1

Biodiversity Mapping Survey/Study in

Kaziranga National Park (KNP)

Insects Chapter

Final Report

Prepared by

Mr. Rahul Khot

Entomologist

2

1. Introduction

In terrestrial ecosystems, insects play a vital function as herbivores, pollinators, predators and

parasites (Seimann and Weisser 2004). Insects are considered to pollinate nearly 70% of crop

plants worldwide and over 98% of trees (Klein et al. 2006).

Insects inhabit every terrestrial habitat on the planet and play a major role in the evolution and

maintenance of biotic communities. They are the primary pollinators of flowering plants; they

are important consumers and recyclers of decaying organic matter; and they are integral

components in the food-webs of vertebrates and other invertebrates. For these reasons, and many

others, the study of insects and their relatives is of increasing importance as society faces

increased challenges to preserve and enhance environmental quality, reduce pesticide usage,

increase crop productivity, control food costs, and increase trade in the global community.

The damage cause by pest species is far outweighed by the positive effects of beneficial species.

Pollinators ensure the production of fruit, parasitoids and predators help control pest species,

some species contain chemicals of pharmaceutical value, and a large number of species

contribute to the decomposition and recycling of dead and decaying matter.

The Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for Northeast Ecoregion states that 3,624 species of

insects are recorded from the region (Tripathi and Barik 2003). Butterflies and moths are by far

the best-studied invertebrate organisms in Northeast India, and the region contributes the

maximum number of species for the group in the country.

Knowledge of the fauna of the Eastern Himalayas Region is poor. Most of the information

available is on the larger vertebrates that are easily observed and inventoried. The smaller

mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes have been neglected and the most abundant

taxonomic group, the insects, have been virtually ignored. With the exception of a few studies

that have documented the Himalayas lepidoptera (Haribal 1992, Mani 1986, Yonzon 1991), little

else is available on the insect fauna of the region.

The information on insect diversity of Kaziranga NP is meagre as only a few studies have been

conducted so far (Singh and Varatharajan, 2013; Gogoi, 2013 and Senthilkumar 2010).

3

2. Objectives

The main objectives of the KNP biodiversity mapping survey/study include but are not limited to

the following:

1. Establish baseline data and survey protocols for future biodiversity monitoring;

2. Establish sound, repeatable field methods appropriate for local conditions;

3. Establish rigorous methods for collection and management of data and specimens, including

the production of high quality photographic documentation with use of camera traps, analysis

thereon and on-site field reconnaissance missions;

4. To bring out management planning by defining habitat preferences and distribution of a range

of fauna/flora/assemblages and threats to them;

5. Identify habitats with rare, endemic and ecologically/culturally important species, guilds and

assemblages;

6. Identify natural assemblages of plants/animals;

7. Provide natural history information on a range of species;

8. Capture broad season-specific behavioral pattern of species.

9. Documentation of management practices and identification of management zones, based on 5-

7 above;

10. Prepare information, data bank, especially on the importance of KNP, available for education

outreach.

11. Share detailed data and information of KNP and develop stronger coordination among the

Forestry Department, KNP, and FREMAA through organizing workshops.

4

3. Methods

Study area:

Kaziranga is located between latitudes 26°30' N and 26°45' N, and longitudes 93°08' E to 93°36'

E within two districts in the Indian state of Assam—the Kaliabor subdivision of Nagaon district

and the Bokakhat subdivision of Golaghat district.

The park is approximately 40 km in length from east to west, and 13 km in breadth from north to

south. Kaziranga covers an area of 378 km2, with approximately 51.14 km

2 lost to erosion in

recent years. A total addition of 429 km2 along the present boundary of the park has been made

and designated with separate national park status to provide extended habitat for increasing the

population of wildlife or, as a corridor for safe movement of animals to Karbi Anglong Hills.

Elevation ranges from 40 m to 80 m. The park area is circumscribed by the Brahmaputra River,

which forms the northern and eastern boundaries, and the Mora Diphlu, which forms the

southern boundary. Other notable rivers within the park are the Diphlu and Mora Dhansiri.

Kaziranga has flat expanses of fertile, alluvial soil, formed by erosion and silt deposition by the

River Brahmaputra. The landscape consists of exposed sandbars, riverine flood-formed lakes

known as, beels, and elevated regions known as, chapories, which provide retreats and shelter for

animals during floods. Many artificial chapories have been built with the help of the Indian

Army to ensure the safety of the animals. Kaziranga is one of the largest tracts of protected land

in the sub-Himalayan belt. The park is located in the Indomalaya ecozone, and the dominant

biomes of the region are Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests of the tropical and

subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome and a frequently flooded variant of the Terai-Duar

savanna and grasslands of the tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

biome. Average temperature ranges from 5 to 370

C and average humidity ranges between 65%

and 95%. Rainy season is May to October, and the annual rainfall is about 2500 mm.

Study organisms:

Butterflies are suitable for biodiversity studies, as the taxonomy, geographic distribution and

status of many species are relatively well known. Further, butterflies are good biological

indicators of habitat quality as well as general environmental health (Larsen1988; Kocher and

Williams 2000; Sawchik et al. 2005), as many species are strictly seasonal and prefer only

particular set of habitats (Kunte 1997). Butterflies may react to disturbance and change in habitat

and act as an ecological indicator (MacNallyand Fleishman 2004). They may get severely

affected by the environmental variations and changes in the forest structure, as they are closely

dependent on plants (Pollard 1991; Blair 1999). Thus minor changes in their habitat may lead to

either migration or local extinction (Blair 1999; Kunte 1997; Mennechez et al 2003).

5

Literature review:

Scientific study and documentation of Indian butterflies can be traced to the arrival of a Danish

medical doctor Johann Gerhard Koenig in southern India, as early as in 1767. W.H.Evans (1932)

provides an excellent scientific documentation of about 962 species/subspecies of butterflies

belonging to five taxonomic families from the Assam region alone. Doubleday (1845) seems to

be thefirst person to work on butterflies in the state when he worked in northern Assam covering

the areas of Sadia, Jorhat and Cachar followed by Moore (1857) who worked in Abor Hills and

Mishmi Hills, including Sadia.The celebrated work of Bingham 1905-1907) is also remarkable.

There is renewed interest in butterflies of the Indian Region due to increased awareness among

Indian citizens about butterflies, their biology and conservation issues. During recent years

following workers have studies butterflies in different areas of Assam state, Bhuyan et al., 2002

(Regional Research Laboratory Campus, Jorhat, Assam); Ali et al., 2000 (Zoo-Cum-

Botanicalgarden, Guwahati) Gogoi,2011 (Jeypore-Dehing forest, eastern Assam); Gogoi 2013

(Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong, upper Assam, India); Gogoi 2015 (Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong, upper

Assam, India)

Survey methods:

During the initial plan we provided different methodologies for insect sampling as follows

AREA SELECTION

Study area will be divided in various strata based on natural vegetation and human disturbance.

Grids will be selected randomly and number of grids selected will depend on proportion of each

stratum (same as for vegetation survey). The entire grid will be sampled if it is small and

accessible or random points will be selected in a grid for sampling.

6

DOCUMENTATION

During the field work insects will be photographed by using SLR camera and macro-lenses for

documentation and identification.

SAMPLING

Sampling is necessary for the qualitative and quantitative estimations of insects. It will be done

by using following methods.

DIRECT SEARCHING

(For all insects)

The insects will be searched in all suitable habitats like vegetation, leaf litter, under logs, stones,

grasses as each insect needs a specific microhabitat for survival. The active search will be carried

out in those microhabitats.

INSECT NET

(For winged insects)

More active insects require more active search; particularly butterflies, moths, dragonflies and

damselflies. To capture flying insect nets will be used on field. Insects are easy to catch in the

early morning or cloudy conditions because their activity decreases during such conditions.

SWEEP NETS

(for insects present in low vegetation)

Many insects like beetles, flies, grasshoppers and ants can be found on grasses. To collect these

insects sweep net method is followed. This method involves passing a sweep net through the

vegetation using alternative backhand and forehand strokes. After completing a series of the

sweeps, insects caught in the net can be encouraged to move to the closed top of the net by

holding this end towards the light. The collected insets will be removed and identified.

PITFALL TRAPS

(For active, surface living insects in low vegetation and bare ground)

Insects like beetles, ants, cockroaches, earwigs, termites, and bugs generally spend much of their

time on ground for foraging. These insects can be trapped by using pitfall trap method. Pitfall

trap consist of a straight sided container sunk level with the surface of the ground into which

insects inadvertently fall. Pitfall traps are set in a line with two meter distance in each pitfall trap.

Pitfall traps will be left for overnight and in the next day all insects will be collected for further

identification.

LIGHT TRAPS:

(for night flying insects)

Many night-flying insects are attracted towards light. Standard light traps of different

wavelengths will be used according to the purpose of the study. Insects trapped in the traps will

be collected for further identification.

7

QUANTIFICATION METHOD

Stripe transects of 10 m width and 500 m lengths will laid in randomly in each habitat to study

butterflies. Each transect will be intensively searched for direct sightings. All individuals seen

with in the transect limit will be recorded. Transects will be walked in two phases, morning

phase from 7 a.m. to 11 a.m. and evening phase from 4.00 p.m. to 7.00 p.m. when butterflies are

most active. Pace will be slow but constant covering the transect in about an hour.

Analysis of density, species richness and diversity:

The communities were analysed on the basis of density, species richness and diversity indices.

Density is expressed as the number of individuals of a species per unit area and is calculated as

follows:

Density (number of

plants per sample unit)

The analysis of biodiversity was carried out by calculating Shannon Diversity Index (H′),

Simpson Dominance Index (D) and Pielou Evenness Index (E). These indices were adopted

for their low sensitivity to the sample size (Magurran 1988).

Shannon Diversity Index (H’) = ‐ Σ pi ln pi

i.e. = ‐ Σ ni/N [ln (ni/N)]

Where, ni = importance value of the ith species

N = Importance value of all the species

Simpson’s Dominance Index (D) = Σ pi2

i.e. = Σ (ni/N)2

Where, ni = importance value of the ith species

N = Importance value of all the species

Pielou Evenness Index (E) = H’/ ln S

Where, H’ = Shannon Diversity Index

S = Total number of species

Species richness (D) was calculated according to Whittaker (1960)

D = S/ log N

Where, S = Total number of species in the sample

Total number of individuals of a species in all the sample units

= Total number of sample units studied

8

N= Total number of individuals in the sample

After conducting the pilot visit we found that it is not possible to perform all above methods and

it virtually impossible to study insects other than butterflies do to following reasons

1. We found that do to presence of large herbivours in great number it is not possible to lay

the trassects for butterflies on foot.

2. Night sampling was not allowes and advisable.

3. To confirm the identification of many insect spacies require collection and examination

undr microscope, it was not done as we were not allowed to collected any insects from

the Kaziranga NP

9

4. Results and discussions:

Literature based

Only three studies on insects have been carried out so far within the boundary of KNP

1. Butterflies (Gogoi 2009)

A total of 493 butterfly species have been recorded from hilly area of Kaziranga, Assam,

India based on field work carried during 2007-2009. These include 186 species of

Hesperiidae family, 144 species of Lycaenidae,119 species of Nymphalidae, 19 species

of Papilionidae,23 species of Pieridae and 2 species of Riodinidae. Please refer

Annexure 1 for checklist.

2. Orthopteroids (Short horned grasshoppers, ckickets, longhorn grasshoppers, praying

mantis) (Senthilkumar 2010)

Thirty-six species of orthopteroids belonging to 30 genera, and four families were

recorded in different habitats viz., forestlands, savannahs and grasslands of the Kaziranga

National Park (KNP) at Assam. The observations were recorded during the period of

three years from January 2007 to December 2009, by periodical monthly visits to Kohora

range (central range), Baguri range (western range) and Agoratoli range (eastern range)

based on the habitat types selected. The family Acrididae had the largest species

representation (19 species) followed by Tettigoniidae (nine species) and Mantidae (five

species) while Gryllidae was represented by three species only. None of the species found

in the study area are known to be threatened under any category of IUCN. Please refer

Annexure 2for checklist.

3. Trips (Singh and Varatharajan 2013)

The survey undertaken at KNP revealedthe occurrence of 96 species of thripsin 55 genera

under two major families, viz. Thripidae and Phlaeothripidae of thetwo respective

suborders, namely Terebrantiaand Tubulifera. Of the 53 speciesof phlaeothripids of the

latter suborder, the subfamily Phlaeothripinae had a representationof 44 species in 21

generaand the fungal spore feeding Idolothripinaewith 9 species in 4 genera. On theother

hand, among the 43 species ofterebrantians, 33 were represented bymembers of the

subfamily Thripinae in21 genera and the rest 10 species under 9genera by

Panchaetothripines. It is significantto note that of the 96 thrips collectedin the present

10

study, 32 areendemic. Further, the collection recordhas also indicated the occurrence of

22species of free-living foliage feeders, 19anthophilous forms, 17 gall makers,

14mycophagous thrips, 8 pests, 7 each ofweed and grass inhabitors, besides 2 predatory

thrips (Table 1). Thus the fieldsurvey has not only reflected the diversefeeding habits and

habitats of thysanopterans but also signifies the faunal similarityto some extent with that

of theWestern Ghats of South India (60%), theGreat Himalayan ranges of North India

(35%) and also with Southeast Asia(20%) at varying levels, besides havingfauna of its

own along with a few cosmopolitanspecies. with SE Asia owing to proximity. Therefore,

thrips of KNP can be consideredas a mixed composition of diverse speciesfrom different

geographic regions.Please refer Annexure 3 for checklist.

Survey Based:

During this study we found 105 numbers of butterflies in the Kaziranga NP belonging to

six families (17 Hesperiidae; 21 Lycaenidae; 50 Nymphalidae; 2 Riodinidae; 8

Papilionidae and 7 Pieridae). Please refer Annexure 4 for the checklist.

16%

20%

48%

2% 7%

7%

Familywise butterfly species richness

Hesperiidae Lycaenidae Nymphalidae Riodinidae Papilionidae Pieridae

11

Maximum number of butterfly species were observed in Karbi Anglong area of

Kaziranga NP. This could be due to availability of hostplants and nectorplants as this area

is reach in plant species.

12

5. Future research recommemdations:

1. It is necessary to do long term monitoring of insects especially butterflies of

Kaziranga NP.

2. Care should be taken to device methods based on field situations. As during this

study, we observed that it is not possible to do execute all necessary field methods

due to various resons including presence of large herbiours and local climatic

conditions.

13

6. References

Ali, I, and Basistha, S. K. (2000) Butterfly diversity of Assam State Zoo-Cum-Botanical Garden.

Zoo’s Print.15, 264-265.

Evans, W.H. (1932) The identification of Indian Butterflies. The Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay, India, 455

Haribal, M. (1992) Butterflies of Sikkim Himalaya and their natural history. Nature

Conservation Foundation, Gangtok, Sikkim. 217 pp.

Klein A. M., Steffan-Dewenter I. & Tscharntke T. (2004) Foraging trip duration and density of

megachilid bees, eumenid wasps and pompilid wasps in tropical agroforestry systems.

Journal of Animal Ecology. 73: 517-525

Mani, M.S. (1986) Butterflies of the Himalaya. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. New Delhi. Pp.

181.

Larsen, T. B. (1988) The butterflies of the Nilgiri Mountains of the Southern India Lepidoptera:

Rhopalocera). Journal of the Bombay Natural HistorySociety. 84: 26-43.

