Biofuels - The Larger Context

7/31/2019 Biofuels - The Larger Context

1/10

3P.C. Hallenbeck (ed.),Microbial Technologies in Advanced Biofuels Production,DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-1208-3_1, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012

Keywords Peak oil Climate change Food versus fuel Energy security Energy

conservation Carter doctrine

1.1 Need for New Energy Sources: Biofuels

Few would argue with the need to replace the fossil fuels that are currently the driving

force of the worlds economy with renewable fuels that are produced in a sustainable

manner and that minimally increase greenhouse gas emissions. While the focus ofthis book is on some of the science behind advanced biofuels production using

microbes, enormous changes are required for the world to quit its addiction to fossil

fuels. Thus, it is worthwhile to raise and consider some of the larger issues around

future biofuels production. These certainly call for a large public debate, and careful

consideration by policy makers. In addition to the social issues, biofuels production

raises a number of ethical questions and it can even be argued that there is an ethical

imperative to produce biofuels (Buxy and Tait 2011). First, I lay out the case, perhaps

already well-made elsewhere, for the need to develop new energy sources and then

discuss some of the larger issues surrounding new energy development.

1.1.1 Oil Is Running Out!!

While it can be, and is, argued exactly when the world reaches peak oil production,

there can be no doubt that the majority of the easily extractable oil from conven-

tional sources has already been pumped out of the earth (Kerr 2008, 2011). Continued

P.C. Hallenbeck (*)Dpartement de microbiologie et immunologie, Universit de Montral,CP 6128, Succursale Centre-ville, Montral, Qubec H3C 3J7, Canadae-mail: [email protected]

Chapter 1

Biofuels, the Larger Context

Patrick C. Hallenbeck


2/10

4 P.C. Hallenbeck

fossil fuel demand and use undoubtedly drive further exploitation of the worlds

fossil fuel reserves, with predictable consequences in terms of ever-greater

environmental disasters (remember the Gulf Coast Deepwater Horizon oil disaster),

not to mention the continued production of greenhouse gases, mainly carbon diox-

ide, under this scenario. Given the challenges in ramping up alternative fuel produc-

tion to anything approaching present-day fossil fuel use, even optimistic estimates

of time to peak oil leave little time to prepare a new energy economy. Failing to heed

the signs of dwindling fossil fuels and falling short of meeting the existing and prob-

ably even greater future demand has disastrous effects on world economy.

1.1.2 Climate Change Is Catching up to Us!!

The consensus of the vast majority is that we are about to witness abrupt climate

change unprecedented on the human scale. Obviously, the exact extent of the com-

ing changes, with unknowable effects on global weather patterns and thus food

production, and rise in sea levels, is very difficult to predict. Although public aware-

ness has mostly fixated on global warming and thus may not be bothered by what

seems to be relatively small global temperature changes, many predict storms of

increasing intensity, changes in patterns of precipitation, and drastic changes in

local temperatures. Together, these climate changes have very significant effects on

agricultural production. Since world food production is barely estimated to keep upwith population growth and since already close to one billion people are undernour-

ished (FAO estimate), the mortality effects of climate change could be enormous. In

fact, meeting the climate change challenge is the most pressing need for develop-

ment of new, alternative energy that does not increase global warming through

greenhouse gas emissions. Future generations will judge if the failure to act deci-

sively is a crime against humanity.

1.1.3 Energy Security: We Depend on Other (Unstable?)Countries for Our Lifeline!!

Energy security is often cited as a need for alternative energy development, and this

is probably true from the perspective of individual countries. Ironically perhaps, this

issue often takes front stage in the USA, who in fact imports the majority of its oil

from Canada, nearly twice the number of barrels it gets from Saudi Arabia. The

truth behind the energy security question is that with demand outpacing production

(current world oil consumption is 84.5 million barrels per day, current world oilproduction is 81.8 million barrels per day) world energy supply is closely interwo-

ven and any disruption in supply has an immediate ripple effect on supplies and

hence price. Thus, far-off events, even sometimes imaginary ones, have an almost

immediate effect on prices at the gas station pump. Obviously, replacing at least

some of the presently used fossil fuels with biofuels would have a stabilizing effect


3/10

51 Biofuels, the Larger Context

on energy prices, and since these might be produced locally energy prices could be

fixed to some extent by national policy.

