Biological Hierarchy:
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Transcript of Biological Hierarchy:
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Biological Hierarchy:
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Cell to Cell Communication
• Involves (and you should review):• Structure of plasma membranes
• Diffusion vs. active transport
• Hydrophobic vs. hydrophilic compounds
• Proteins
• Surface vs. intermembrane proteins
• Enzyme activity
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Figure 8.7 The structure of a transmembrane protein
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Figure 8.9 Some functions of membrane proteins
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Receptor protein
Receptor protein
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Cells can communicate by direct contact between cells
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Cells can communicate by sending chemical signals to other cells:
Mating in yeast cells depends on
cell to cell communication
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Chemical signals can be sent to cells at various distances from each other
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Once a chemical signal reaches its target cell:
• Signal molecule binds to a receptor protein on the target cell (it is a ligand)
• The receptor molecule changes shape
• The shape change causes a series of reactions (transduction) to take place in the cytoplasm of the cell
• This series of reactions leads to a response of the cell to the chemical signal
• This process is called a signal-transduction pathway
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Figure 11.5 Overview of cell signaling (Layer 1)
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Figure 11.5 Overview of cell signaling (Layer 2)
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Figure 11.5 Overview of cell signaling (Layer 3)
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Common Types of Receptors
• G-protein-linked receptors
• Tyrosine-kinase receptors
• Ligand-gated ion-channel receptor
• Intracellular receptors
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G-protein-linked receptors
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When G-protein-linked receptors receive a signal, they will activate a “G protein” inside the cell
The G-protein starts the transduction pathway leading to the cell response
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Tyrosine-kinase receptors act as an enzyme, using ATP to start several transduction pathways simultaneously
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Ligand-gated ion-channel receptors open or close in response to a chemical signal, allowing ions to DIFFUSE in or out of the cell based on relative concentrations
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Lipid-soluble chemical signals, such as steroid hormones, can pass through the plasma membrane, and bind to an intracellular receptor
Inside the cell, the activated receptor may turn on or off certain genes (a transcription factor)
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Once the signal has been received by the receptor, this triggers the transduction pathway, that eventually leads to the cell’s response
Fig. 11.11: A phosphorylation cascade
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Some signal-transduction pathways involve the use of small, non-protein molecules or ions. These are called second messengers
Second messengers often bind to and activate other enzymes in the pathway
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Cyclic AMP (cAMP) is a common second messenger
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Calcium ions are also used as second messengers
The concentration of calcium is kept low in the cytoplasm of animal cells by actively pumping them into the mitochondria and the ER and out of the cell
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Calcium is used by both G-protein and tyrosine-kinase pathways as a second messenger
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Inositol triphosphate (IP3) opens a channel that releases Ca2+ into the cytoplasm
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Calcium activates calmodulin which turns on or off other proteins
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An example of an entire pathway
In times of physical stress, the adrenal glands release the hormone epinephrine
Fuel reserves are mobilized by the breakdown of glycogen to individual glucose molecules
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The response of a cell to signal can be varied:
1. Turning on certain enzymes
2. Turning on/off genes and protein production
3. Muscle contraction
4. Cell division
etc…
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The response of a cell to a signal depends on what type of cell it is and what other types of proteins are present in the cell