Tripathi, R. S. & Barik, S. K. (2003) Shifting Cultivation in North East India, In: Proc.

Approaches for increasing agricultural productivity in hill und mountain ecosystem.

ICAR research complex for North East Hill region, Umiam, Meghalaya, India.

Weisser, W. W. and Siemann, E. (2004) The various effects of insects on ecosystem functioning.

In: Weisser WW, Siemann E, editors. Insects and Ecosystem Function. Springer,Berlin,

Heidelberg. 3–24

14

7. Natural History of selected butterflies

Family Papilionidae

1) Common Mormon (Papilio polytes)

Jet black butterfly with row of white spots along the middle part of hindwing. 90–100 mm.

Range

Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, southern and western China

(including Hainan (Guangdong province), Taiwan, Hong Kong, Japan (Ryukyu Islands),

Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Andamans, Nicobars, Eastern and Peninsular Malaysia, Brunei,

Indonesia (except Moluccas and Irian Jaya), Philippines, and Northern Marianas (Saipan)

Status

Very common. Not threatened. (Collins, N.M. & Morris, M.G. (1985). Threatened Swallowtail

Butterflies of the World. IUCN. ISBN 2-88032-603-6)

Male

The male has one morph only. It is a dark-coloured swallow-tailed butterfly. The upper forewing

has a series of white spots decreasing in size towards the apex. The upper hindwing has a

complete discal band of elongated white spots. It may or may not have marginal red crescents.

The males are generally smaller in size than the females but not always. Both male and all forms

of the female of P. polytes can vary considerably in size depending on climatic region.

Female

The female of the Common Mormon is polymorphic. In South Asia, it has three forms or

morphs. These are as follows:

Form Cyrus

This form is similar to the male, differing in that it always has strongly marked red crescents. It

is the least common of the three forms. It is normally abundant where the common rose or

crimson rose do not occur, such as in Himachal Pradesh around Shimla; although a few

specimens of form romulus have also been caught alongside.

Form Stichius

This female form of the Common Mormon mimics the common rose very closely. This is the

commonest form wherever the common rose flies.

Form Romulus

This female form mimics the crimson rose and is common over its range. It is not such a close

mimic as the previous form being duller than its model. It is easy to differentiate the mimics

15

from models by the colour of their body—the models are red-bodied and the mimics are black-

bodied.

Gynandromorphs

This species has considerable genetic variability and is known to produce gynandromorphs,

genetic aberrations which are part male and part female.

Mimicry

In India, this butterfly is considered as the classic example of Batesian mimicry in which edible

species resemble unpalatable butterflies in order to escape being eaten by predators.

The populations of the mimicking morphs of the Common Mormon are much smaller than that

of their models - the common or crimson rose. This is in order to allow first time predators a

much greater chance of preying upon the unpalatable model in the first instance and thus

learning of their inedibility.

Larger populations of mimics could result in the edible Common Mormon mimics being sampled

the first time by predators. If this should happen, the predator may not realise that butterflies of

that colour and pattern are protected by the poisons they ingest; thus dramatically reducing the

effectiveness of this scheme of protection.

In Sulawesi, although the common rose is abundant, the Common Mormon female morph which

is found there, mimics a completely different butterfly, Atrophaneura polyphontes.

Habitat

The Common Mormon prefers lightly wooded country, but is present everywhere and high up

into the hills. It is a regular visitor to gardens, being especially abundant in orchards of its

foodplants—oranges and limes. It is most common in the monsoon and post-monsoon months.

16

Habits

Female form romulus seen laying an egg on Murraya paniculata

The Common Mormon is fond of visiting flowers and its long proboscis permits it to feed from

flowers having long corollar tubes. It is particularly fond of Lantana, Jatropha, Ixora, and

Mussaenda in city gardens. In the forests, the Common Mormon remains low keeping within ten

feet off the floor and its prefer to visit Asystasia, Peristrophe, and Jasminum for nectar.

The male Common Mormon is a very common visitor to gardens where he will be seen hovering

over flowers when the sun is shining. It is a restless insect, zig-zagging fast and straight close to

the ground, settling down only when it halts to feed.

The mimic female Mormons, stichius and romulus are very convincing mimics due to their

habits, especially the flight patterns, being very similar to those of the rose models. However,

lacking the protection of inedibility, they tend to be more easily disturbed than the roses and fly

off erratically.

Only the males take part in mud puddling, usually in cool shaded spots rather than in open areas.

They have been known to collect on saline soils to extract minerals.

Both sexes bask in the sun on shrubs close to the ground. They hold their wings flat against the

substratum. The forewing is lowered to cover part of the hindwing and is a typical stance of the

Common Mormon.

Common Mormons spend the night settled on vegetation with their wings held open, usually

quite close to the ground.

Lifecycle

The females perch on an exposed branch with wings open or closed. They are courted by the

males who approach from behind and slowly and elegantly settle into position.

Eggs

The eggs are laid singly on top of the leaves. They are round and yellow to light-orange in

colour.

Caterpillar

The first few instars of the caterpillar closely resemble those of the lime butterfly.

The later instars become dark green in colour. There is a transverse black band with an eye-spot

on each side on the 4th and 5th segments. This band, being darker and brighter than that of the

Lime Butterfly caterpillar, is the key distinction between the two.

The Common Mormon caterpillar also has a black and white oblique band on the 8th and 9th

segments, making it resemble that of the blue Mormon. The deep red osmeterium and yellowish-

brown head help distinguish it from the blue Mormon caterpillar which has a greenish head.

Common Mormon caterpillars are heavily parasitised by chalcid wasps, with over a hundred tiny

wasps eventually emerging from each Mormon pupa.

Pupa

17

The pupa is located on underside of leaves and twigs. The pupa is light green and unmarked. It

has two projections to the front on its head and also one on its thorax. It closely resembles the

Lime Butterfly caterpillar but can be distinguished by:

- the projections on the head which have a deeper indentation between them.

- the abdomen which protrudes to a small point on each side.

2) Lime Butterfly (Papilio demoleus)

Description

The butterfly is tailless and has a wingspan 80–100 mm. Above, the background colour is black.

A broad, irregular yellow band is found on the wings above, which is broken in the case of the

forewing. Besides this the butterfly has a large number of irregular spots on the wing. The upper

hindwing has a red tornal spot with blue edging around it.

As the butterfly caterpillar ages, its hunger for leaf tissue continues to grow.

The underside has the ground-colour similar, the cream-coloured markings paler and

conspicuously larger. The markings differ from those on the upperside in that the forewing has

the basal half of cell and base of wing below it with cream-coloured streaks that coalesce at base;

irregular ochraceous spots in interspaces 5 to 8 and the discal series of spots complete not

interrupted in interspace 5. On the underside of the hind wing, the black at base of wing and

along the dorsal margin centred largely with pale cream-colour; the ocellus in interspace 7, the

apex of the cell and the black groundcolour between the medial band and postdiscal markings in

interspaces 2-6 centred with ochraceous, margined with blue.

Antennae dark reddish brown, touched with ochraceous on the innerside towards the club; head,

thorax and abdomen dusky black, the head and thorax anteriorly streaked with cream-vellow:

beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen cream-yellow with lateral longitudinal black lines on the

last.

Status, range and habitat

Papilio demoleus is an aggressive and very common butterfly. It is perhaps the most widely

distributed swallowtail in the world. The butterfly can be found in Oman, UAE, Saudi Arabia,

Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Iran, western and possibly eastern Afghanistan, and western Pakistan,

Sri Lanka, India (including the Andamans), Nepal, Burma, Thailand, the Philippines,

Kampuchea, southern China (including Hainan, Guangdong province), Taiwan, Japan (rare

strays), Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sula, Talaud, Flores, Alor and

Sumba), Papua New Guinea, Australia (including Lord Howe's island), apparently Hawaii and

possibly other Pacific Ocean islands.

Formerly absent from Borneo it is now one of the commonest papilionids in Sabah and Sarawak

in Malaysian Borneo, Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) and in Brunei.

In recent years the butterfly has spread to Hispaniola island (Dominican Republic) in the

Western Hemisphere and subsequently to Jamaica and Puerto Rico. The Dominican population

originated from Southeast Asia but how the butterfly reached there is not known.

18

The widespread range of Papilio demoleus indicates the butterfly's tolerance and adaptation to

diverse habitats. It is to be found in savannahs, fallow lands, gardens, evergreen and semi-

evergreen forests and shows a preference for stream and riverbeds. In India it is mostly found in

the plains but can be found on the hills of peninsular India and up to 7000 feet in the Himalayas.

It is common in urban gardens and may also be encountered in wooded country. The butterfly is

also a very successful invader, its spread appearing to be due to its strong flight, increase in

urbanization and agricultural land use that opens up new areas for dispersal, and greater

availability of food plants.

Behavior

This butterfly is an avid mud-puddler and visitor of flowers. It basks with its wings held wide

open on tufts of grass, herbs and generally keeps within a meter above the ground, even on

cloudy days. It relies on its quick flight for escape. It is an interesting butterfly in that it has a

number of modes of flight. In the cool of the morning, the flight is slow considering that it is an

edible and unprotected swallowtail. As the day progresses, it flies fast, straight and low. In the

hotter part of the day, it may be found settling on damp patches where it will remain motionless,

except for an occasional flutter of wings, if not disturbed.

It is also a frequent visitor of flowers in gardens, where it shows a preference for flowers of

smaller herbs rather than larger plants such as the ubiquitous Lantana with its plentiful blooms. It

can be found swarming in the groves of its food plants.

Research on freshly emerged imagines of Papilio demoleus showed that they have an inborn or

spontaneous preference while feeding for blue and purple colours while the yellow, yellowish-

green, green and blue-green colours are completely neglected.

Lifecycle

The number of generations of Papilio demoleus is dependent upon temperature – near the

equator, nine generations have been recorded, while in warm temperate China, five generations

have been recorded. In the ideal conditions of a laboratory, a generation has been recorded to

take place in just over 30 days. The average time for one generation of Papilio demoleus to

mature in the field ranges from 26 to 59 days. In cold climates, the lime butterfly is known to

pass the winter as pupae. Typically, the butterfly undergoes five instars as a caterpillar.

The female butterfly goes from plant to plant, laying a single egg at a time on top of a leaf which

it holds onto with its legs, and flies off as soon as the egg is laid. The egg is round, light

yellowish in colour, flattened at the base, smooth-surfaced and about 1.5 mm in height. Fertile

eggs develop a small red mark at the apex.

The newly hatched caterpillar stays in the middle of the upper side of the leaf. The first instar of

the caterpillar is black, with a black heads and two rows of sub-dorsal fleshy spines. The second,

third and fourth instars are dark, with glossy, dark-brown head, and white markings on the 8th

and 9th segments of the caterpillar which resemble a white patch of uric acid deposited in a bird's

droppings, helping them escape predation while remaining in moderately open places.

19

As the instars progress, this resemblance is lost. From the fifth instar onwards, the caterpillars

now turn cylindrical in shape, tapered towards the rear, and uniformly pale green in colour with a

white sub-spiracular band. An additional black band is developed on the 4th and 5th segments

with two black and two bluish spots on them. The 8th and 9th segments, which earlier provided

the camouflage markings now develop a brown and white band. At this stage, the caterpillars are

forced to inhabit secluded places.

The pupa, which is rugose, stout and 30 mm in length, has two projections to the front on its

head and also one on its thorax and resembles that of the common Mormon Papilio polytes, the

difference being that the common Mormon pupa has a deeper cut between the projections and its

abdomen is more protruded on the sides, having a small point.

The pupa is dimorphic with regards to colour, with the colour developing according to the

prevalent colour and texture in the background. The green morph, which is found amongst green

vegetation and smoother textures, is light green and unmarked or with yellow dorsal markings.

When situated among brown or dry objects, the pupa tends to turn light grey-brown to pink-

brown and develop cryptic dark brown and black striation.

The adults fly in every month but are particularly abundant during and after the monsoons.

Parasitism and predation

Cocoons of a parasitoid wasp (Apanteles sp. Braconidae), next to a perforated Papilio demoleus

caterpillar.

Despite their two stage camouflage scheme, some caterpillars of Papilio demoleus are found by

parasitic wasps which lay dozens of eggs in them. The parasitic wasp larva eats the caterpillar

from the inside. Initially the vital organs are avoided, but by the time the caterpillar is ready to

pupate even the vital organs are consumed. Shortly before, or soon after the caterpillar pupates,

the parasitoids emerge from their host thus killing it.

In Saudi Arabia, the highest mortality rate was found to be in larvae and pupae in cultivated

populations due to a bacterium of the genus Bacillus. In addition, eggs and larvae were heavily

predated upon by two unidentified species of spiders which were abundant on citrus trees.

In China, species of fungi in the genus "Ophiocordyceps are known to parasitize many kinds of

caterpillars including Papilio demoleus. The spores were spread out of the parents’ fungi, and

infect the young caterpillar, then when the caterpillar becomes pupa, they will fail to develop

into an adult butterfly, instead the fungi killed, and eat the caterpillar flesh from within, and grow

a spore bud out of the dead caterpilaar corpse. The fungi were known as "Dōng chóng xià cǎo"

that have medicinal property in China, and are known in English as caterpillar fungus.

In India, the following braconid wasp parasitoids are known to parasitize Papilio demoleus

larvae-Apanteles spp. including Apanteles papilionis.Bracon hebetor.

In Thailand, a number of organisms have been recorded attacking immature stages of Papilio

demoleus.

Egg parasites

20

Ooencyrtus malayensis Ferriere (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae)

Tetrastichus sp. (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae).

Larval stage

Erycia nymphalidophaga Baronoff (Diptera: Tachinidae) (parasite).

Cantheconidea furcellata (Wolff) (Pentatomidae predator.

Other natural enemies of larvae included reduviid bugs; birds; spiders; sphecid wasps; and

chameleons.

Pupal parasites

Brachymeria sp. (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae)

Pteromalus puparum Linnaeus (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae).

Ophiocordyceps was a genus of fungi that it's spore got into the caterpillar, and start to eat the

pups from within growing a spore stalk out the cocoon, which is commonly known as Caterpillar

Fungus.In Jamaica, an encyrtid egg parasitoid and a chalcidoid parasitoid have been reported.

3) Common Bluebottle (Graphium sarpedon)

The Common Bluebottle (Graphium sarpedon), or Blue Triangle in Australia, is a species of

swallowtail butterfly, that is found in South and Southeast Asia, as well as eastern Australia.

There are approximately sixteen subspecies with differing geographical distributions.

Description

Upperside opaque black. Fore and hind wings crossed from above the tornal area on tho hind to

near the apex of the fore wing by a semi-hyaline broad pale blue medial band which is broadest

in the middle, more or less greenish and macular anteriorly; the portion of the band that crosses

interspaces 6, 7 and 8 on the hind wing white; beyond the band on the hind wing there is a sub-

terminal line of blue slender lunules. Underside similar, ground-colour dark brown. Hind wing: a

short comparatively broad sub-basal band from costa to sub-costal vein, and the postdiscal area

between the medial blue band and the sub-terminal lunules velvety black traversed by the pale

veins and transversely, except in interspaces 6 and 7, by narrow crimson lines; lastly, a crimson

spot near the tornal angle with an admarginal yellowish-white spot below it. Antenna, head,

thorax and abdomen brown, the head and thorax suffused with greenish grey; beneath: the palpi,

thorax and abdomen touched with dingy white, the abdomen with two whitish lateral lines.