1.1.4 Petroleum Products/Use Are Dangerous to Our Health!!

An often overlooked aspect to the continued use of fossil fuels is the burden that

fossil fuel combustion places on human health and well-being. In fact, it is impos-

sible to find an accurate estimate of the magnitude of the effects of fossil fuel use on

human health and mortality. In part, this is due to the diffuse nature of the pollution

generated and its quasi omnipresence. Nonetheless, the potential magnitude of this

effect can be seen from more restricted studies. A recent report looking at health

effects of electricity generation estimated that in the UK, where 34% of generationis by coal-fired plants, the associated air pollution from coal-fired generation alone

causes an annual toll of 3,800 deaths, 35,000 cases of serious illness, and 1.9 million

cases of minor illnesses (Markandya and Wilkinson 2007). In another example, the

extra health costs associated with coal-fired electricity generation in Ontario in 2005

was estimated to be $3 billion annually (Ontario Ministry of Energy 2005). In terms

of transportation fuels, air-borne particulates, emanating from vehicle exhaust, are

estimated to be responsible for 20% of the lung cancer deaths in the USA (Pearce

2002), and that is a country with fairly stringent emissions standards.

Of course, this begs the question of energy justice. The unequal distribution ofclean energy, readily available in the developed world which is also largely respon-

sible for the vast majority of incurred climate change, is already responsible for an

enormous burden in the developing world (Wilkinson et al. 2007). In addition,

changes brought about by a warming climate, including increased natural disas-

ters, cause large but unknowable future mortality and sickness.

1.1.5 The True Cost of Fuel

Of course, all these considerations bring up the question as to the true cost of fuel.

Many, including some US government agencies, suggest that biofuels should be

brought in at a price competitive with currently produced fossil fuels. However, this

is unfair, and in fact incorrect, if subjected to a more global economics analysis. Such

an analysis would have to consider the hidden costs of fossil fuel use: present-day

health impacts, environmental degradation, and the effects of future climate change.

Some of these costs are of course presently paid by the consumer, but not at the pump.

They are collected as an increased tax burden and health insurance premiums. Addinga carbon tax to the price of fossil fuel use would help, but only partially, redress this

situation. From this viewpoint, biofuels might be a bargain at a price much higher than

current pump prices for gasoline. Of course, totaling up the true cost of fossil fuel

use would be difficult and full of uncertainties, but given what is at stake it would be

a useful exercise. Knowing the global cost per gallon and paying it up front would


4/10

6 P.C. Hallenbeck

help drive energy conservation and highlight the true cost competiveness of biofuels,

for although they may always cost more to produce than it costs to pump oil out of the

earth; they would garner savings in terms of these hidden costs.

1.2 New Energy Challenges

Thus, the world is, hopefully, about to embark on building a new economy based on

new, nonfossil fuel energy. However, in challenge, there is opportunity. The chal-

lenges in instituting new energy present the opportunity to rethink the current para-

digm of supply and usage (Fig. 1.1). In the long run, this could result in a more

equitable use of the worlds natural resources, including energy. One could even

argue that this aspect is of strategic importance as access to energy is at the root ofat least some of the military conflicts in the world, a situation that is likely to worsen

as fossil fuel energy supplies become tighter. The realization of this driving force is

at least partially behind the current US military support of biofuels research. Some

of the points that might be considered are discussed below.

1.2.1 New Production/Conservation

While the need to find new sources of energy is evident and a lot of effort is goingin that direction, it is often forgotten that part of the energy demand/supply dilemma

can be solved by increased energy conservation measures, better insulation, higher

fuel economy, and lifestyle changes (decreased meat consumption). In many

respects, it is much easier and more cost-effective to introduce conservation mea-

sures, given the present-day, often wasteful use of energy, than it is to produce

replacement fuels (International Energy Agency 2010). In fact, a solution lies some-

where between this apparent eitheror proposition. Conservation would decrease

but not eliminate the requirement for new energy development. Efforts in this direc-

tion are necessary as it is difficult to even imagine a scenario, where biofuel produc-tion could match the current and projected greater energy demands. Thus, it would

be shortsighted to reject out of hand biofuels because one cannot claim the ability to

completely replace fossil fuels in satisfying the worlds energy demands.

