Students:

� identify data sources, chooseequipment or resources, gather,process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources todescribe the processes used in thecloning of an animal and analysethe methodology to identify waysin which scientists could verify thatthe animal produced was a clone

� identify data sources, chooseequipment or resources, gather,process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to collateand assess the evidence thatgenes may have more than onerole in the lifetime of an organism

OR� identify data sources, choose

equipment or resources, gather,process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to collateand use available evidence toassess the evidence that analysisof genes provides for evolutionaryrelationships

9.8 Option � The Human Story

Contextual Outline

Humans are a species of primate mammal and share the characteristics of thisgroup of animals. An examination of the classification criteria used to separategroups of organisms with a particular emphasis on the distinguishing characteristicsof humans, other mammals and primates, provides some evidence to supportevolutionary relationships.

Tracing the evolution of humans in detail allows increased investigation of thearbitrary nature of classification and the reasons why scientists may differ in theirinterpretation of evidence. The nature of science and role of technology in analysingthese interpretations are further evaluated in the arena of human evolution.

Humans have taken a very different path in their recent evolution as the ongoingdevelopment of culture has restricted and redirected the role of natural selection asa tool for guiding the evolution of a species. The polymorphic nature of the humanspecies is considered in light of our distribution on Earth and the differentenvironments that we occupy.

Outcomes

This module contributes to the following HSC course outcomes:



tested and validatedH5 identifies possible future directions of biological researchH7 analyses the impact of natural and human processes on biodiversityH8 evaluates the impact of human activity on the interactions of organisms and

their environmentH9 describes the mechanisms of inheritance in molecular termsH11 justifies the appropriateness of a particular investigation planH12 evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in




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70

1. Humans havecharacteristicsthat can beused toclassify themwith otherorganisms

2. Fossil andother biologicalevidencecontributes tomodels ofhumanevolution

Students learn to:

� outline the general classificationhierarchy from phylum to species

� define the term species and outlinecriteria used to identify a species

� outline features that classifyhumans as:� mammal � primate� hominid

� describe primate characteristics,including:� hand/foot structure and function,

including opposable thumb or toe� skull shape and function� brain size relative to body size� arrangement of the vertebral

column to the degree of uprightstance

� vision, including degree ofstereoscopic vision, colour vision

� reproductive features, includingsingle live young and relativelylong gestation

� parenting and group bonding� describe primate characteristics in:

� prosimians � new and old world monkeys� apes� humans

� outline the conditions under whichfossils may form

� relate the age of the Earth to theway in which geological time isdescribed

� distinguish between and describesome relative and absolutetechniques used for dating fossils

� describe relative dating techniquesusing fossil sequence in strata

� discuss the difficulty of interpretingthe past from the fossil recordalone, including:� conflicting dates based on

different technologies� the paucity of the fossil record� different interpretations of the

same evidence

Students:

� identify data sources, gather,process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources toillustrate the classification processby identifying features of humansthat classifies them as:� Animal� Chordate� Mammal� Primate� Hominid– Homo – Homo sapiens

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondary sourcesto outline the historical developmentof classification systems forprimates and, with reference to oneprimate group, use availableevidence to identify technologicaladvances and resulting newinformation that have changedscientists� opinions about theclassification of those animals

� perform a first-hand investigation togather first-hand data or processinformation from secondary sourcesto analyse the similarities anddifferences between prosimians,monkeys, apes and humans

� process information fromsecondary sources to model thedating of sample materials usingstratigraphic methods

� process information fromsecondary sources to date samplematerials using radiometric data

� process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to modelkaryotype analysis

� process information fromsecondary sources to modelDNA�DNA hybridisation in order todemonstrate its use in determiningrelationships between organisms

� identify data sources, gather,process and present informationfrom secondary sources about newinformation and technologychanging understanding aboutscientific principles usingmitochondrial DNA as an example

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3. Debatecontinues ontherelationshipsbetweenhominidspecies

4. Humans havemigratedaround theEarth

Students learn to:

� compare evidence from livingprimates, including:� Karyotype analysis� DNA�DNA hybridisation� comparison of haemoglobins� DNA sequencing� mitochondrial DNA as a

molecular clockto hypothesise about pastrelationships

� examine at least two alternativeviews of human evolutionaryrelationships using the same fossilevidence, including:– Australopithecus ramidus– Australopithecus afarensis – Australopithecus robustus – Paranthropus boisei– Homo habilis – Homo ergaster– Homo erectus– Homo heidelbergensis – Homo neanderthalensis – Homo sapiens