Male has abdominal fold within grey, furnished with a tuft of long, somewhat stiff white hairs.

Race teredon, Felder. (South India and Sri Lanka) is distinguishable in both sexes by the

narrower medial band that crosses both fore and hind wing. Colour brighter, the contrast between

the green of the upper and the blue of the lower portion of the medial band more vivid. Hind

wing more produced posteriorly at apex of vein 3, where it forms an elongate tooth or short tail.

Variously reported with wingspans between 55 and 75 mm, the Common Bluebottle has black

upper wings and brown lower wings. Both fore and hind wings are marked by a central spot in

the form of a blue or blue-green triangle, with apex pointing toward the body.

21

Habitat

Graphium sarpedon is primarily an inhabitant of moist, low-level rain forests (below 1600

m/5000 feet). In these elevations it is usually seen flying just above the tree canopy. The larvae

of the Common Bluebottle feed on trees of the laurel family, which includes the cinnamon tree,

and have expanded their range to include cinnamon tree plantations. In eastern Australia, they

have adapted to a drier subtropical environment, and are commonly seen in suburban gardens in

Queensland and New South Wales.

Behavior

The males are known for their habit of feeding by the edges of puddles, often at the roadside.

Occasionally, as many as eight will be seen at the same puddle. They have also been known to be

attracted to animal droppings, carcasses and rotting insects.

It has been recorded as a migrant in South India and is known to mud-puddle during migration.

The butterfly has been seen as comprising as much as 5% of the population of migrating

butterflies during a 72-hour period in the Nilgiri hills.

The Common Bluebottle is known for quick flight and rapid reactions. Consequently, it is

difficult to catch.

22

Diet

The adult Common Bluebottle feeds on nectar from a variety of flowering herbs. The larvae feed

primarily on the leaves of trees in the families Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Sapotaceae, and Rutaceae.

In particular, G.s. sarpedon and G.s. teredon often feed on leaves of the cinnamon bark tree,

Cinnamomum zeylanicum, or of the Indian laurel, Litsea sebifera.

The list of larval food plants also includeAlseodaphne semecarpifolia, Cinnamomum camphora,

Cinnamomum macrocarpum, Cinnamomum malabathrum, Litsea chinensis, Polyalthia

longifolia, Miliusa tomentosa, Persea macrantha and Michelia doltospa.

The larvae of G. s. choredon, native to Australia, feed on many native Australian species of

genera Cryptocarya and Litsea; and virtually all subspecies feed on leaves of the camphor tree,

Cinnamomum camphora, which is native to China but has been naturalized throughout southeast

Asia.

Life cycle

Egg

The egg is yellowish, laid singly on the leaves of a host plant.

Larva

When young, is black or dark green, with numerous spines; when full grown, it is green with a

short spine on each thoracic segment and anal segment. There is a transverse yellow band on the

4th segment and a lateral band on the body. The caterpillar usually lies on the centre of a leaf on

an upper surface. It is very sluggish and pupates near its feeding spot. " Smooth, thickened from

the second to the 5th segment and thence decreasing to the end; with two short subdorsal fleshy

spines on the 4th segment, between which is a transverse pale yellow line, two shorter spines

also on the 2nd and 3rd and two on the anal segment; colour green, with a longitudinal posterior

lateral and lower pale yellowish line." (Frederic Moore quoted in Bingham, 1907)

Pupa

The pupa is green with a slender and pointed thoractic projection, yellowish wingcases and

lateral bands. "Conical, truncated in front; thorax produced into a lengthened obtusely-pointed

frontal process." (Frederic Moore quoted in Bingham, 1907)

23

4) Common Birdwing (Troides helena)

The Common Birdwing (Troides helena) is a butterfly belonging to the family Papilionidae. It is

often found in the wildlife trade due to its popularity with butterfly collectors. The butterfly has

seventeen subspecies.

Description

The description of the commonest subspecies of the butterfly in India, T. h. cerberus Felder, is

given below

Male

Upperside of forewings are rich velvety black with adnervular pale streaks on either side of the

veins beyond the cell. The cilia is short, black, alternated with pale buffy white in the middle of

the interspaces.

Hindwing: the abdominal fold, the apical half obliquely of interspace 1, the termen broadly, the

base of the cell and the costal area up to and including the basal half of interspace 7 velvety

black, the rest of the wing rich silky yellow; the veins prominently but narrowly black; the inner

margin of the terminal black border produced inwards into prominent cone-shaped markings in

the interspaces.

All specimens have one or more postdiscal black spots in the interspaces, but never a complete

series; in interspace 2 and sometimes also in interspace 3 these spots coalesce with the cone-

shaped projections of the terminal black border. Underneath the abdominal fold is a dense mass

of buffy-white scented cottony pubescence. Underside similar, the adnervular pale streaks on the

fore wing broader and more prominent.

Hindwing: dorsal margin broadly black, with an edging of long soft black hairs; interspace 1

with a large oval postdiscal and a terminal black spot; interspace 2 with the postdiscal black spot

generally separate from the cone-shaped projection of the black terminal border; the apical and

lateral margins of interspaces 2-6 pale yellow irrorated with black scales.

Antenna, head and thorax black, the collar narrowly crimson; abdomen yellow, shaded above

with black; beneath: the thorax with a large lateral patch of crimson, the anal segment

prominently buff-coloured.

24

Female

Upper and under sides of the female is similar to those in the male, but with the following

differences:

Forewing: the adnervular pale streaks broader and more prominent.

Hindwing: the black at base and along the costal margin broader, occupying fully one-third of

the cell, the area above it and above vein 7, interrupted however, in interspace 7 near the apex of

wing, by a transverse yellow mark which is sometimes subobsolete ; a postdiscal series of large

oval black spots, those in interspaces 2 and 3 often joined on the upperside to the cone-shaped

terminal black marks; dorsal margin also more broadly black, without the fringe of black hairs

and or course of the abdominal fold. Antenna, head and thorax as in the male; abdomen dark

brownish black above.

Distribution and Status

T. helena is widely distributed and locally common in forest areas. Globally it is found in Nepal,

India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, peninsular and eastern Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Laos,

Kampuchea, Thailand, Vietnam, southern China including Hainan, and Hong Kong. In the

Indonesian archipelago, T. helena is found in Sumatra, Nias, Enggano, Java, Bawean, Kangean

Islands, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Great Natuna (Bunguran), Sulawesi, Butung, Tukangbesi,

Kalimantan, and Brunei.

In Hong Kong, T. helena is at the northern limit of its range. It is not common in Hong Kong but

it is observed that there are stable populations in three sites (the surrounding area of Po Lo Che

(Sai Kung), Shan Liu Road (Tai Po) and Kadoorie Farm & Botanic Garden in the New

Territories. It is also found on Lantau Island and Hong Kong Island.

In India the T. helena is found in the North-East of the country including Sikkim, West Bengal,

and Orissa. It is also found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The subspecies found in India

are-

T. h. cerberus (C. & R. Felder, 1865) – Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland,

Manipur, Orissa, Mizoram, Sikkim, Tripura, W. Bengal.

T. h. heliconoides (Moore, 1877) – Andaman Is.

T. h. ferrari Tytler, 1926 – South Nicobar Is.

The Common Birdwing, though widespread and common in many of the localities in which it

occurs, is classified as Vulnerable. (Collins, N. M. & M. G. Morris. (1985) Threatened

Swallowtail Butterflies of the World. IUCN. ISBN 2-88032-603-6)

5) Paris Peacock (Papilio paris)

The Paris Peacock (Papilio paris) is a species of swallowtail butterfly found in the Indian

Subcontinent and Southeast Asia.

Description

25

Male

Upperwings are black and irrorated with dark green scales, which on the outer portion of the

forewing coalesce and form an incomplete postdiscal narrow band which is straighter than the

similar subterminal band on the forewing of Papilio polyctor.

On the hindwing, the irroration of dark green scales does not extend to the costal margin and is

interrupted posteriorly by a broad postdiscal area, on both sides of which the green scales

coalesce to form narrow diffuse bands; a conspicuous upper discal shining blue patch occupies

the base of interspace 4 and outer portions of interspaces 5 and 6; this patch is variable in size,

and in many specimens extends narrowly below and above the interspaces 3 and 7, respectively,

its outer margin is uneven, its inner margin evenly arched; a prominent claret-red largely black-

centred ocellus at the tornal angle, its inner margin with a transverse short violet-blue superposed

line; in many specimens an obscure claret-red subterminal lunule in interspace 7.

Underside opaque black; bases of both fore and hind wings, up to basal half of cell in fore and up

to apex of cell in hind wing, with an irroration of yellowish scales; also present more obscurely

on the subterminal area in both wings. Fore wing with a very broad elongate triangular pale area

that does not extend to the termen, formed of inter-nervular broad very pale ochraceous-white

streaks, short near the tornus, gradually longer up to the costa. Hind wing: a prominent

subterminal series of ochraceous-red lunules traversed by short violet-blue lines; in interspaces

1,2 and sometimes in 3, these lunules are formed into more or less complete largely black

centred ocelli by the addition of an admarginal portion of the red ring. Cilia conspicuously white

in the interspaces. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen black, the latter three sprinkled with

green scales above.

Female

Similar to the male but somewhat paler and duller. Upperside of the forewing has the green

postdiscal band shorter and more incomplete than in the male. Hindwing with the upper discal

patch smaller, often green and not blue, the red subterminal lunule in interspace 7 is always

present and more prominent than in the male.

Underside of wings similar to that in the male, but the tornal and subtornal markings generally

formed into more or less complete ocelli.

Wingspan: 106–132 mm

Distribution

The Himalayas from Kumaon to Sikkim, Nepal and Bhutan; the hills of Assam, Burma and

Tenasserim, extending to Thailand and the Malay Peninsula. A common insect in Sikkim, where

it is found from the Terai up to 5,000 feet. It is rare in Burma and Tenasserim. It also occurs in

some parts of the Western Ghats, such as the Chikmaglure b.b.hill ranges.

6) Tailed Jay (Graphium agamemnon)

The Tailed Jay (Graphium agamemnon) is a predominantly green and black tropical butterfly

that belongs to the swallowtail family. The butterfly is also called green-spotted triangle, tailed

26

green jay, or the green triangle. It is a common, nonthreatened species native to India, Sri Lanka

through Southeast Asia and Australia. Several geographic races are recognized.

Range

Southern India to Saurashtra, Northern India (Kumaon to Assam), Nepal, Sri Lanka, Andamans,

Nicobars, Bangladesh, Brunei, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, southern China (including

Hainan), Taiwan, South East Asia to New Guinea, Bougainville, Solomon Islands, and Australia

(northern Queensland).

Description

Male upperside black. Forewing with the following green markings: a spot at the extreme base

of the costal margin, a transverse short bar near base of cell and seven spots beyond, two and two

except the apical spot which is single ; two spots beyond apex of cell; a spot at base of

interspaces 1a and 1, followed by two oblique short macular bands; a discal series of spots

decreasing in size towards the costa, and a postdiscal series of smaller spots that begins with two

in interspace 1; the spots in interspace 7 in both series are out of line, placed outwards. Hind

wing: three series of similarly-coloured markings that ran transversely across the wing more or

less parallel to the dorsal margin, the upper markings (those in interspace 7) white; a short

greenish stripe at the extreme base of the wing.

Ventral view

Underside: fuliginous brown or brownish-black, more or less suffused with pink along the costal

margin, on apical area and along the outer margin of the discal markings on the fore wing,

broadly along the dorsal and terminal margins and at base on interspaces 6 and 7 on the hind

wing; markings similar to those on the upperside but less clearly defined and somewhat more

grey in tint. Hind wing black, inwardly red-margined spots superposed on the pink area in

interspaces 6 and 7. cilia very narrow, pale pink. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen black,

thorax above and the abdomen on the sides streaked with greenish grey; beneath: ochreous grey

touched on the thorax with pink.

Female similar, but with a streak of greenish white along the dorsal margin on both upper and

under sides.

Race decoratus is found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and is very similar to the typical

form, from which it can be distinguished as follows : Upperside green spots smaller, especially

the discal series on the fore wing. Underside hind wing : the red postcostal spot is relatively

small but the red part has much increased against the black part; besides the large red anal mark

and the mark before the first disco-cellular veinlet, there is a large red spot in the lower median

cellule, a smaller red spot in each of the three preceding cellules and a streak-like spot at the base

of the lower median cellule.

Status

27

Graphium agamemnon is common and not threatened.

Habitat

Once found primarily close to wooded country where there is a fairly heavy rainfall, the Tailed

Jay is now very common at low elevations and regularly seen in gardens and urban areas due to

its foodplant, Polyalthia longifolia (False Ashoka or Mast Tree), being widely used as an

ornamental tree.

Behavior

Strong and restless fliers, they are very active butterflies and flutter their wings constantly even

when at flowers. They are seldom seen drinking from damp patches. The males are particularly

fond of nectaring from flowers such as Lantana, Ixora, Mussaenda, and Poinsettia. The females

are more likely caught when looking for foodplants or laying eggs.

Tailed Jays are active throughout the year but their abundance depends upon the local monsoon

and availability of the larval host plants. The butterflies generally fly among the tree-tops but

descend to ground level in search of flowers or host plants. Because of their relatively fast life

cycle (just over one month from egg to adult), Tailed Jays are multivoltine and may produce up

to 7–8 broods per year.

It has been noted in one instance to be attracted to lights at night.

Life cycle

This species can take from 33–36 days from egg to adult. The species is multivoltine with at least

7–8 broods in a year.

Eggs

The eggs are pale yellow and are laid singly on the underside of young leaves, and hatch after 3–

4 days.

Larva

Young larvae are dark yellowish green with a pale yellow band in the middle of the abdomen.

From the head, which is moderately large, the body increases in thickness rapidly to the 4th or

5th segment and then tapers gradually down to the tail. It has four pairs of spines. The colour is

at first smoky-black, but at the last moult becomes a light clear green faintly marked with lines of

a darker shade. The fully grown larva is green, fusiform and having small black spots. It has a

pair of osmeterium and black spines on each thoracic segment, the third pair being orange-

yellow. A fourth pair is situated on the last segment. The caterpillars undergo five instars over a

period of 15–16 days, during which many are attacked by parasitoid wasps.

Pupa

The pupae are green or brownish. They are found attached on the underside of leaves; sometimes

on the upperside, and are held in place with a body girdle. The pupal stage lasts for 13–14 days.

The horns are tipped with rusty brown.

28

Family Pieridae

1) Common Emigrant (Catopsilia pomona)

The Common Emigrant or Lemon Emigrant (Catopsilia pomona) is a medium-sized pierid

butterfly found in Asia and parts of Australia. The species gets its name from its habit of

migration. Some early authors considered them as two distinct species Catopsilia crocale and

Catopsilia pomona.

Description

The species has pale and dark morphs in Australia. The form crocale has the antennae black and

the form pomona has the antennae pinkish or red. The development of these forms has been

linked to photoperiod and temperature during growth.

Male

Quoted from Bingham, C. T. (1907) Fauna of British India. Butterflies. Volume 2.

"The upperside of the male is chalky-white, sometimes with a more or less broad and clearly

defined basal sulphur-yellow area on both fore and hind wings; this sulphur-yellow colour is at

times diffused over the whole surface of the wings, though generally it becomes paler towards

the terminal margins. For the fore wing, the whole, or sometimes only the apical half, of the

costa narrowly black, this color widened out irregularly at the apex; termen widely black at the

apex, the colour narrowed posteriorly. This border in some specimens almost reaches the tornus,

in others terminates above vein 4; occasionally it is continued posteriorly by a series of block

dots at the apices of the veins. Hind wing: generally uniform, unmarked, some specimens bear

minute black dots at the apices of the veins.