Fig. 1.1 A partial list of some of the challenges inherent in developing a new energy supply on alarge scale. The list is not meant to be exhaustive but to merely provide a springboard for a larger,wide-ranging discussion


5/10


1.2.2 Quick Short-Term/Long-Term Smart

Unfortunately, the perception of an urgent need to act sometimes brings about

ill-considered reaction, leading to a solution that is untenable in the long term. Manywould argue that this is the case for first-generation biofuels, where alcohol produc-

tion from corn is gathering increased scorn and raising concerns as to the effects of

biofuels production on world food supplies and prices (Editorial 2007). Thus,

renewable fuels mandates that can only be met by the very large-scale production of

first-generation biofuels seem ill considered. Already, 25% of total US corn produc-

tion was used for bioethanol production in 2009. Moreover, many issues around

corn-based ethanol production remain controversial and poorly resolved, including

net energy gained, increased N2O emissions, land use changes in the USA and

elsewhere (Searchinger et al. 2007), and changed water usage. Some are concernedthat increased corn production is leading to depletion of fossil water reserves in

the Midwest. The problem here is the scale (Field et al. 2007). Any production of a

biofuel that is large enough to make an impact in terms of fossil fuel use can cause

serious perturbations with many ripple effects that need to be considered. Careful

analyses, including detailed and complete life cycle analysis (LCA) (Kendall and

Chang 2009), as well as long-term thinking, are required to build a new energy

future that is truly renewable and sustainable.

1.2.3 One Energy Source/Many

Of course, scale issues directly impact the question of which, or how many, new

energy sources should be developed. Single-biofuel thinking leads to somewhat

startling projections of the total arable land required in the USA to completely

replace petroleum-derived gasoline with bioethanol made from a single crop, be it

corn or a lignocellulosic substrate. It is in fact probably not desirable to develop a

single biofuel. There may well be different solutions for different climates, geogra-phies, and economies. In fact, meeting the present and future energy demands

requires the conversion of enormous amounts of wastes and biomass resources to

not one but a variety of biofuels.

1.2.4 Centralized/Local

Another point to consider is to what extent biofuel production should be centralized.Current energy production of course depends upon enormous petrochemical facili-

ties capable of treating and refining millions of barrels of oil on a daily basis. This

works and makes sense with a high-energy-density fuel source like fossil fuels, but

does it with biofuels which are made from relatively low-density starting materials

(biomass) or from direct conversion of solar energy with its relatively low energy


6/10

8 P.C. Hallenbeck

density? In fact, net energy considerations require that biorefining plants be cited

relatively close to source to minimize energy expenditures in transporting the neces-

sary lignocellulosic materials. As well, local siting might be required given that it is

probably necessary to grow different locally adapted plants suited for particular

geographies, soil types, and climates.

1.3 Business as Usual?

In addition to the considerations discussed above, new energy development gives us

the chance to reconsider some of the larger social questions involved in energy sup-

ply and use. The situation we find ourselves with presently was obviously not planned

but evolved as fossil fuel use became widespread, and was partially dictated by thecharacteristics of the fossil fuels themselves and the happenstance of their geographi-

cal location. As the new energy economy develops, there is a chance to revisit some

of the aspects of energy supply and use and their effect on human society (Fig. 1.2).

1.3.1 Local Use Has Global Effects

One perspective that has really only been indirectly considered in the past is that

local energy use often has global effects. Of course, the obvious case in point forfossil fuel use is that carbon dioxide generated during local combustion affects

global climate. Past fossil fuel burning by developed countries has been the major

contributor to the current and future climate change, which disproportionately

affects developing countries. In fact, World Health Organization (WHO) estimates

indicate that up to 99% of the disease burden from climate change is in developing

countries (Patz et al. 2007). The accumulated excess carbon dioxide levels can be

viewed as a natural debt, owed by citizens of developed countries, that has created

inequities on several levels: between countries and regions and between genera-

tions. Another way of looking at these inequities would be to regard carbon dioxideemissions as another kind of secondhand smoke (Patz et al. 2007). Many coun-

tries regulate exposure to secondhand tobacco smoke with the rationale that it is

Fig. 1.2 A partial list of some of the socio-economic issues involved in developing new energysupplies. Fossil fuel supply and use are at the very core of the worlds economy. Changing suppliescan have far ranging effects that need to be considered


7/10


unethical to expose members of society to the health-threatening effects of bad

behaviors of individuals. A logical extension of this line of reasoning is that it is

unethical for individual countries to wantonly expose the world at large to the life-

threatening effects of their excess fossil fuel use. Redressing these wrongs requires

a detailed full accounting of the past and future fossil fuel use. For example, a sim-

ple analysis shows that carbon dioxide emissions in the land areas of the developed

world have decreased by 2% over the past 18 years. However, if a consumption-

based analysis, which takes into account carbon dioxide emissions generated else-

where to produce the goods that are consumed (emissions embodied in international

trade), were used, emissions in the developed world have increased by 7% over the

same time period (Caldeira and Davis 2011; Peters et al. 2011). Carbon dioxide

emissions are merely being outsourced!