� compare these hominid species,including comparisons of:� body structure� cranial capacity� fossil ages and regional locations� inferred culture

� outline and examine the evidencefor the pattern of human migrationbased on:� the �Out of Africa� model� the theory of regional continuity

� outline the evolution of humandiversity, including:� polymorphism � clinal gradationto account for our geographicdistribution

Students:

� gather, process, present andanalyse information to provide anoverview of the similarities anddifferences of the named hominidspecies and discuss the role of anytwo species in tracing evolutionaryrelationships

� process secondary information anduse available evidence to assessthe contribution of one of thefollowing to our increasedunderstanding of hominid evolution:� the Leakey family� Johanson� Broom� Tobias� Dart� Goodall

� identify data sources, chooseequipment or resources, gather,process and analyse informationfrom secondary sources to describea fossil hominid that is difficult toclassify and use available evidenceto discuss the issues associatedwith its classification

� gather and process information fromsecondary sources to analyse andevaluate the evidence for thealternate models of human evolution

� gather and process information fromsecondary sources to identify twoexamples of polymorphism inhumans and analyse theevolutionary significance of thephenotypes displayed


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5. Culturaldevelopmenthas been asignificantfeature ofhumanevolution

6. Current andfuture trends inbiologicalevolution andculturaldevelopment

Students learn to:

� explain that humans developedinto efficient hunters in organisedcooperative groups and identify apossible sequence of culturaldevelopment

� analyse the possible effects onhuman evolution of the followingfactors:� increased population mobility� modern medicine� genetic engineering

Students:

� process information from secondarysources to compare humans withother primates in terms of:� care of young� length of juvenile stage� development of, and size of,

social groups� use of tools� communication systems

� gather, process, present andanalyse information from secondarysources to account for changes inhuman population numbers in thelast 10 000 years and to discuss thepotential impact of named examplesof modern technologies on futurehuman populations

� process information from secondarysources to outline the purpose ofthe Human Genome Project andbriefly discuss its implications

9.9 Option � Biochemistry

Contextual Outline

Examining a dead organism tells biologists a little about its structure and very littleabout its function. The great challenge to biologists has been to identify anddescribe not only the structure and function of living organisms but to describe howtheir metabolism works.

It has been difficult for the biologist to understand fully cell function in particular,because microanalysis of living tissue has never been easy. When biologists havetechnologies at their disposal to watch intact structures operating, the completestory will be told.

The history of photosynthesis tells the story of the progression of knowledge thatfollows closely the improvements in technology that allowed new strategies to beimplemented for the study of living materials. Biochemistry now has improvedtechnologies that have helped the modelling or visualisation of what is happening inthe �black box� that is the living cell.

Outcomes

This module contributes to the following HSC course outcomes:



tested and validatedH6 explains why the biochemical processes that occur in cells are related to

macroscopic changes in the organismH12 evaluates ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in




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74

1. Photosynthesisis one of themost importantbiochemicalreactions thatcan be studied

2. The notion thatplants obtainnourishmentfrom water,light and airtook nearly twocenturies toevolve

Students learn to:

� discuss reasons for studyingphotosynthesis, including:� its production of food resources

and the need to increase cropyields

� understanding of photosynthesismay lead to better methods ofharvesting solar energy

� photosynthesis can provide rawmaterials for a range of humanneeds

� the importance of reducingcarbon dioxide levels in theatmosphere given its possibleeffects as a �greenhouse� gas

� the importance of generatingoxygen

� outline the progress that occurredin the 17th and 18th centuriestowards understanding plant growthby identifying:� the observation of van Helmont

that soil was not primarilyresponsible for a plants changein mass as it grew

� Stephen Hales� proposal thatplants extract some of theirmatter from air

� the work of Priestley inidentifying that plants could�restore the air� used by a candleand his subsequent discovery ofoxygen

� Ingen-Housz�s demonstration ofthe importance of sunlight foroxygen production by plants