"On the underside the groundcolour is very variable, with white with a slight to strong

ochraceous tinge, greenish white or sulphur-yellow. The fore wing is typically without markings,

in some specimens with a patch of sulphur-yellow on either side of base of median nervure, in

the very yellow examples the tornal area is often widely greenish white, in others (Catopsilia

catilla, Cramer) it bears a spot variable in size on the discocellulars. This spot has a pearly centre

and an outer reddish line. Many specimens have an irregular angulated narrow discal reddish line

(the colour varies in intensity) that runs from the costa obliquely outwards to vein 7, and then

obliquely inwards to vein 2, though this line is often absent in specimens that bear the

discocellular spot; apex and termen sometimes very narrowly reddish. The hind wing is typically

uniform, without markings; in var. catilla there is a single small spot at the end of the cell similar

to that on the fore wing, sometimes this spot is much larger with a narrow outer reddish ring,

sometimes it is accompanied by a similar spot at base of interspace 5; when two spots are present

they may be entirely separate, or their outer rings may coalesce; again, some specimens have a

highly irregular discal reddish line (often reduced to a series of minute spots) that extends from

the costa to vein 1; finally, the majority of specimens have a series of minute red terminal dots at

the apices of the veins."

Female

29

Quoted from Bingham, C. T. (1907) Fauna of British India. Butterflies. Volume 2.

"On the female upperside the ground-color varies as in the male, but sometimes it is chalky white

at the bases of the wings, with the terminal margins more or less broadly sulphur-yellow. Fore

wings always with a round, occasionally quadrate, black discocellular spot variable in size; in

some specimens the costa is black only towards the apex of the wing, in others broadly black

throughout and opposite the apex of cell so widened out as to touch the discocellular spot. In

lightly marked specimens in addition to the discocellular spot, there is only an irregular terminal

black band dentate inwardly and widest at the apex of the wing; in others there is in addition a

more or less diffuse highly curved macular postdiscal band that extends from the costa obliquely

outwards down to vein 7, where it often touches the terminal black band, and thence is continued

downward and slightly inclined inwards to interspace 1, getting gradually paler and fainter

posteriorly. Hind wing: a series of terminal inter-spacial black spots that vary in size, and in the

dark forms coalesce into a terminal black band."

"The underside varies from white with a light yellowish sometimes ochraeeous tinge to deep

chrome-yellow; markings as in the male but still more variable; in var. catilla the spot at the apex

of the cell in both fore and hind wings is enlarged into a large reddish blotch, the similar spot on

tho hind wing is sometimes so enlarged as to occupy the apex of the cell, the basal two-thirds of

interspaces 4, 5, and 6, and the middle third of interspace 7; in some specimens it is continued

posteriorly in a series of obscure lunules to interspace 1a. Antennae red, obscurely dotted with

black, palpi and head above red, thorax clothed with long yellow, sometimes greenish hairs,

abdomen pale yellow; beneath: palpi and thorax pale to dark yellow, abdomen white."

Lifecycle

Egg

The eggs of the butterfly are laid on various species of plants including several Cassias. Other

host plants include Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula, Bauhinia spp., Pterocarpus indicus, Senna

alata and Sesbania species. The eggs are usually laid singly on the underside, at the margin of the

leaves. Each egg is white, bottle shaped, and ribbed vertically. The eggs hatch in 3–4 days.

Caterpillar (larva)

The newly hatched caterpillar is about 0.5 cm long and is of a yellowish green color. In later

instars the color changes to a leafy green. The head is green and spotted with tiny black

tubercules. The spiracules are covered with a continuous white line. Each segment of the body

bears tiny shiny black tubercules. The tubercules immediately above the spiracular line being

larger and more distinct giving the effect of a black line over the white spiracular line. The paired

lines are found on both sides of the body and run from head to anus. The similar Catopsilia

pyranthe caterpillar has a much broader black line leaving only a narrow green line on the back

of the body.

The larva is described by Bell as "The head is round, green, the clypeus edged with brown,

covered with small shiny black tubercles which... do not hide the colour of the head; the anal flap

30

is rounded, but looks square at the extremity, and is covered with rows of small black tubercles...

of which only the row along the spiracular line is conspicuous. The spiracles are oval, shiny and

white. The colour is green with a spiracular white band touched with bright yellow on segments

2-5, and these segments, especially 3 and 4, are distinctly flanged on the spiracular line. Length

51 mm.

Crysalis (Pupa)

Pupation takes place low to the ground. The pupa is suspended by a silken body band and

attached to the substrate by a black cremaster. Its entire body is bright leaf green. A continuous

yellow runs from the cremaster to the head, the head ending in a snout. In the similar Catopsilia

pyranthe the snout is short.

The pupa is described by Bell as "The pupa has the dorsal line of the thorax absolutely parallel to

the longitudinal axis of the pupa for two-thirds of its length, consequently the hinder part just

before the margin is perpendicular to this part, it is raised suddenly but very slightly above the

front margin of segment 4, and the front end of this parallel dorsal line is at an angle, and a

sharpish angle, with the front slope of the thorax. The cremaster is distinctly bifid at the

extremity, and has some shiny, very stout, black, suspensory hooks dorsally as well as at the

extremity. There is a dorsal rugose black tip to the snout terminating the head, which snout is

cylindrical in its apical half; there is no black line round the eye and there is a dark green-blue

dorsal line which is yellow on the thorax as well as the supra-spiracular yellow line. Length 34

mm; length of snout 3 mm; breadth at segment 7 is 9 mm; height at apex of curve of wing

(segment 6) 10 mm; height at apen of thorax 8 mm".

2) Mottled Emigrant (Catopsilia pyranthe)

The Mottled Emigrant (Catopsilia pyranthe) is a medium-sized butterfly of the family Pieridae

found in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and parts of Australia.

Description

Male

The upperside is chalky-white, slightly tinted in some specimens with green. The fore wing is

with or without a discocellular black spot, that varies in size; costa and termen sometimes

without a black margin; occasionally the costa has its apical third narrowly black, broadened

slightly at the apex with black spots between the anterior veins; or again, the costa may be

narrowly black, the apex very broadly so, and this colour continued down the termen but

narrowed posteriorly. The hind wing is sometimes immaculate, but generally with narrow

terminal black spots at the apices of the veins, these often reduced to mere dots, or again so

broadened as to coalesce into a narrow terminal black margin.

The underside's ground-colour is similar, suffused on the anterior half of the fore and over the

whole surface of the hind wing with a greenish tint that varies to an ochraceous yellow, and,

except in the very palest specimens, is evenly irrorated over the greenish or ochraceous-tinted

31

areas with transverse, short, reddish-brown strigae; both fore and hind wings with generally an

obscure discocellular reddish-brown spot or indication thereof.

Female

The upperside is as in the male, but sometimes with a suffusion of pale greenish yellow on the

terminal third or fourth only of both fore and hind wings, rarely of that tint throughout. The fore

wing is always with a discocellular black spot that varies very much in size; costa sometimes

narrowly black with the basal half pinkish, in other specimens narrowly black throughout, the

black broadened at the apex and continued along the anterior half of the termen in a series of

inwardly-pointed black spots; or again, the costa may be more broadly black, that colour

widened considerably at the apex and continued broadly down the termen to vein 3, then

suddenly narrowed to a slender line at the tornus. In most specimens there is an anterior

postdiscal short black macular baud; in the dark forms this coalesce with the black on apex and

termen. The hind wing is sometimes immaculate, sometimes with a series of terminal spots at the

apices of the veins, sometimes with a narrow dusky-black terminal band broadest near the apex,

narrowed posteriorly to a slender line at the tornus. In the very dark specimens there is in

addition an ill-defined, short anterior postdiscal macular black band.

The underside is as in the male, with similar variations, but in addition in most specimens the

discocellular spots are well-defined with an outer red ring that encircles a silvery spot; on the

hind wing one or two similar spots on each side of the discocellulars; generally, also both wings

are crossed by a transverse postdiscal line of minute red spots, which on the fore wing is

confined to the anterior portion, on the hind wing is nearly complete. In both sexes: antennae

reddish, head and thorax anteriorly brown, thorax clothed posteriorly with long white hairs,

abdomen white: beneath: the palpi, thorax, and abdomen white.

Life history

The host plants of the species include Cassia spp. (e.g., C. fistula, C. javanica or C. roxburghii,

C. bakeriana), Gnidia glauca, Senna spp. (e.g. S. alata; S. auriculata; S. garrettiana), Crotalaria

spp., Ormocarpum cochinchinense, Sesbania spp. and Colocasia sp.

Pupa

The development period from egg to adult is 22 to 29 days allowing up to 11-12 generations a

year.

Larva: "Long, somewhat depressed, rough, green, with a white lateral line and above it a black

line more or less conspicuous, formed by minute black shining tubercles. In short, this larva in

very like a big specimen of a Eurema hecabe"

Pupa: "Much stouter (i.e. than that of Eurema hecabe, and the keel formed by the wing-cases

much less pronounced. The normal colour is pale green with a yellow lateral line. We have never

32

found it on any plant except Senna occidentalis. It habitually rests on the upperside along the

midrib, like almost all Pierine larvae." Davidson and Aitken, quoted in Bingham.

3) Common Grass Yellow (Eurema hecabe)

The Large Grass Yellow or Common Grass Yellow (Eurema hecabe) is a small pierid butterfly

species found in Asia or Africa. They are found flying close to the ground and are found in open

grass and scrub habitats. It is simply known as "the grass yellow" in parts of its range; the

general term otherwise refers to the entire genus Eurema.

33

Description

The Common Grass Yellow exhibits seasonal polyphenism. The lepidopteran has a darker

summer morph, triggered by a long day exceeding 13 hours in duration, while the shorter diurnal

period of 12 hours or less induces a fairer morph in the post-monsoon period.

Male

Upperside: yellow, variable in tint from sulphur to rich lemonz-yellow according to locality with

a light or heavy rainfall. Fore wing: apex and termen deep black, this colour continued narrowly

along the costal margin to base of wing, near which it often becomes diffuse; the inner margin of

the black area from costa to vein 4 very oblique and irregular, between veins 2 and 4 excavate on

the inner side, this excavation outwardly rounded between the veins and inwardly toothed on

vein 3; below vein 2 the black area is suddenly dilated into a square spot which occupies the

whole of the tornal angle; the inner margin of this dilatation is variable, in the typical form

slightly concave. Hind wing: terminal margin with a narrow black band which is attenuated

anteriorly and posteriorly; dorsal margin broadly paler than the ground-colour.

Underside: yellow, generally a slightly paler shade than that of the upperside, with the following

reddish-brown markings. Fore wing: two small spots or specks in basal half of cell and a

reniform spot or ring on the discocellulars. Hind wing: a slightly curved subbasal series of three

small spots, an irregular slender ring or spot on the discocellulars, followed by a highly irregular,

curved, transverse, discal series of spots or specks, some or all of which are often obsolescent.

On both fore and hind wings the veins that attain the costal and terminal margins end in minute

reddish-brown specks. Antenna greyish yellow, the club black; head, thorax and abdomen

yellow, shaded with fuscous scales; beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen yellowish white. The

sex-mark seen from above appears as a thickening of the basal half of the median vein on the

fore wing.

Female

Upper side: Very similar to that of the male but without the sex-mark; the black areas on both

fore and hind wings slightly broader, with the inner edge of the black terminal band on the hind

wing often diffuse.

Underside: ground-colour and markings as in the male. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen

similarly coloured.

Dry-season form

Upper side: ground-colour and markings much as in wet-season specimens, the margination on

the inner side of the black area and the tornal dilatation on the fore wing similar. On the hind

wing, in the great majority of individuals, the black terminal band is also similar, in a few it is

narrower and diffuse inwardly in both sexes.

Underside: ground-colour similar to that in wet-season specimens, but in very many with a

greater or less irroration of black scales over the yellow parts of the wing; the reddish-brown

markings on both fore and hind wings are also similar, but the spots are larger, more clearly

34

defined, darker, and therefore far more conspicuous. In addition, on the fore wing there is a

preapical, very prominent, transverse, elongate spot or short bar or reddish brown extended

downwards from the costa. This spot is irregular in shape and of variable width, but does not

seem ever to spread outwards to the actual edge of the termen. In a few specimens there is also a

small reddish-brown spot in interspace 1 near the tornus. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen,

and in the male the sex-mark, as in wet-season specimens.

Life cycle

Eggs are laid on Abrus precatorius, Acacia spp., Aeschynomene spp., Albizzia spp. and

numerous other Leguminosae, Euphorbiaceae and Cucurbitaceae species. Studies suggest that

the females can discriminate colours when choosing host plants for oviposition.

Larva: Long, green, rough, cylindrical, or slightly depressed, with a large head.

Pupa: Suspended by the tail and by a moderately long band; the abdominal segments are round,

but the thorax is much compressed, the wing-cases uniting to form a deep sharp keel. The head-

case terminates in a short pointed snout. Ordinarily the pupa is solitary and green, but sometimes

on a twig in large numbers. Many Pierine and other larvae seek each other’s company at that

time. Having selected a dead branch of some neighbouring bush, they acquired the colour of

their surroundings as nearly all Pierine and Papilionine pupae do to a greater or less extent.

This species has been found to be parasitized by multiple strains of Wolbachia. These bacteria

can alter the sex-ratios of the species.

4) Painted Jezebel (Delias hyparete)

The Painted Jezebel (Delias hyparete) is a medium-sized butterfly of the family Pieridae, found

in South Asia and Southeast Asia.

Description

Closely resembles Delias eucharis but can be distinguished as follows:

Male upper forewing has the black margins to the veins more diffuse; the transverse postdiscal

band diffuse, ill-defined, oblique, not parallel to termen in its lower portion but terminated at

apex of vein 2; the apical portion of the wing beyond the fascia more or less so thickly shaded

with black scales as to leave the white lanceolate spaces between the veins (so prominent in

eucharis) ill-defined and obscure. Hind wing white, the black venation and terminal narrow black

border as well as the sub-terminal vermilion-red spots between the veins on the underside show

through by transparency. Underside: fore wing as in eucharis, but the black margins to the veins

much broader and the postdiscal transverse fascia as on the upperside oblique but broader. Hind

wing differs from that of eucharis in the much deeper chrome-yellow tint of the ground-colour,

the postdiscal black curved band that in eucharis separates the yellow from the subterminal

vermilion-red spots entirely wanting, the red spots themselves pointed inwardly, not subcordate,

35

they conspicuously increase in size posteriorly. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen similar to

those of eucharis.

Female differs from the female of eucharis on the upperside by the very much darker shading,

especially on the fore wing, and by the postdiscal transverse band which is as in the d oblique but

broader. Hind wing also more darkly shaded, the postdiscal transverse curved black baud entirely

absent. Underside as in the female but darker, the fore wing especially more thickly shaded with

black scaling, the preapical interspaces tinged with yellow. Antennae, thorax and abdomen

similar to those in eucharis.