What will happen (or is already happening) with the development of new

energy? As the demand for biofuels grows, one danger, already realized to someextent, is that biofuels consumed in one region is at the expense of environmental

damage in another region due to land use changes (Fargione et al. 2008; Tilman

et al. 2009). For example, the demand for biodiesel, largely driven by fuel man-

dates in Europe, has been responsible for a significant fraction of total deforesta-

tion in Malaysia and Indonesia, and the loss of 6% of the total peatlands in this area

greatly increasing carbon emissions. For example, carbon losses due to deforesta-

tion for palm oil production in a single province of Indonesia are thought to be the

same order of magnitude as annual greenhouse gas emissions in the transportation

sector in the UK (Koh et al. 2011). Additional concerns have been raised about theimpact of the present, and certainly future, biofuels supply on food security, the

Food versus Fuel Debate. In fact, once again, this does not have to be an either

or situation, but it is evident that food security, especially in light of the predicted

population increase between now and 2050, has to be a major consideration when

developing biofuels policies (Karp and Richter 2011). Expanded food production

has to be carried out in a sustainable way and, of course, the same is true for future

biofuels production. Proposed biofuels-producing systems need to be carefully

analyzed for direct and indirect land use change, greenhouse gas emissions, in

particular any increase in N2O emissions caused by fertilizer use, impact on watersupply, etc.

1.3.2 Whose Resources for Whose Energy?

It is perhaps worthwhile considering how new clean energy would be distributed. It

could be argued that an equitable portion should go to the developing world, where

much of the raw material is likely to be produced. At present, about 50% of theworlds population relies on biomass for its cooking needs and biomass provides

about 40% of the global residential energy needs (85% in Africa) (Sagar and Kartha

2007). Although a renewable resource, it is not a clean burning fuel and is the big-

gest source of indoor air pollution worldwide with a large impact on the developing


8/10

10 P.C. Hallenbeck

world, killing about 1.6 million people and responsible for 38 million disability-

adjusted lost years (DALYs) a year (Sagar and Kartha 2007).

1.3.3 Will Energy DemandSupply Continue to Drive Politics

and Wealth Redistribution?

The availability and ownership of energy, specifically fossil oil, have played a major

role in world history almost since the time of the discovery of crude oil and certainly

throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries (Yergin 1992; Klare 2004). It

has been at the heart of some conflicts, and has heavily influenced many others. In

addition, it has been the cause of the most massive transfer of wealth in human his-tory. In this, the age of Hydrocarbon Man (Yergin 1992), the price of oil sets the

tenor of the economy and changes in its price can either plunge the world into reces-

sion or help spur on recovery.

The worlds dependence on oil and the consequent power behind its production

and distribution are so woven into the fabric of modern life that it is almost taken for

granted. Nevertheless, energy security, which in practical terms has meant unhin-

dered access to relatively cheap oil, has been on the minds of world leaders for more

than a century. One explicit statement of this has come to be known as the Carter

Doctrine.The Carter Doctrine:Let our position be absolutely clear: An attempt by any outside force to gain control of thePersian Gulf region will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the USA, and suchan assault will be repelled by any means necessary, including military force (Jimmy Carter,State of the Union, January 23, 1980).

However, policies like these are actually rooted much deeper in history, and the

Carter Doctrine merely echoes many earlier statements, such as those made by the

British Foreign Secretary at the beginning of the twentieth century and US President

Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II (Yergin 1992). Oil wealth and access tooil are at the roots of many conflicts between nations and much strife within coun-

tries (Ross 2008, Le Billon and Cervantes 2009; Tsui 2011). Much of this is due to

the radically unequal geographical distribution of oil resources, a situation that may

worsen as peak oil approaches and conventional oil fields are pumped out. For

example, peak oil production in America occurred around 1970 with great conse-

quences for the USA as it went from the worlds main oil producer to the worlds

largest oil importer.

Changes in oil production and the need of many countries to import oil have

driven, and are continuing to drive, large transfers in wealth. Certainly, oil hasplayed both direct and indirect roles in the growing inequity in wealth distribution.

For example, per capita income differences between the richest and poorest regions

of the world were merely 3:1 in 1820, and by 2001 this difference had ballooned to

18:1 (Gancia and Zilibotti 2009). Importation of petroleum products drives the US


9/10


trade deficit, accounting for about 60% of this value yearly now, which means that

close to one billion dollars is transferred from the USA daily to pay for oil.