� Senebier�s demonstration of theuse of carbon dioxide duringphotosynthesis

� Saussure�s conclusion that waterwas also necessary forphotosynthesis

� explain that, building on theevidence from earlierinvestigations, Mayer concludedthat plants convert light energy tochemical energy

� identify that Blackman and Mathgelhypothesised that photosynthesiswas a two-step process

Students:

� gather, process and summariseinformation from secondary sourcesto identify the products ofphotosynthesis and describe thefunction of these compounds inliving organisms

� gather, process and analyseinformation from secondary sourcesto discuss and evaluate the potentialuses of photosynthesis in replacingmaterials presently obtained fromother non-renewable resources

� identify data sources, plan andchoose equipment or resources toperform a first-hand investigation todesign experiments that could testthe observations of one of:� van Helmont� Hales� Priestley� Ingen-Housz� Senebier� Saussure

� gather and process information fromsecondary sources to identify anddescribe relevant moderntechnologies not available to theabove people that would haveassisted them in their investigations

� gather and process information fromsecondary sources to identifyobservations and conclusions fromthe observations that led to thehypothesis of Blackman and Mathgel

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3. Chloroplastswere proposedas the site ofphotosynthesisin the late 19thcentury

4. By the middleof the 20thcentury, adescription ofthe lightdependentreaction wasdeveloping

Students learn to:

� explain that Sachs proved thatchlorophyll is located in specialbodies within plant cells and relatehis finding to the site whereglucose is made

� describe homogenisation as aprocess that breaks up cells andallows study of cell fractions,suspensions and solutions

� outline the role of centrifugation inremoving cell debris andsedimenting cell organelles, suchas chloroplasts

� outline the discoveries ofEnglemann and explain whyEnglemann�s work led to thedescription of the action spectrumof photosynthesis

� explain that, because the actionspectrum of photosynthesis doesnot exactly match that ofchlorophyll, the role of otherpigments in photosynthesis wasinferred

� describe and discuss the importanceof Van Neil�s hypothesis that waterwas the source of oxygen given outin photosynthesis

� outline the classic experiments ofEmerson and Arnold and theirinterpretation by Gaffron and Wahlthat led to the hypothesis of aphotosynthetic unit consisting ofchlorophyll and photoenzymemolecules

� identify the light dependent reactionas that which traps light energy andcoverts it to chemical energy storedin ATP

� identify the role of chlorophylls inthe light reactions

� explain the significance of thedifference in function ofphotosystems I and II

� identify the role of the coenzymesADP and NADP in the light reactions

Students:

� identify data sources, plan andchoose equipment or resources toperform a first-hand investigation togather first-hand data to confirm theuse of carbon dioxide inphotosynthesis

� identify data sources, plan andchoose equipment or resources toperform a first-hand investigation togather first-hand data to determinethe effect of light intensity ortemperature on gas production in asuitable pond weed

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to producea time-line indicating improvementsin microscopy that would haveassisted Englemann in his workwith Spirogyra

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to outlinethe importance of Tswett�s inventionof chromatography for theseparation of leaf pigments

� identify data sources, plan andchoose equipment or resources toperform a first-hand investigation to:� extract the mixture of pigments

from leaves� examine the absorption spectrum

of these pigments� separate the pigments using

chromatography

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources todescribe the repetitive flashtechnique used for the first time byEmerson and Wahl and outline itssubsequent importance in thestudy of photosynthesis

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to tracethe light dependent reaction ofphotosynthesis on a suitablebiochemical pathways flow chart

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources toinvestigate the range of electrondonors used by anoxygenicphotosynthesisers and relate theuse of this range to the ecologicalniches occupied by theseorganisms


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5. The use ofradioisotopesmade thetracing ofbiochemicalreactions mucheasier

6. The discoveryof C14 in themid-20thcenturyallowed adetailed studyof the role ofcarbon dioxideinphotosynthesis

Students learn to:

� explain why the tracking ofbiochemical reactions is difficult

� identify that isotopes of someelements may be unstable andemit radiation

� define what is meant by the half-life of an isotope and explain howthis would affect its use inbiochemistry

� outline the evidence provided by:� Hill and Scarisbruck � Rubento confirm that the oxygenreleased by photosynthesisoriginated from water

� identify that Kamen and Rubendiscovered C14 and demonstratedthat radioactive carbon dioxidecould be used to investigate thechemical transformations ofcarbon dioxide duringphotosynthesis in 1940