Race metarete, Butler. (Southern Myanmar; extending to Java and Sumatra). Differs from race

hierta as follows: Male upperside has the ground-colour a much purer white; apical half of fore

wing in contrast with the white on basal half densely shaded with black scales. Underside: the

colours clearer and purer, the chrome-yellow on the hind wing confined to the base and posterior

half of the wing, the apical half of the cell and the anterior inter- spaces within the line of the

vermilion-red spots pure white; the anterior two or three subterminal red spots margined

interiorly with diffuse black scaling. Female differs less from the 2 of hierta, but on the underside

of the hind wing the yellow colour is as restricted as it is in the male; the subterrninal red spots

are of a richer vermilion than in hierta, and the anterior two or three as in the d have an interior

narrow margin of diffuse black scales. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in hierta, but the

thorax and abdomen shaded slightly darker with a bluish-grey appearance.

Race ethire, Doherty. (Madras;Orissa; Lower Bengal) Differs from typical hierta as follows:

Male upperside very pure white. Fore wing has the black margins to the veins very narrow, the

oblique postdiscal band ill-defined, scarcely any irroration of black scales on the apical half of

the wing. Hind wing pure white, the colours of the underside seen through by transparency as in

hierta. Underside differs from hierta principally in the brighter tint of the yellow on the hind

wing, and in the more clearly defined, less diffuse black margins of the veins. Female differs less

from female hierta than does the male from the corresponding sex of the same insect. Upperside

has the interspaces beyond the postdiscal oblique band on fore wing and the cell and basal halves

of the interspaces beyond the cell on the hind wing distinctly tinged with yellow. Underside: all

the markings more neatly and clearly defined than in hierta, the inter-spaces beyond the oblique

postdiscal band on the fore wing bright lemon-yellow. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen in

both sexes as in D. hierta.

Distribution

Sri Lanka; India (Uttaranchal to Arunachal Pradesh, Northeast, West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra

Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Western Maharashtra); North Myanmar; Java, Sumatra, Bangladesh

5) Yellow Orange-tip (Ixias pyrene)

Yellow Orange Tip, Ixias pyrene is a small butterfly of the Family Pieridae, that is, the Yellows

and Whites, which is found in India and Southeast Asia.

36

Description

Wingspan: 50-55 mm. Dry-season brood.

Male upperside: deep sulphur-yellow. Fore wing: base and basal half of costa thickly irrorated

with black scales; apical half of the wing black, with an enclosed, large, irregularly triangular,

orange-coloured patch, the apex of which is more or less broadly rounded and blunt; the orange

colour extends into the apex of the cell bat is interrupted there by a black discocellular spot that

spreads diffusely inwards and joins the black oblique bar which forms the base of the orange

patch; veins that traverse this latter, black. Hind wing: uniform with a little black scaling at

extreme base; termen with a dusky-black somewhat narrow border (sometimes entirely absent)

which decreases in width posteriorly.

Underside: a darker yellow, sparsely irrorated with fusco-ferruginous short strigae and minute

spots. Fore wing: base and posterior area broadly, with a whitish pale virescent tint; the strigae

and minute spots most numerous towards the apex and along the termen; interspaces 4, 5, 6 and

8 with a curved sub-apical series of small, rounded, dull ferruginous spots and a similar spot on

the discocellulars. Hind wing also with a ferruginous spot on the discocellulars, followed by a

postdiscal series of similar spots in interspaces 3 to 8, all or most of them centred with white; the

spots in interspaces 5, 6 and 8 the largest, those in 5 and 6 often coalescent. Antennae and thorax

anteriorly dull ferruginous, thorax posteriorly and abdomen above fuscous black; head, thorax

and abdomen beneath yellow.

Female upperside: white faintly tinged with yellow. Fore wing: apical half black, with an

enclosed, irregular, broad, oblique patch of the ground-colour that extends into the upper apex of

the cell, on the inner side of this the black is reduced to a short oblique bar broadened at the

lower apex of the cell, from whence it is continued as a somewhat slender diffuse oblique streak

to the tornus, where it broadens again abruptly and meets the black on the termen; the outer

margin of the oblique white patch is irregularly crenulate, sometimes trisinuate; the black colour

on the apex often forms a right angle on vein 4; on the white patch posteriorly there is a black

spot in interspace 2 and another in interspace 3. Hind wing: uniform, a few subobsolete slender,

fuscous, transverse strigae posteriorly; the terminal margin sometimes with (more often without)

a narrow dusky black edging, broadened anteriorly at the apices of the veins.

Underside: similar to that in the male, with similar markings, the ground-colour a dark dull

ochraceous, the fusco-ferruginous strigae more numerous. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen

as in the male.

Wet-season brood. - Upperside in both male and female differs in the broader, more pronounced,

black terminal edging to the hind wing, which is often remarkably broad, and in the female by

the ground-colour which is pale yellow. Underside: the fusco-ferruginous strigae and spots often

subobsolete, occasionally entirely absent in the male.

Status, distribution and habitat in Sri Lanka and peninsular India

37

It is distributed throughout the plains and lowlands. It is common in dry deciduous forests, scrub

and fallow lands and found throughout the year. However, it is more common during the

monsoon and post-monsoon and considerably rare in the summer.

6) Great Orange-tip (Hebomoia glaucippe)

The Great Orange Tip (Hebomoia glaucippe) is a butterfly belonging to the Pieridae family, that

is the yellows and whites’ butterflies, found in the Indomalaya ecozone and Wallacea.

Distribution

This species is found in much of South and Southeast Asia, as well as in southern China and

southern Japan.

Description

The following descriptions are true for much of its range. There are subspecies that differ, such

as H. g. vossi where the white is replaced by pure yellow.

Wet-season brood

In the males the upperside is creamy white. Fore wing: the costa narrowly, the apex and terminal

margin to middle of interspace 1 are black. An irregular, somewhat sinuous, black band extends

obliquely from beyond the middle of the costa across the upper apex of the cell, and meets at

interspace 1 the black on the terminal margin. Within the triangle thus formed is enclosed a rich

orange-red patch that is traversed by the black veins and bears in interspaces 3 to 6 a postdiscal

series of black inwardly-elongated spots. Hind wing: nearly uniform, touched with black on the

terminal margin anteriorly and with a conspicuous postdiscal black spot in interspace 7. In some

specimens there are one or two smaller spots in continuation of the series in the interspaces

below.

The underside is white. The apical third of the fore wing and the whole of the hind wing are

mottled, with more or less prominent brown stripe and spots. Costa of the fore wing and a fine

line that runs from base of the hind wing through the cell, straight to the middle of the terminal

margin, are brown. Antennae are dark brown. The head and thorax have anteriorly a reddish-

brown pile. Thorax above is greyish-blue, while the abdomen is white with a bluish tinge.

Beneath: head and thorax are more or less brownish, abdomen is white.

Female is similar to the male. Upperside: ground-colour with a slight greenish tinge. The orange

patch on fore wing is more restricted, it consists of a series of brood streaks in interspaces 3 to 6

and 10, the outer apices of which are deeply incised by black and with a row of hastate orange

spots beyond in interspaces 2 to 6. Hind wing: similar to the hind wing in the male, but with a

postdiscal series of large triangular black spots and a terminal connected series of still larger

triangular black spots at the apices of veins 2 to 7. Underside: similar to that in the male, the

brown transverse strigae and spots are more numerous, the costa of the fore and the median line

38

on the hind wing are very prominently brown. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in the

male.

Dry-season brood

Differ only from the wet-season brood in the slightly more falcate apex to fore wing, and in the

purer white ground-colour on the upperside. Also the terminal margin on the hind wing in the

male has the black markings all but obsolete, while in the female the postdiscal and terminal

black markings on the same are smaller than in the wet-season form. Underside: the mottlings of

brown strigae and minute spots are more numerous and dense.

Race australis, Butler (Southern India and Sri Lanka). Males and females. Differs only from the

typical form in the following particulars: - Inner black border to the orange patch on the

upperside of the fore wing is absent, this represented by a few obsolete touches of black scaling.

Hind wing: white throughout, with only a half-obliterated subcostal black spot in interspace 7 in

the male; in the female the postdiscal and terminal series of spots are smaller.

Toxicity

In the wings of Hebomoia glaucippe is present glacontryphan-M, a peptide toxin belonging to

the family contryphan that are active constituents of the poisonous venom produced by cone

snail (genus conus). In H. glaucippe this toxin should function as a defense against predators.

The life cycle

The eggs

The eggs are laid on the larval food plants Crataeva religiosa, Capparis monii, Capparis

roxburghii, Capparis cantoniensis, and Capparis sepiaria (Capparaceae).

Larvae

"Subcylindrical, tapering towards each end, numerously-covered with minute tubercles; green."

(Moore.) Subcylindrical; suddenly tapered at both ends; covered with transverse rows of pointed

tubercles. Colour dark green, with a lateral bluish line bordered inferiorly with a series of minute

red spots; legs green, the prothoracic legs bordered with black that widens on the middle one of

the three.

39

Pupa

"Much arched along the back; head pointed." (Moore.) Spindle-shaped, head acutely pointed,

dorsum much arched. Colour green, a patch of pale ochraceous on the wing-cases and a narrow

lateral band of the same colour from head to tail, with a brown line superposed on it that extends

to the abdominal segments; abdominal segments and wing-case sparsely spotted with black.

Family Lycaenidae

1) Common Pierrot (Castalius rosimon)

The common Pierrot (Castalius rosimon) is a small butterfly found in South Asia that belongs to

the lycaenids, or blues family.

Distribution

Bangladesh, Sri Lanka. India, Myanmar; Tenasserim, extending into the Malayan Subregion. In

the Indonesian archipelago the butterfly occurs in NE Sumatra, East Java, Bali, Bangka, Timor,

Wetar, Kissar, Sumbawa and Sulawesi.

In India the butterfly is found in peninsular India south of the outer ranges of the Himalayas,

except in desert tracts; East India; the North West Himalayas; Assam. The butterfly is also found

in the Andaman Islands and South Nicobar Islands.

Description

Male

Upperside is mainly white. Forewing has the costa, apex and termen edged with black, the

edging much broader on apex and termen; base outwards for a short distance more or less

densely overlaid. with metallic blue scales which cover and make indistinct a large basal

outwardly clavate black spot; a transverse black oval spot on the discocellulars touching the

black edging on the costa ; an oblique irregular line of four quadrate black spots beyond, the

upper spot coalesced with the black on the costal border, the next spot below shifted outwards

out of line, touching, as does also the lowest spot, the terminal black edging; posterior to this is a

quadrate black spot in the apical half of interspace 2, and placed obliquely outwards from 1b

coalescent with the terminal black border, another similar spot in interspace 1.

Hind wing: three basal black somewhat coalescent spots overlaid with metallic blue scaling; the

costal margin above the subcostal vein and vein 7 black; this colour filling also the base of

interspace 6, where in some specimens it is divided into a basal portion with a spot beyond; a

postdiscal curved transverse black band followed by a subterminal transverse series of black

spots, each spot edged inwardly and outwardly by very slender lunules of the white ground-

colour; on the inner side of the postdiscal band posteriorly is a broken line of four black

generally coalescent spots two and two, the two upper often touching the postdiscal band.

Underside primarily white. Fore wing has a long oblique black band from base outwards to the

costa; below it and obliquely placed an irregular black somewhat conical mark; following these

are two outwardly oblique, medially interrupted, black macular bands; the inner of the two

40

extended from costa along the discocellulars, is then widely interrupted below its posterior

portion that is formed of two elongate coalescent spots and touches the inner subterminal

transverse line of elongate spots just above the tornus; the outer, obliquely placed line is

subapical and medially broken, the middle portion consisting of a quadrate spot is shifted

outwards; finally, two parallel sub-terminal transverse series of black elongate spots, the inner

series of broad, more or less rectangular spots, the outer series of more linear spots, the latter

coalescent anteriorly with a slender ante-ciliary black line.

Hind wing: a transverse basal black band, with an elongate black spot below it on the dorsum; a

transverse sub-basal line of four well-separated black spots; a transverse, oval, disco-cellular

black spot and obliquely above it three subcostal similar spots, the inner two coalescent;

postdiscal and terminal markings consist, the former of four black posterior spots two and two,

each pair coalescent and placed en echelon, the latter of a transverse double series of subterminal

black spots and an anticiliary black line; the upper portion of the postdiscal markings touches the

inner subterminal line. Cilia of both fore and hind wings white alternated with black at the apices

of the veins; filamentous short tail to the hind wing black tipped with white. Antennae, head,

thorax and abdomen black, the shafts of the antennae ringed with white, the head between the

eyes and behind them white; beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen white, the last barred

broadly with white on the sides.

Female

Similar to the male but with the black markings on the upper and under sides broader.

Larva

"Feeds on Zizyphus jujuba and is of a rough texture as if shagreened all over. It is of the usual

woodlouse form, much flattened towards the anal segment which is very broad; head concealed;

colour bright green with a double, dorsal, yellow line and the sides powdered with small yellow

spots." (Davidson, Bell and Aitken)

Pupa

"Of the usual Castalius form but narrow and slightly flattened. It is intensely glossy as if covered

with gum. It varies in colour, being sometimes black, at others green with inconstant black

markings." (Davidson, Bell & Aitken)

2) Common Hedge Blue (Acytolepis puspa)

The Common Hedge Blue (Acytolepis puspa) is a small butterfly found in India, Myanmar,

Thailand, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Borneo and New Guinea that belongs to the Lycaenids or Blues

family.

Wet-season brood. Male. Upperside: Violaceous blue, with brilliant iridescent tints in certain

lights. Fore wing: the costa, apex and termen bordered with black, this edging narrows from base

to the middle of the costa, then broadens greatly at apex, where it occupies the apical fourth of

41

the wing, and is again narrowed below vein 4, whence it is continued as an even band to the

tornus; on the disc beyond the apex of the cell the groundcolour is sensibly paler, and the dark

markings of the cell are faintly visible by transparency from below. Hind wing: the costa very

broadly, the termen much more narrowly black:; the black bordering on the latter consists of a

series of rounded coalescent spots, which on the inner side are margined by faint dark lunules;

these are formed not by actual scaling but by the dark markings of the underside which show

through more or less clearly.

Underside: slightly bluish white; the markings, some black, some dusky, but all large and

distinct. Fore wing: a short bar on the discocellulars, an anteriorly inwardly curved, transverse,

discal series of seven, more or less elongate spots, of which the spot in interspace 2 is vertical

and sinuous, the next above it irregularly oval and obliquely placed, the next smaller and almost

round, the fourth placed almost longitudinally, forms a short bar, and the apical three decrease in

size to the costa; beyond these is an inner subterminal, transverse, lunular line, an outer

subterminal series of transverse spots and a very slender anticiliary line. Hind wing: two basal

and three subbasal spots in vertical order; a line on the discocellulars; a spot above it at base of

interspace 6; a much larger spot above that in interspace 7; a lower discal irregular transverse

series of five spots, followed by terminal markings similar to those on the fore wing, except that

the spots in the subterminal row are rounded, not transverse. Cilia of both fore and hind wings

white alternated with dusky black at tho apices of the veins. Antennae, head, thorax and

abdomen dusky black, the antennae ringed with white; beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen

white.

Female:Upperside: white, the bases of the wings and in some specimens the hind wing

posteriorly shot with iridescent blue. Fore wing: costa, apex and termen broadly black; the

discocellulars marked with a very short, fine black line that extends down from the black on the

costal margin. Hind wing: costa and apex broadly black; termen below rein 6 with a regular

subterminal series of black spots in the interspaces, enclosed within an inner lunular and an outer

straight slender anticiliary black line; the veins, except vein 5 in the middle, slenderly black.

Cilia of both fore and bind wings white. Underside: ground-colour and markings similar to those

of the male. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in the male.