Development of biofuels on a significant scale requires enormous quantities of

feedstocks. However, since these are likely to be at least somewhat more equally

distributed than fossil oil, this may alleviate some of the problems discussed in

this section. Nevertheless, the thirst for energy will continue to drive politics, and

economics to some extent. Some countries may establish trade barriers to support

their own biofuels industries. For example, both the US and the EU have estab-

lished tariff barriers against the importation of Brazilian ethanol. Biofuels

demands certainly distort many economies. Already, palm oil exports are import

drivers in Indonesia and Malaysia, each of which exported more than $16 billion

in palm oil in 2009, with the palm oil industry accounting for about one-third of

Malaysias GDP.

1.4 Conclusions

As the world moves forward on biofuels development and production, there are

many large social and sustainability issues to be resolved, as outlined in this chapter.

Finding long-lasting and equitable solutions requires intense debate at all levels.

Dealing with climate change and the need for new energy requires a shift from the

present carbon-based economy, certainly the greatest challenge before us.

References

Buxy A, Tait J (2011) Ethical framework for biofuels. Science 332:540541Caldeira K, Davis SJ (2011) Accounting for carbon dioxide emissions: a matter of time. Proc Natl

Acad Sci USA 108:85338534Editorial (2007) Kill king corn. Nature 449:637Fargione J, Hill J, Tilman D, Polasky S, Hawthorne P (2008) Land clearing and the biofuel carbon

debt. Science 319(5867):12351238Field CB, Campbell JE, Lobell DB (2007) Biomass energy: the scale of the potential resource.

Trends Ecol Evol 23:6572Gancia G, Zilibotti F (2009) Technological change and the wealth of nations. Annu Rev of Econ

1:93120International Energy Agency (2010) Energy technology perspectives. International Energy Agency,

Washington, DCKarp A, Richter GM (2011) Meeting the challenge of food and energy security. J Exp Bot.

doi:10.1093/jxb/err099

Kendall A, Chang B (2009) Estimating life cycle greenhouse gas emissions from corn-ethanol:a critical review of current U.S. practices. J Clean Prod 17(13):11751182Kerr RA (2008) World oil crunch looming? Science 322:11781179Kerr RA (2011) Peak oil production may already be here. Science 331:15101511Klare MT (2004) Blood and oil: The dangers and consequences of Americas growing dependency

on imported petroleum. Metropolitan Books, New York


10/10

12 P.C. Hallenbeck

Koh LP, Miettinen J, Liew SC, Ghazoul J (2011) Remotely sensed evidence of tropical peatlandconversion to oil palm. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108:51275132

Le Billon P, Cervantes A (2009) Oil prices, scarcity, and geographies of war. Ann Assoc Am Geogr99(5):836844

Markandya A, Wilkinson P (2007) Energy and health. 2. Electricity generation and health. Lancet370:979990

Ontario Ministry of Energy (2005) Cost benefit analysis: replacing Ontarios coal-fired electricitygeneration. http://www.energy.gov.on.ca Accessed June 22, 2011

Patz JA, Gibbs HK, Foley JA, Rogers JV, Smith KR (2007) Climate change and global health:quantifying a growing ethical crisis. Ecohealth 4:397405

Pearce F (2002) Big city killer: if cigarettes dont get you the traffic pollution will. New Sci 9:8Peters GP, Minx JC, Weber CL, Edenhofer O (2011) Growth in emission transfers via international

trade from 1990 to 2008. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108:89038908Ross ML (2008) Blood barrels why oil wealth fuels conflict. Foreign Aff 87(3):28Sagar AD, Kartha S (2007) Bioenergy and sustainable development? Annu Rev Environ Resour

32:131167Searchinger TD, Ralph Heimlich R, Houghton RA, Dong F, Elobeid A, Fabiosa J, Tokgoz S,Hayes D, Yu T-H (2007) Use of U.S. croplands for biofuels increases greenhouse gases throughemissions from land-use change. Science 319(5867):12381240

Tilman D, Socolow R, Foley JA, Hill J, Larson E, Lynd L et al (2009) Beneficial biofuels thefood, energy, and environment trilemma. Science 325:270271

Tsui KK (2011) More oil, less democracy: evidence from worldwide crude oil discoveries. Econ J121(551):89115

Wilkinson P, Smith KR, Joffe M, Haines A (2007) A global perspective on energy: health effectsand injustices. Lancet 370(9591):965978

Yergin D (1992) The prize: the epic quest for oil, money and power. Free Press, New York

Biofuels - The Larger Context

Documents

Transcript of Biofuels - The Larger Context