� describe the experiments, usingpaper chromatography, that Calvincarried out to deduce the productsof photosynthesis

� outline the main steps of theCalvin cycle as:� the production of

phosphoglycerate from thecombining of carbon dioxidewith an acceptor molecule

� the reduction ofphosphoglycerate intoglyceraldehyde phosphate intwo reactions that use ATP andNADPH produced in the lightreactions

� the regeneration of the initialcarbon dioxide acceptor

� explain why the Calvin cycle isnow called the light independentstage of photosynthesis

Students:

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to outlinethe range of isotopes that areuseful in studying photosynthesisand explain how radioactivetracers can be incorporated intoplants to follow a biochemicalpathway, such as photosynthesis

� gather and process information touse a biochemical pathways chartto trace the steps in the Calvincycle

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7. ATP is theenergycurrency ofevery livingcell

8. Thedevelopment ofthe electronmicroscope inincreasinglysophisticatedforms hasallowed thevisualisation ofchloroplaststructure

Students learn to:

� identify that adenosinetriphosphate is used as an energysource for nearly all cellularmetabolic processes

� explain that the biologicallyimportant part of the moleculecontains three phosphate groupslinked by high energyphosphodiester bonds

� outline the discovery of ATPsynthesis in the mid 20th centuryin terms of:� the discovery of

photophosphorylation inchloroplasts of plants

� the discovery that ATP synthesisinvolves an electron transferreaction occurring across amembrane

� describe the structure of achloroplast as seen under atransmission electron microscope

� identify the average size of achloroplast and describe the rangeof sizes observed across species

� describe the thylakoids asflattened, hollow discs withchlorophyll dissolved in the lipidlayers of the membrane

� describe the stroma as matrixlying within the inner membranecontaining DNA, ribosomes, lipiddroplets and starch granules

Students:

� gather and process informationfrom a diagram or model of thestructure of the adenosinetriphosphate molecule to discussthe nature and organisation of thephosphodiester bonds betweenthe phosphate groups

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources, includingelectron micrographs to:� draw and label the structure of a

chloroplast� compare the size, shape and

distribution of chloroplasts in anamed alga, terrestrialangiosperm and aquaticangiosperm

� gather and process informationfrom secondary sources to identifyand explain the location of thesites of light absorption and thesite of the Calvin cycle

10 Course Requirements

For the Preliminary course:� 120 indicative hours are required to complete the course� the content in each module must be addressed over the course� experiences over the course must cover the scope of each skill as described in

Section 8.1� practical experiences should occupy a minimum of 45 indicative hours of course

time � at least one open-ended investigation integrating skill and knowledge outcomes

must be included in the course.

For the HSC course:� the Preliminary course is a prerequisite � 120 indicative hours are required to complete the course� the content in each module of the core and one elective must be addressed

over the course� experiences over the course must cover the scope of each skill as described in

Section 9.1� practical experiences should occupy a minimum of 35 indicative hours of course

time � at least one open-ended investigation integrating skill and knowledge outcomes

must be included in the course.


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11 Post-school Opportunities

The study of Biology Stage 6 provides students with knowledge, understanding andskills that form a valuable foundation for a range of courses at university and othertertiary institutions.

In addition, the study of Biology Stage 6 assists students to prepare for employmentand full and active participation as citizens. In particular, there are opportunities forstudents to gain recognition in vocational education and training. Teachers andstudents should be aware of these opportunities.

Recognition of Student Achievement in Vocational Education andTraining (VET)

Wherever appropriate, the skills and knowledge acquired by students in their studyof HSC courses should be recognised by industry and training organisations.Recognition of student achievement means that students who have satisfactorilycompleted HSC courses will not be required to repeat their learning in courses inTAFE NSW or other Registered Training Organisations (RTOs).

Registered Training Organisations, such as TAFE NSW, provide industry training andissue qualifications within the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF).

The degree of recognition available to students in each subject is based on thesimilarity of outcomes between HSC courses and industry training packagesendorsed within the AQF. Training packages are documents that link an industry�scompetency standards to AQF qualifications. More information about industrytraining packages can be found on the National Training Information Service (NTIS)website (www.ntis.gov.au).