Dry-season brood. Differs very slightly from the wet-season brood. In the male there is a small

patch of white on the upperside of the fore wing beyond the cell and on the upperside of the hind

wing on the anterior portion of the disc; the extent of this patch varies on the fore wing from a

mere touch of white just beyond the cell to a large discal area of white which is diffuse with ill-

defined margins. In the female the blue iridescence at the base of the wings on the upperside is in

some specimens considerably restricted, in others entirely absent. On the underside in both sexes

the ground-colour is paler and in form and position the markings are much less prominent,

though entirely like those of the wet-season brood.

42

Range

The butterfly occurs in Peninsular India, Himalayas, Assam, Andamans, Nicobars, Sri Lanka,

Myanmar, Philippines, Borneo, Sulawesi and New Guinea.

Status

Reported as Common by Wynter-Blyth in India. Reported as Rare in Andamans to Very Rare in

Nicobars.

3) Zebra Blue (Leptotes plinius)

The Zebra Blue or Plumbago Blue (Leptotes plinius) is a species of blue butterfly found in India.

43

Description

This form closely resembles in both sexes on the upperside with Tarucus theophrastus, but the

character and disposition of the markings on the underside are completely different.

Male Upperside: dark violet with, in certain lights, a rich blue suffusion. Fore wing: no

discocellular black spot so conspicuous in T. theophrastus; terminal margin with a narrow edging

of fuscous black, widest at the apex, gradually decreasing to the tornus, followed by an

inconspicuous anticiliary jet-black line. Hind wing : costal margin slightly but broadly shaded

with fuscous, which is continued as a slender anticiliary black line to the tornus. Underside:

white. Fore wing: with the following brownish-black markings:—an irregular edging along the

costa to near the apex from which extends downwards a subbasal band, broadened across the cell

and below it; an irregular band that extends along the discocellulars and below them to

interspace 1 where it ends in a point; an upper discal curved band of more even width but

dislocated below vein 4, the lower portion of it shifted inwards forms a large quadrate spot in

interspace 3, below vein 3 the band is continued downwards by two small inconspicuous spots,

beyond this is a very short acutely pointed comma-shaped mark; a very regular evenly curved

complete transverse lunular line, a transverse series of subterminal spots and an anticiliary

slender line. Close to the base of the wing extended obliquely upwards and outwards from the

dorsum is a triangular mark, the edging of white colour left near the base forms above the apex

of this mark an acute angle; between the band that crosses the middle of the cell and the

transverse discocellular band is a more or less slender, irregular, similarly coloured line; and

between the discocellular and upper discal bands another much shorter line that extends from the

costa downwards but does not reach vein 4, this is slightly clavate anteriorly and posteriorly.

Hind wing: mottled with brownish black that leaves only basal, subbasal, medial and discal

transverse lines or bands of the ground-colour; the medial and discal bands, which are highly

irregular, enclose here and there small brownish markings, the bands themselves coalescing

above a very irregularly shaped brown mark that is placed on the posterior half of the middle of

the wing; terminal markings as on the fore wing but the subterminal spots larger, the apical one

especially so, the tornal two spots jet-black and each encircled by a glittering slender ring of

metallic green scales. Cilia of both fore and hind wings, the antennae, head, thorax and abdomen

much as in T. theophrastus.

Female. Upperside very closely resembles that of female T. theophrastus, but the extent of white

on the fore wing is greater so that there is a greater area of white to be seen between the brown

markings superposed on it, these markings have the appearance of an irregularly formed V on a

white background. Hind wing much as in T. theophrastus. Underside: similar to that of its own

male but the brown bands less broken, more regular. Cilia, antennae, head, thorax and abdomen

as in the male.

Distribution

44

Ethiopian region in part. N.W. Himalayas to Kumaon; the plains of Northern India; Central and

Western India; Sri Lanka; Assam ; Myanmar; Tenasserim in the low hot valleys of the north;

extending to China and in the Malayan Subregion to Java.

The description given above is taken from males and females of wet-season broods. Specimens

of the dry-season broods are paler on the upperside with, in the male only anticiliary black lines

to the wings. On the underside the markings on the wings will, on careful examination, be found

very similar but paler brown and all very much reduced in width so that a greater extent of the

white ground-colour is visible.

Life history

Foodplants

Plants of the Legume family, Plumbaginaceae and some of the citrus family Rutaceae. Species

include Glycine tomentella, Dyerophytum indicum, Indigofera suffruticosa, Lablab purpureus,

Plumbago zeylanica, Rhynchosia tomentosa, Sesbania bispinosa, Tephrosia obovata, Ziziphus

mauritiana, Indigofera argentea, Indigofera erecta, Medicago sativa and Toddalia asiatica.

Larva

"Pale greenish yellow above, sides lilacine, a narrow brownish median line, followed by eight

diagonal short streaks and six brownish-red spots. Before pupating the colouring gets much more

diffused. Feeds among the flower-buds of Plumbago."

Pupa

"Dull yellowish profusely mottled with brown spots." (E E Green as quoted by de Niceville.)

4) Dark Cerulean (Jamides bochus)

The Dark Cerulean (Jamides bochus) is a small butterfly found in India that belongs to

the Lycaenids or Blues family.

45

Description

Male upperside, fore wing: velvety jet-black; base deep blue, beautifully metallic and shining,

measured on the dorsum this colour occupies three-fourths of its length from base, its outer

margin then curves upwards just past the apex of the cell, entera into the bases of interspaces 10,

11 and 12 and fills the whole of the cell. Hind wing: costal margin above subcostal vein and vein

7, and dorsal margin narrowly fuscous black, a medial longitudinal pale streak on the former;

terminal margin narrowly edged with velvety black, inside which in interspaces 1 and 2 is a

slender transverse whitish line, with an elongate irregular transverse black spot above it in

interspace 1 and a more obscure similar spot in interspace 2; traces of such spots also are present

in some specimens in the anterior interspaces. Cilia of both fore and hind wings black;

filamentous tail at apex of vein 2 black tipped with white. Underside: dark chocolate-brown.

Fore and hind wings; transversely crossed by the following very slender white Hues all more or

less broken into short pieces:—Fore wing: a short pair one on each side of and parallel to the

discocellulars, a pale streak along the discocellulars themselves; a single line in continuation of

the outer of the discocellular lines, extends down to vein 1; an upper discal pair of lines that form

a more or less catenulated short band extend from the costa to vein 3, the inner line of the two

continued to vein 1; two more obscure subterminal and a single terminal line, the area enclosed

between the subterminal lines and between them and the terminal line darker in the interspaces,

giving the appearance of two obscure subterminal lines of spots edged inwardly and outwardly

by white lines. Hind wing: crossed by nine very broken and irregular lines; tracing them from the

costa downwards their middle short pieces are found to be shifted outwards and a few are short

and not complete, the inner two are posteriorly bent abruptly upwards, the subtcrminal two are

lunular and the terminal line nearly continuous; posteriorly between the subterminal pair of lines

in interspace 1 there is a small black spot inwardly edged with dark ochraceous, and in interspace

2 a much larger round black spot, both black spots are touched with metallic blue scales.

Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen black, the shafts of the antennae speckled with white;

beneath: palpi, thorax and abdomen narrowly white down the middle.

Female. Similar to the male generally but with the following differences: upperside, fore wing:

ground-colour fuscous opaque black, not velvety black, blue basal area more restricted and not

so deep a blue nor at all metallic. Hind wing: the black costal and terminal margins very much

broader, the blue on the basal area consequently much restricted and of the same shade as the

blue on the fore wing; terminal margin with a subterminal anteriorly obsolescent series of spots

of a shade darker than that of the terminal black area on which they are superposed; these spots

posteriorly more or less distinctly encircled with slender lines of bluish white, anteriorly these

lines are almost obsolete. Cilia of both fore and hind wings and the filamentous short tail as in

the male. Underside: similar to that oE the cf but the ground-colour generally paler and duller;

the transverse white lines broader and more dearly defined. Antenna, head, thorax and abdomen

as in the male.

46

Distribution

Peninsular India, but not in the very dry or desert tracts; Ceylon; Assam; Burma; Tenasserim; the

Andamans; extending in the Malayan Subregion to Australia.

Lifecycle

"The larva which we have taken at Karwar in June is hardly distinguishable from that of

Catochrysops pandava, Horsfield; it is, however, covered with minute hairs and is generally of

an olive-green colour and without the reddish suffusion so generally noticed in C. pandava. The

pupa is indistinguishable from that of C. pandava. The larva feeds on Xylia dolabrifornis, and

also on the flowers of Butea frondosa." Other food plants noted include Millettia peguensis.

5) Lesser Grass Blue (Zizina Otis)

The Lesser Grass Blue (Zizina otis) is a species of blue butterfly found in south Asia. The Lesser

Grass Blue is often misidentified as the Common Grass Blue, Zizina labradus.

Description

Male upperside

Pale violet-blue, with a silvery sheen in certain lights, fore wing: a broad brown edging along the

termen, which covers in some specimens quite the outer fourth of the wing, while in others is

much narrower. It is always broadest at the apex and is bounded by an anticiliary darker line,

beyond which the cilia are brownish at base and white outwardly.

Hind wing: anterior or costal third to half and apex brown; a slender black anticiliary line,

beyond which the cilia are as in the fore wing.

47

Male underside

Brownish grey. Fore wing: a short, transverse, dusky lunule on the discocellulars and a

transverse, anteriorly curved, discal series of seven minute black spots, all the spots more or less

rounded, the posterior two geminate, the disco-cellular lunule and each discal spot conspicuously

encircled with white; the terminal markings beyond the above consist of an inner and an outer

transverse subterminal series of dusky spots, each spot edged on the inner side very obscurely

with dusky white, the inner line of spots lunular, the outer with the spots more or less rounded.

Cilia dusky.

Hind wing: a transverse, curved, sub-basal series of four spots and an irregular transverse discal

series of nine small spots black, each spot encircled narrowly with white. Of the discal spots the

posterior four are placed in an outwardly oblique, slightly curved line, the middle two spots

geminate; the three spots above these are placed in an oblique transverse line further outwards;

lastly, the anterior two spots are posited one over the other and shifted well inwards, just above

the apex of the cell; disco-cellular lunule and terminal markings as on the fore wing, but the

inner subterminal lunular line in the latter broader and more prominent. Cilia dusky. Antenna

black, shafts ringed with white; head, thorax and abdomen brown, with a little blue scaling;

beneath: white.

Female upperside

Brown, with a more or less distinct suffusion of violet-blue at the bases of the wings, on the hind

wing continued obscurely along the dorsum; both fore and hind wings with slender anticiliary

lines, darker than the ground-colour.

Female underside

Ground-colour slightly darker than in the male, markings precisely similar. Antennae, head,

thorax and abdomen as in the male, but the thorax and abdomen above without any blue scaling.

Distribution

Zizina otis occurs in south Asia. It was reported from Oahu (Hawaii, USA) in 2008. Zizina otis

labradus is found in the North Island, and the northern part of the South Island of New Zealand.

While the Zizina otis oxleyi is found in the southern part of the South Island of New Zealand

only.

48

Larval host plants

The species breeds on many plants of the family Leguminosae including Alysicarpus vaginalis,

Desmodium spp., Glycine max, Indigofera spp., Mimosa spp.

Family Nymphalidae

1) Common Indian Crow (Euploea core)

The common crow (Euploea core) is a common butterfly found in South Asia and Australia. In

India it is also sometimes referred to as the common Indian crow, and in Australia as the

Australian crow. It belongs to the crows and tigers’ subfamily Danainae (Danaini tribe).

E. core is a glossy black, medium-sized 85–95 millimetres (3.3–3.7 in) butterfly with rows of

white spots on the margins of its wings. Euploea core is a slow, steady flier. Due to its

unpalatability it is usually observed gliding through the air with a minimum of effort. As

caterpillars, this species sequesters toxins from its foodplant which are passed on from larva to

pupa to the adult. While feeding, it is a very bold butterfly, taking a long time at each bunch of

flowers. It can also be found mud puddling with others of its species and often in mixed groups.

The males of this species visit plants like Crotalaria, Heliotropium to replenish pheromone stocks

which are used to attract a mate during courtship.

The common crow is the most common representative of its genus Euploea. Like the tigers

(genus Danaus), the crows are inedible and thus mimicked by other Indian butterflies (see

Batesian mimicry). In addition, the Indian species of the Euploea genus shows another kind of

mimicry, Müllerian mimicry. Accordingly, this species has been studied in greater detail than

other members of its genus in India.

Description

The common crow (Euploea core) is a glossy black butterfly with brown underside with white

markings along the outer margins of both wings. The wingspan is about 8–9 cm and the body has

prominent white spots. The male has a velvety black brand located near the rear edge on the

upperside of the forewing. On the underside there is a white streak in the same location. This

white streak is present in both male and female. In its natural position this streak is hidden

behind the hind wing and can be seen only when the butterfly is captured and observed closely.

Excerpt from Fauna of British India. Butterflies. Volume 1.

Upper side E. core

"Upperside dark brown, broadly paler along terminal margins; Fore and hind wing with

subterminal and terminal series of white spots; on fore wing the former more or less oval, curved

inwards opposite apex, the latter series often incomplete, not reaching apex, the spots smaller;

often there is a small costal spot, and very rarely a spot in apex of cell and one or more discal

spots; on the hind wing the inner series of spots are elongate, the outer conical.

Underside similar, but ground-colour more uniform; cell, costal and discal spots on both fore and

hind wing nearly always present.

49

Underside paler brown, the white spots larger, more clearly defined. Fore wing not violaceous at

apex, a spot (sometimes absent) in apex of cell, and two or three discal spots. Hindwing: a spot

in apex of cell, also sometimes absent, and a discal series of five small spots beyond. Antennae,

head, thorax and abdomen very dark brown, and, the antennae excepted, sparsely spotted with

white.

Mimicry and similar species

Due to its inedibility, Euploea core is mimicked by a few edible species.

Additionally, a number of other inedible species within the same family mimic each other

forming a Mullerian ring.

The edible species are contained in the 2 families-

Papilionidae - Malabar Raven (Papilio dravidarum), Common Mime (Papilio clytia) form clytia

Nymphalidae - Great Eggfly (Hypolimnas bolina) female, Ceylon Palmfly, Elymnias singala

male and female.

Distribution also plays a role in telling the species apart. Both Papilionids are forest dwellers and

while the Common Mime is distributed in all forested areas in India, the Malabar Raven is

endemic to the western ghats south of Goa.

The inedible species are in the same genus forming a mullerian ring-

Brown king crow (E. klugii)

Double branded crow (E. sylvester)

Both these species differ in the number and size of brand and allied streak in the female, which

can only be examined if the specimen is caught and closely examined. The double branded crow

has 2 brands and the female has 2 white streaks on the underside. The brown king crow has a

broad brand and the female has a short indistinct white streak on the underside

Range, habitat and habits

It is found in southern Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Russia, and Australia.

In its range E. core is found at all elevations, right from sea level up into the mountains to 2,400

metres (8,000 ft). It can be observed in all layers of vegetation and in all types of regions from

arid land to forested areas. It can as commonly be seen gliding over the treetops as flitting about

a foot off the ground searching for nectar flowers. In thick forests it is often seen moving along

open tracks or following the course of a river.

The butterfly, being protected by its inedibility, has a leisurely flight. It is often seen flying about

shrubs and bushes in search of its host plants. It visits a large variety of flowering plant species.