Recognition by TAFE NSW

TAFE NSW conducts courses in a wide range of industry areas, as outlined eachyear in the TAFE NSW Handbook. Under current arrangements, the recognitionavailable to students of Biology in relevant courses conducted by TAFE is describedin the HSC/TAFE Credit Transfer Guide. This guide is produced by the Board ofStudies and TAFE NSW and is distributed annually to all schools and colleges.Teachers should refer to this guide and be aware of the recognition available to theirstudents through the study of Biology Stage 6. This information can be found on theTAFE NSW website (www.tafensw.edu.au/mchoice).

Recognition by other Registered Training Organisations

Students may also negotiate recognition into a training package qualification withanother RTO. Each student will need to provide the RTO with evidence ofsatisfactory achievement in Biology Stage 6 so that the degree of recognitionavailable can be determined.

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12 Assessment and Reporting

12.1 Requirements and Advice

The information in this section of the syllabus relates to the Board of Studies�requirements for assessing and reporting achievement in the Preliminary and HSCcourses for the Higher School Certificate.

Assessment is the process of gathering information and making judgements aboutstudent achievement for a variety of purposes.

In the Preliminary and HSC courses, those purposes include:� assisting student learning � evaluating and improving teaching and learning programs � providing evidence of satisfactory achievement and completion in the

Preliminary course � providing the Higher School Certificate results.

Reporting refers to the Higher School Certificate documents received by studentsthat are used by the Board to report both the internal and external measures ofachievement.

NSW Higher School Certificate results will be based on:� an assessment mark submitted by the school and produced in accordance

with the Board�s requirements for the internal assessment program� an examination mark derived from the HSC external examinations.

Results will be reported using a course report containing a performance scale withbands describing standards of achievement in the course.

The use of both internal assessment and external examinations of studentachievement allows measures and observations to be made at several points and indifferent ways throughout the HSC course. Taken together, the externalexaminations and internal assessment marks provide a valid and reliableassessment of the achievement of the knowledge, understanding and skillsdescribed for each course.

Standards Referencing and the HSC Examination

The Board of Studies will adopt a standards-referenced approach to assessing andreporting student achievement in the Higher School Certificate examination.

The standards in the HSC are:� the knowledge, skills and understanding expected to be learned by students �

the syllabus standards� the levels of achievement of the knowledge, skills and understanding � the

performance standards.


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Both syllabus standards and performance standards are based on the aims,objectives, outcomes and content of a course. Together they specify what is to belearned and how well it is to be achieved.

Teacher understanding of standards comes from the set of aims, objectives,outcomes and content in each syllabus together with:

� the performance descriptions that summarise the different levels ofperformance of the course outcomes

� HSC examination papers and marking guidelines� samples of students� achievement on assessment and examination tasks.

12.2 Internal Assessment

The internal assessment mark submitted by the school will provide a summation ofeach student�s achievements measured at points throughout the course. It shouldreflect the rank order of students and relative differences between students�achievements.

Internal assessment provides a measure of a student�s achievement based on awider range of syllabus content and outcomes than may be covered by the externalexamination alone.

The assessment components, weightings and task requirements to be applied tointernal assessment are identified on page 83. They ensure a common focus forinternal assessment in the course across schools, while allowing for flexibility in thedesign of tasks. A variety of tasks should be used to give students the opportunity todemonstrate outcomes in different ways and to improve the validity and reliability ofthe assessment.

12.3 External Examination

In Biology Stage 6, the external examinations include written papers, for externalmarking. The specifications for the examination in Biology Stage 6 are on page 85.

The external examination provides a measure of student achievement in a range ofsyllabus outcomes that can be reliably measured in an examination setting.

The external examination and its marking and reporting will relate to syllabusstandards by:� providing clear links to syllabus outcomes� enabling students to demonstrate the levels of achievement outlined in the

course performance scale� applying marking guidelines based on established criteria.

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12.4 Board Requirements for the Internal Assessment Mark in Board Developed Courses

For each course, the Board requires schools to submit an assessment mark foreach candidate.

The collection of information for the HSC internal assessment mark must not beginprior to the completion of the Preliminary course.

The Board requires that the assessment tasks used to determine the internalassessment mark must comply with the components, weightings and types of tasksspecified in the table on page 85.

Schools are required to develop an internal assessment program that:� specifies the various assessment tasks and the weightings allocated to each

task� provides a schedule of the tasks designed for the whole course.

The school must also develop and implement procedures to:� inform students in writing of the assessment requirements for each course

before the commencement of the HSC course� ensure that students are given adequate written notice of the nature and timing

of assessment tasks� provide meaningful feedback on each student�s performance in all assessment

tasks� maintain records of marks awarded to each student for all assessment tasks� address issues relating to illness, misadventure and malpractice in assessment

tasks� address issues relating to late submission and non-completion of assessment

tasks� advise students in writing if they are not meeting the assessment requirements

in a course and indicate what is necessary to enable the students to satisfy therequirements

� inform students about their entitlements to school reviews and appeals to theBoard

� conduct school reviews of assessments when requested by students� ensure that students are aware that they can collect their Rank Order Advice at

the end of the external examinations at their school.


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12.5 Assessment Components, Weightings and Tasks

Preliminary Course

The suggested components, weightings and tasks for the Preliminary course are setout below.

There should be a balance between the assessment of:� knowledge and understanding outcomes and course content

and� skills outcomes and course content.

HSC Course

The internal assessment mark for Biology Stage 6 is to be based on the HSCcourse only. Final assessment should be based on a range and balance ofassessment instruments.

Component Weighting Tasks could include:

Maintaining a Balance 25 AssignmentsFieldwork studies and reports

Blueprint of Life 25 Model makingOpen-ended investigations

The Search for Better Health 25 Oral reportsPractical tests

Option 25 Research projectsReportsTopic tests and examinations

Note:• No more than 50% weighting may be allocated to

examinations and topic tests• A minimum of 30% weighting must be allocated to

tasks that assess students’ abilities to conduct first-hand investigations and communicate informationand understandings based on these investigations

Marks 100

Component Weighting Tasks could include:

A Local Ecosystem 21 AssignmentsFieldwork studies and reports

Patterns in Nature 29 Model makingOpen-ended investigations

Life on Earth 25 Oral reportsPractical tests

Evolution of Australian Biota 25 ReportsResearch projectsTopic tests and examinations

Note: Tasks to assess students’ abilities to conductfirst-hand investigations and communicateinformation and understandings based on theseinvestigations should be included

Marks 100

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There should be a balance between the assessment of:� knowledge and understanding outcomes and course content

and� skills outcomes and content.

One task may be used to assess several components. It is suggested that 3�5 tasksare sufficient to assess the HSC course outcomes.


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12.6 HSC External Examination Specifications

The written examination in Biology will consist of one examination paper of 3 hoursduration (plus 5 minutes reading time). The examination paper will consist of TWOsections:

Section I Core (75 marks)

Part A (15 marks)� There will be FIFTEEN multiple-choice questions.� All questions will be compulsory.� All questions will be of equal value.� Questions will be based on the HSC core modules.

Part B (60 marks)� Short-answer and extended response question/s.� Marks for individual questions will be shown on the examination paper.� All questions will be compulsory.� Questions will be based on the HSC core modules.

Section II Options (25 marks)� There will be FIVE questions: one on each of the FIVE HSC options. Each

question may consist of several parts.� Marks for individual parts will be shown on the examination paper.� Candidates must attempt ONE question.� All questions will be of equal value.

HSC options list� Communication� Biotechnology� Genetics: The Code Broken?� The Human Story� Biochemistry

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12.7 Summary of Internal and External Assessment

Internal Assessment Weighting

Core Modules 75

Option 25

Note: Assessment of knowledge, understanding and skills developed through conducting first-hand investigations should be incorporated into the core and option as appropriate.

Marks 100

External Assessment Weighting

A written examination paper consisting of:

Core Modules 75� Multiple-choice questions� Short-answer questions� Longer answer question/s

Option 25� Short-answer questions� Longer answer question/s

Marks 100


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12.8 Reporting Student Performance Against Standards

Student performance in an HSC course will be reported against standards on acourse report. The course report contains a performance scale for the coursedescribing levels (bands) of achievement, an HSC examination mark and theinternal assessment mark. It will also show, graphically, the statewide distribution ofexamination marks of all students in the course.

Each band on the performance scale (except for band 1) includes descriptions thatsummarise the attainments typically demonstrated in that band.

The distribution of marks will be determined by students� performances against theknown standards and not scaled to a predetermined pattern of marks.

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