When gliding E. core holds its wings at an angle just greater than the horizontal plane,

maintaining its flight with a few measured wingbeats.

E. core is a nectar lover and visits flowers unhurriedly. It seems to prefer bunches to individual

flowers. When feeding the butterfly is unhurried and is not easily disturbed. It can be approached

closely at this time.

50

On hot days large numbers of these butterflies can be seen mud-puddling on wet sand. E. core is

an avid mudpuddler often congregating in huge swarms along with other Euploea species as well

as other Danaids.

This butterfly also gathers on damaged parts of plants such as Crotalaria, Heliotropium to forage

for pyrrolizidine alkaloids which are chemicals precursors to produce pheromones. During

courtship the males of E. core release these sex pheromones to attract females. Once a female is

in the vicinity the males glide around and with the help of a couple of yellow brush like organs

extending out from the tip of the abdomen they disperse the scent in the air.

Along with other Danaids, such as the tigers, E. core is one of the most common migrating

butterfly species. Males and females in equal proportions have been seen to migrate.

Protection

The common crow is distasteful due to chemicals extracted from the latex of the food plants

consumed in their caterpillar stage. Thus protected, they fly in a leisurely manner, gliding

skillfully with wings held slightly above the horizontal. This indicates its protection due to

inedibility to a predator. The inexperienced predator will try attacking it, but will learn soon

enough to avoid this butterfly as the alkaloids in its body cause vomiting.

The butterfly has tough, leathery wings. When attacked it shams death and oozes liquid which

causes any predators to release them and become nauseous. Once released the butterfly "recovers

miraculously" and flies off. Predators experience enough trauma that the characteristics of the

butterfly are imprinted in memory.

Life cycle

Eggs

Eggs are laid on the underside of young leaves of the host plants. The egg is shiny white, tall and

pointed, with ribbed sides. Just before hatching the eggs turn greyish with a black top.

Caterpillar

Throughout its life the caterpillar stays on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillar is

uniformly cylindrical, vividly coloured and smooth. It has alternate white and dark brown or

black transverse bands. Just above the legs and prolegs, along the entire body is a wide orangish-

red band interspersed with black spiracles. The most striking characteristics are the 4 pairs of

long and black tentacles. The first pair is movable and also the longest. The tentacles are present

on the 3rd, 4th, 6th, and 12th segments. The head is shiny, smooth and has alternating black and

white semicircular bands.

Since the host plants contain poisonous latex, the caterpillar has evolved peculiar eating habits. It

first chews the midrib of the leaf, cutting off the leaf's supply of latex and then goes on to nip a

few of the secondary veins of the leaf, further blocking the flow of latex. Subsequently the

caterpillar feeds on the leaf but only where the leaf's natural defences have been turned off. The

caterpillar is able to tolerate the plant toxins and stores it in its fatty tissue which helps make the

adult distasteful to predators.

51

Pupa

The pupa of this species is one of the most wonderful sights in nature. It is shiny golden in colour

and compact. The wing margins and margins of the abdominal segments are marked with broad

colourless bands. The abdomen has a pair of black spots on each segment. The cremaster is

black. Just before emergence the black wings show through the skin of the pupa. The species are

attacked by parasitic flies.

2) Blue Tiger (Tirumala limniace)

The Blue Tiger (Tirumala limniace) is a butterfly found in India that belongs to the crows and

tigers, that is, the danaid group of the brush-footed butterfly family. This butterfly shows

gregarious migratory behaviour in southern India.

Description

Upperside black, with bluish-white semihyaline spots and streaks. Fore wing: interspace 1 two

streaks, sometimes coalescent, with a spot beyond cell: a streak from base and an outwardly

indented spot at its apex; a large oval spot at base of interspace 2, another at base of interspace 3,

with a smaller spot beyond it towards termen; five obliquely placed preapical streaks, and

somewhat irregular subterminal and terminal series of spots, the latter the smaller. Hind wing:

interspaces 1b, 1a, and 1 with streaks from base, double in the latter two, cell with a forked broad

streak, the lower branch with a hook, or spur-like slender loop, at base of 4 and 5 a broad

elongate streak, and at base of 6 a quadrate spot; beyond these again a number of scattered

unequal subterminal and terminal spots.

Underside: basal two-thirds of fore wing dusky black, the apex and hind wing olive-brown; the

spots and streaks much as on the upperside, Antennae, head and thorax black, the latter two

spotted and streaked with, white; abdomen dusky above, ochraceous spotted with white beneath.

Expanse: 98–106 mm

Life cycle

Food-plants

A mimic of the Blue Tiger, Common Mime Papilio clytia form dissimilis, a papilionid

The butterfly larva generally feed on plants of family Asclepiadaceae.

Larva

Yellowish white; 3rd and 12th segments, each with a pair of fleshy filaments, black and greenish

white; each of the segments with four transverse black bars, the second bar on all broader than

the others, bifurcated laterally, a yellow longitudinal line on each side; head, feet and claspers

spotted with black. The larva is around 1.21 centimetres (0.48 in) in length and weighs around 5

milligrams (0.077 gr) initially, but grows double that size and four times that weight within 48

hours.

Pupa

52

"Green with golden scattered spots and beaded dorsal crescent" (Frederic Moore quoted in

Bingham)

53

Range

South Asia and Southeast Asia. Also found in numbers in Queensland (at least as far south as

Mackay, but also recorded in Brisbane) Australia

Habits

Congregating with an Common Crow in Kolkata, West Bengal, India

This species migrates extensively during the monsoons in southern India. The migratory

populations have been observed to consist nearly entirely of males. It is also known to mud-

puddle during migration.

3) Common Evening Brown (Melanitis leda)

The Common Evening Brown (Melanitis leda) is a common species of butterfly found flying at

dusk. The flight of this species is erratic. They are found in Africa, South Asia and South-east

Asia extending to parts of Australia.

Description

Wet-season form: Fore wing: apex subacute; termen slightly angulated just below apex, or

straight. Upperside brown. Fore wing with two large subapical black spots, each with a smaller

spot outwardly of pure white inwardly bordered by a ferruginous interrupted lunule; costal

margin narrowly pale. Hind wing with a dark, white-centred, fulvous-ringed ocellus

subterminally in interspace two, and the apical ocellus, sometimes also others of the ocelli, on

the underside, showing through.

Underside paler, densely covered with transverse dark brown striae; a discal curved dark brown

narrow band on fore wing; a post-discal similar oblique band, followed by a series of ocelli: four

on the fore wing, that in interspace 8 the largest; six on the hind wing, the apical and subtornal

the largest.

Dry-season form: Fore wing: apex obtuse and more or less falcate; termen posterior to falcation

straight or sinuous. Upperside: ground-colour similar to that in the wet-season form, the

markings, especially the ferruginous lunules inwardly bordering the black sub-apical spots on

fore wing, larger, more extended below and above the black costa. Hind wing: the ocellus in

interspace 2 absent, posteriorly replaced by three or four minute white subterminal spots.

Underside varies in colour greatly. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen in both seasonal forms

brown or greyish brown: the antennae annulated with white, ochraceous at apex.

Ecology

Colonel C. T. Bingham wrote of the genus in 1878-

The Melanitis was there among dead leaves, its wings folded and looking for all the world a

dead, dry leaf itself. With regard to Melanitis, I have not seen it recorded anywhere that the

species of this genus when disturbed fly a little way, drop suddenly into the undergrowth with

54

closed wings, and invariably lie a little askew and slanting, which still more increases their

likeness to a dead leaf casually fallen to the ground.

Resident butterflies are known to fight off visitors to the area during dusk hours. This chase

behaviour is elicited even by pebbles thrown nearby.

The caterpillars feed on a wide variety of grasses including rice (Oryza sativa), bamboos,

Andropogon, Rotboellia cochinchinensis, Brachiaria mutica, Cynodon, Imperata, and millets

such as Oplismenus compositus, Panicum and Eleusine indica.

Adults feed mainly on nectar, and in rare cases visit rotting fruits.

4) Common Palmfly (Elymnias hypermnestra)

The Common Palmfly (Elymnias hypermnestra) is a species of satyrid butterfly found in the

Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia.

Description

As some other species in the genus Elymnias, the Common Palmfly presents a precostal cell on

the hindwings and a hair tuft of androconial scales on dorsal discal cell of hindwings. This

butterfly species is dimorphic, males and females do not look alike.

Males exhibit black colored upperside forewings with small blue patches and reddish brown

color on upperside hindwings, while the females mimic butterfly species of the genus Danaus.

Race caudata Male from Calicut, Kerala

Race caudata (Western Ghats) Males and female resembles E. undularis, Drury, but both sexes

have the wings longer, proportionately to their breadth, and the tail at apex of vein 4 on the hind

wing longer. Upperside: male differs from E. undularis as follows: the subterminal and preapical

spots on the fore wing white suffused slightly with dark scales; the terminal half of the hind wing

tawny, more or less suffused with dusky black, which in some specimens forms a distinct border

along the termen. Female similar to the female of E. undularis, but the black more extended;

veins 2, 3, and 4 on the hind wing broadly bordered with black. Underside: Female differs from

E. undularis in the more conspicuous broadly triangular white pre-apical patch on the fore wing,

and in the prominence of the broad tawny terminal half of the upperside of the hind wing, which

shows through a pale, sometimes pinkish-brown on the underside. Antennae, head, thorax and

abdomen brown, paler beneath and much paler in the female than in the male.

Race undularis (Subhimalayas and Southeast Asia) Male upperside blackish brown. fore wing

with a subterminal series of blue or sometimes slightly green elongate spots, curving strongly

inwards and getting more elongate opposite apex, forming almost an oblique bar up to the costa.

Hind wing: the terminal margin broadly bright chestnut, sometimes with a subterminal paler spot

in two or more of the interspaces. Underside pale brown, the basal two-thirds of both fore and

hind wing densely, the outer third more sparsely covered with dark ferruginous, somewhat broad,

transverse striae. Fore wing with a broadly triangular pale purplish-white preapical mark; both

fore and hind wings with a broad subterminal area purplish white. Hind wing with a small white

55

spot opposite middle of the costa and a more or less complete series of more obscure whitish

subterminal spots. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen brown; abdomen beneath paler.

Female Upperside tawny, veins black. Fore wing : the dorsal margin broadly black; the apical

area beyond a line curving from the tornus, round apex of the cell and a little beyond it, to the

base of the costa also black, the wing crossed preapically by a conspicuous, broad, oblique white

bar, and three subterminal white spots. Hind wing: dorsal margin dusky; terminal broadly, costal

margin more narrowly black ; a subterminal series of four white spots. Underside tawny, with

markings similar to those in the male; the pale whitish markings more extensive; the dorsal

margin broadly without striae.

Range

Peninsular India, sub-Himalayas, and southeast Asia.

Life history

Food plants

Cocos nucifera, coconut. Calamus pseudo-tenuis, Calamus rotang, Calamus thwaitesii, Phoenix

loureiroi and Licuala sp.

56

Life cycle

Larva

Race caudata "Spindle-shaped, slender, transversely rugose and clothed with short stout

bristles...; head large, surmounted by two stout horns, sloping backwards, slightly branched at

the ends; a pair of long straight caudal spines setose like the body; colour bright green with

longitudinal yellow lines more or less distinct and two rows of large yellow spots tinged with

green and sometimes tipped with black on the back; head dark brown, with a yellow cheek-stripe

and frontal-line."

Race undularis "Elongate, fusiform, setose; green with longitudinal dorsal and lateral yellow

lines, and a subdorsal row of yellow elongated spots, which are centred with red and posteriorly

edged with blue; head brownish, armed with two erect brownish setose processes; anal segment

also with two red slender hindward-projecting processes."

Larvae are known to be cannibalistic.

Pupa

"Suspended by the tail only, but in a rigidly horizontal position, regular with the exception of

two small pointed processes from the head and an acute thoracic projection above them; colour

bright green, beautifully ornamented with four irregular rows of large yellow spots bordered with

red." (Davidson & Aitken quoted by Bingham.)

5) Lemon Pansy (Junonia lemonias)

Junonia lemonias, the lemon pansy, is a common nymphalid butterfly found in South Asia. It is

found in gardens, fallow land, and open wooded areas.

Description

It is brown with numerous eye-spots as well as black and lemon-yellow spots and lines on the

upperside of the wings. The underside is a dull brown, with a number of wavy lines and spots in

varying shades of brown and black. There is also an eyespot on the lower side of the forewing.

The wet and dry season forms differ considerably in coloration and even shape. In the wet season

form the markings are distinct and vivid and the wing shape is a little more rounded. In the dry

season form the markings are obscure and pale especially on the underside and the wing margin

is more angular and jagged. This helps it camouflage in the dried leaf-litter. The lemon pansy is a

very active butterfly and can be seen basking with its wings open facing the sun. It sits very low

to the ground and can be approached easily. It feeds with its wings half open. It is a fairly strong

flier and flies close to the ground with rapid wingbeats and often returns to settle back in the

same spots.

Life cycle

Eggs

Eggs are laid singly on the underside of leaves. The egg is green and barrel-shaped with

longitudinal ridges.

57

Caterpillar

The caterpillar is cylindrical, uniformly thick and covered with rows of spines which are

branched at the tip. It is dull black with a faint blue sheen and has dorsal stripe of a darker color.

There is a distinct orange ring behind the head. The caterpillar stays on the underside of the leaf

and if disturbed, rolls up and drops to the ground.

Pupa

Pupation takes place in dense foliage close to the ground. The pupa is compact, with small

conical processes on its rough surface. The pupa is well camouflaged with varying shades of

brown with fine streaks and lines.

Foodplants

Caterpillars feed on plants from the families Acanthaceae, Amaranthaceae, Malvaceae,

Rubiaceae, Tiliaceae and Verbenaceae.

58

Annexure XII: List of Insects

59

Annexure 1

Butterflies of Kaziranga (Gogoi 2009)

Sr.No. Common Name Scientific Name Status

Family: Papilionidae

1. Common Birdwing Triodes helana cerberus NR

2. Lesser Batwing Parides aidoneus NR

3. Common Batwing Parides aruna astorion R

4. Common Rose Pachliopta aristolochiae NR

5. Great Windmill Atrophaneura dasarada ravana R

6. Common Mime Chilasa clytia C

7. Great Mormon Papilio memnor agenor C

8. Paris Peacock Papilio paris NR

9. Common Ravern Papilio castor C

10. Red Helen Papilio helenus NR

11. Yellow Helen Papilio chaon NR

12. Common Mormon Papilio polytes romulus VC

13. Lime butterfly Papilo demoleus C

14. Fivebar Swordtail Papilio antiphates pompilius NR

15. Common Bluebottle Zetides sarpedon C

16. Common Jay Zetides doson axion C

17. Lesser Jay Zetides evemon albociliatus R

18. Tailed Jay Zetides agammemnon C

19. White Dragontail Leptocircus curius curius R

Family: Pieridae

20. Green Blackvein Pieris napi montana NR

21. Bath White Pontia daplidice moorei R

22. Indian Cabbage White Pieris canidia indica C

23. Large Cabbage White Pieris brassicae nepalensis C

24. Lesser Gull Cepora nadina R

60

25. Yellow Orange Tip Ixias pyrene NR

26. Painted Jezabel Delias hyparete hierte C

27. Redspot Jezebel Delias descombesi C

28. Redbase Jezebel Delias aglaia C

29. Spot Puffin Appias lalage C

30. Chocolate Albatross Appias lyncida C

31. Common Albatross Appias albina C

32. Eastern Striped Albatross Appias olferna NR

33. Psyche Leptosia nina C

34. Great Orange-Tip Hebomoia glaucippe NR

35. Common Emigrant Catopsilia pomona C

36. Mottled Emigrant Catopsilia pyranthe NR

37. Tree Yellow Gandaca harina assamica NR

38. Spotless Grass Yellow Eurema laeta sikkima NR

39. Three Spot Grass Yellow Eurema blanda silhetana VC

40. Common Grass Yellow Eurema hecabe contubernalis C

41. Scarce Grass Yellow Eurema lacteolasarinoides R

42. One Spot Grass Yellow Eurema andersoni andersoni NR

Family Riodinidae

43. Punchinello Zemeros flegyas indicus VC

44. Plum Judy Abisara echerius prunosa C

Family Nymphalidae

45. Glassy Tiger Parantica aglea melanoides C

46. Chestnut Tiger Parantica tytia tytia NR

47. Scarce Blue Tiger Tellervo gautama gautama R

48. Common Tiger Anosia plexippus VC

49. Plain Tiger Anosia chrysippus VC

50. Blue Tiger Tellervo limniace C

51. Dark Blue Tiger Tellervo septentrionis C

61

52. Striped Blue Crow Euploea mulciber C

53. Spotted Black Crow Euploea crameri bremeri NR

54. Common Indian Crow Euploea core vermiculata C

55. Long-branded Blue Crow Euploea deione NR

56. Double-branded Blue Crow Euploea harrisi hopei NR

57. Great Crow Euploea corus phoebus R

58. Magpie Crow Euploea diocletianus diocletianus C

59. Blue King Crow Euploea klugii NR

60. Blue Spotted Crow Euploea midamus brahma VR

61. Whitebar Bushbrown Mycalesis anaxias oemate NR

62. Common Bushbrown Mycalesis perseus blasius C

63. Dark-brand Bushbrown Mycalesis mineus mineus C

64. White-edge Bushbrown Mycalesis menstra R

65. Lepcha Bushbrown Mycalesis lepcha kohimensis NR

66. White-line Bushbrown Mycalesis malsara R

67. Plain Bushbrown Mycalesis Mycalesis malsarida NR

68. Lilacine Bushbrown Mycalesis francisca santana NR

69. Bamboo Treebrown Lethe europa niladana C

70. Common Treebrown Lethe rohria rohria C

71. Banded Treebrown Lethe confusca gambara C

72. Common Red Forester Lethe mekara zuchara C

73. Common Forester Lethe insana dinarbas NR

74. Scarce Red Forester Lethe distans VR

75. Bamboo Forester Lethe kansa C

76. Plain Threering Ypthima lyscus R

77. Large Threering Ypthima nareda sarcaposa NR

78. Common Fourring Ypthima huebneri C

79. Common Fivering Ypthima baldus C

80. Dark Catseye Zioetis scylax Hewitson NR

62

81. Nigger Orsotrioena medus C

82. Dusky Diadem Anadebis himachala NR

83. Common Evening Browns Melanitis leda ismene VC

84. Dark Evening Brown Melanitis phedima bela C

85. Branded Evening Browns Cyllogens suradeva R

86. Common Palmflies Elymnias hypermnestra undularis C

87. Spotted Palmfly Elymnias malelas NR

88. Blue striped Palmfly Elymnias patna NR

89. Jezabel Palmfly Elymnias vasudeva deva R

90. Common Faun Faunis arcesilaus C

91. Jungle Glory Thaumantis diores C

92. Common Duffer Discophora sondaica NR

93. Great Duffer Discophora timora NR

94. Tawny Rajah Charaxes polyxenia hierax C

95. Black Rajah Charaxes fabius sulphureus NR

96. Blue Nawab Polyura schreiberi assamensis C

97. Common Nawab Polyura athamas C

98. Pasha Herona marathus NR

99. Painted Courtesan Euripus consimilis R

100. Circe Hestina nama C

101. Constable Dichorragia nesimachus R

102. Popinjay Stibochiona nicea C

103. Grey Count Tanaecia lepidea C

104. Common Earl Tanaecia julii C

105. Plain Earl Tanaecia jahnu NR

106. Common Baron Euthalia garuda C

107. White-edge Blue Baron Euthalia phemius

108. Gaudy Baron Euthalia lubentina indica NR

109. Redspot Duke Euthalia evelina derma NR

63

110. Dark Arkduke Euthalia khasiana NR

111. Knight Lebadea martha ismene C

112. Clipper Parthenos sylvia gambrisius R

113. Commander Moduza procris C

114. Colour Sergent Parathyma nefte inara C

115. Staff Sergent Parathyma selenophora NR

116. Blackvein Sergent Parathyma ranga NR

117. Common Sergent Parathyma perius C

118. Orange Staff Sergent Pantoporia cama NR

119. Great Sergent Pantoporia siamensis R

120. Dot-dash Sergent Pantoporia kanwa phorkys R

121. Short-banded Sailer Neptis columella ophiana NR

122. Yerbury’s Sailer Neptis yerburyi sikkima NR

123. Common Sailer Neptis hylas adara VC

124. Sullied Sailer Neptis soma VC

125. Dingy Sailer Neptis vikasi pseudovikasi R

126. Dingrest Sailer Neptis harita R

127. Plain Sailer

Neptis carita burmana R

128. Neptis omeroda R

129. Yellowjack Sailer Lasippa viraja C

130. Broad-banded Sailer Neptis sankarna quilta NR

131. Small Yellow Sailer Neptis miah NR

132. Common Lascar Neptis hordonia C

133. Common Map Cyrestis thydomas C

134. Wavy Maplet Chersonesia rahria rahriodes R

135. Maplet Chersonesia risa NR

136. Tabby Pseudergolis wedah NR

137. Great Eggfly Hypolimnas bolina VC

138. Wizard Rhinopalpa polynice birmana NR

64

139. Autumn Leaf Doleschallia bisaltide indica NR

140. Orange Oakleaf Kallima inachus NR

141. Peacock Pansy Precis almana VC

142. Lemon Pansy Precis lemonias VC

143. Grey Pansy Precis atlites VC

144. Yellow Pansy Precis hierta magna VC

145. Chocolate Soldier Precis iphita VC

146. Painted Lady Vanessa cardui C

147. Indian Red Admiral Vanessa indica NR

148. Common Jester Symbrenthia hippoclus C

149. Bluetailed Jester Symbrenthia niphanda R

150. Indian Fritillary Argyreus hyperbius NR

151. Rustic Cupha erymanthis lotis NR

152. Common Leopard Phalanta phalantha C

153. Vagrant Vagrans egista sinha NR

154. Cruiser Vindula erota Fabricius, NR

155. Common Yeoman Cirrochroa tyche mithila NR

156. Large Yeoman Cirrochroa aoris C

157. Leopard Lacewing Cethosia cyane C

158. Red Lacewing Cethosia biblis tisamena C

159. Common Castor Ariadne merione assama C

160. Yellow Coaster Acraea vesta NR

161. Tawny Coster Acraea terpsicore NR

162. Common Beak Libythea celtis C

163. Club Beak Libythea myrrha sanguinalis C

164. Slate Awl Hasora anura R

165. Common Awl Hasora badra C

166. Plain Banded Awl Hasora vitta vitta NR

167. Large Banded Awl Hasora khoda coulteri R

65

168. White-banded Awl Hasora taminatus NR,

169. Common Banded Awl Hasora alexis NR

170. Branded Orange Awlet Bibasis oedipodea aegina NR

171. Plain Orange Awlet Bibasi anadi VR

172. Small Green Awlet Bibasis amara R

173. Pale Green Awlet Bibasis gomata R

174. Orange Awlet Bibasis harisa R

175. Orange-tail Awl Bibasis sena uniformis R

176. Indian Awlking Choaspes benjaminii xanthopogon R

177. Branded Awlking Choaspes stigmata R

178. Similar Awlking Choaspes similis R

179. Caudate Awlking Choaspes subcaudatus crawfurdi R

180.

Hooked Awlking

Choaspes furcata R

181. Celaenorrhinus entellus simula VR

182. Celaenorrhinus saturatus R

183. Celaenorrhinus aurivittata NR

184. Large Snow Flat Tagiades gana C

185. Suffused Snow Flat Tagiades obscurus C

186. Common Snow Flat Tagiades japetus ravi C

187. Spotted Snow Flat Tagiades menaka NR

188. Water Snow Flat Tagiades litigiosa C

189. Yellow Flat Mooreana trichoneura pralaya NR

190. White Yellow-breast Flat Gerosis sinica narada NR

191. Dusky Yellow-breast Flat Gerosis phisara C

192. Malay Yellow-breast Flat Gerosis limax NR

193. Fulvous Pied Flat Pseudocoldaenia dan C

194. Chestnut Angle Odontoptilum angulata NR

195. Grey Pied Flat Coladenia laxmi laxmi R

196. Common Small Flat Sarangesa dasahara C

66

197. Indian Skipper Spialia galba Fabricius C

198. Giant Hopper Apostictopterus fuliginosus VR

199. Forest Hopper Asticopterus jama olivascens NR

200.

Bush Hopper

Ampittia dioscorides NR

201. Ampittia virgata myakei

202. Ampittia trimacula R

203. Scarce Bush Hopper

Ampittia maroides

204. Ampittia dalailama R

205.

Blue-spotted Scrub Hopper

Aeromachus kali

206. Aeromachus stigmata obsoleta NR

207. Aeromachus jhora creta NR

208. Aeromachus discreta NR

209. Pigmy scrub Hopper Aeromachus pygmaeus NR

210. Brown bush Bob Pedesta pandita C

211. Chestnut Bob Iambrix salsala C

212. Indian Palm Bob Suastus gremius gremius R

213. Ceylon Palm bob Suastus minuta aditia NR

214. Malay Palm Bob Suastus everyx R

215. Forest Bob Scobura cephala NR

216. Malay Forest Bob Scobura phiditia R

217. Large Forest Bob Scobura cephaloides NR

218. Grass Bob Suada swerga NR

219. Narrow-banded Velvet Bob Koruthaialos rubecula cachara NR

220. Dark Velvet Bob.

Koruthaialos butleri butleri

221. Koruthaialos focula RF

222. Bright Red Velvet Bob Koruthaialos xanites gopaka NR

223. Coon Psolos fuligo subfasciatus C

224. Watson’s Demon Stimula swinhoei R

225. Circular Tufted Demon Ge geta VR

67

226. Chocolate Demon Ancistroides nigrita

227. Gem Demon

Ancistroides gemmifer R

228. Pseudokerana fulgur R

229. Grass Demon

Udaspes folus C

230. Notocrypta quadrata R

231. Small Demon

Notocrypta pria R

232. Notocrypta clavata R

233. Common Banded Demon Notocrypta paralysos C

234. Spotted Demon Notocrypta feisthamelii alysos C

235. Restricted Demon Notocrypta curvifascia C

236. Giant Redeye Gangara thyrsis thyrsis NR

237. Palm Redeye Erionota thrax thrax

238. Common Redeye Matapa aria C

239. Purple Redeye Matapa purpurascens NR

240. Dark-brand Redeye Matapa druna R

241. Black-veined Redeye Matapa sasivarna R

242. Grey-brand Redeye Matapa shalgrama R

243. Tree Flitter Hyarotis adrastus prabus NR

244. Purple and Gold Flitter Zographetus satwa C

245. Purple spotted Flitter

Zographetus ogygia ogygia R

246. Zographetus rama rama R

247. Vermiculata Lancer Pyroneura vermiculata VR

248. Red-Vein Lancer Pyroneura niasana burmana VR

249. Yellow-vein Lancer Pyroneura margherita NR

250. Purple Lancer Salanoemia fuscicornis R

251. Maculate Lancer Salanoemia sala sala R

252. Spotted Yellow Lancer

Salanoemia noemi NR

253. Salanoemia tavoyana NR

254. White Tipped Palmer Lotongus calathus zalates VR

68

255. Yellowband Palmer Lotongus sarala sarala NR

256. Plain Green Palmer Pirdana distanti R

257. Nonsuch Palmer Cyrina cyrina parca VR

258. Dark straw Ace Pithauria murdava R

259. Light Straw Ace Pithauria stramineipennis NR

260. Branded Straw Ace Pithauria marsena NR

261. Silverybreast Ace Sovia albipectus prominens R

262.

Graham’s Ace

Sovia grahami R

263. Sovia lucasii magna R

264. Thoressa hyrie R

265. Northern Spotted Ace Thoressa cerata NR

266. Leech’s Ace Thoressa latris thandaunga VR

267. Gharwal Ace Thoressa aina debilis

268. White-fringed Ace Halpe insignis

269. Swinhoe’s Ace Halpe burmana Swinhoe NR

270. Moore’s Ace Halpe porus NR

271. Indian Ace

Halpe homolea NR

272. Halpe veluvana veluvana R

273.

Tavoy Sulphur Ace

Halpe flava R

274. Halpe aurifera NR

275. Halpe toxopea R

276. Tenasserim Ace Halpe kusala C

277. Confusing Ace Halpe wantona NR

278. Javan Ace

Halpe pelethronix pelethronix R

279. Halpe hieron R

280. Banded Ace Halpe zema zema NR

281. Dark Banded Ace

Halpe ormenes vilasina R

282. Halpe zola C

69

283. Knyvett’s Ace Halpe knyvetti

284. Plain Ace Halpe kumara R

285. Sikkim Ace Halpe sikkima R

286. Tytler’s Ace

Halpe tytleri R

287. Halpe arcuata R

288. Beggar’s Ace Halpe paupera R

289. Wax Dart Cupitha purreea NR

290. Veined Grass Dart Taractrocera ziclea tissara 1910

291. Yellow Grass Dart

Taractrocera archias quinta R

292. Taractrocera aliena NR

293. Malay Dartlet Oriens paragola NR

294. Common Dartlet

Oriens gola C

295. Potanthus fettingi

296. Branded Dart Potanthus rectifasciata rectifasciata R

297.

Lesser Dart

Potanthu omaha NR

298. Potanthus ganda NR

299. Potanthus taxilus R

300. Himalayan Dart Potanthus dara R

301. Common Dart Potanthus pseudomaesa pseudomaesa NR

302. Pallid Dart

Potanthus pallida C

303. Potanthus zatilla

304. Yellow Dart

Potanthus flava R

305. Potanthus sita NR

306. Chinese Dart Potanthus confucius dushta NR

307. Burmese Dart Potanthus juno R

308. Tropic Dart Potanthus tropica tropica C

309. Palni Dart Potanthus palnia palnia VR

310. Large Dart Potanthu hetaerus serina NR

311. Broad Bident Dart Potanthus trachala tytleri C

70

312. Narrow Bident Dart Potanthus mingo ajax R

313. Sikkim Dart Potanthus nesta R

314. Sikkim Dart

Potanthus mara R

315. Potanthus amor VR

316. Pale Parm Dart Telicota augias NR

317. Common Palm Dart Telicota colon C

318. Dark Palm Dart Telicota bambusae NR

319. Dark Palm Dart Telicota ohara jix NR

320. Besta Palm Dart Telicota besta bina NR

321. Greenish Palm Dart Telicota ancilla horisha NR

322. Linna Palm Dart Telicota linna linna NR

323. Plain Palm Darts Cephrenes palmarum C

324. Paintbrush Swift Baoris farri NR

325. Dark Branded Swift Caltoris brunnea NR

326. Figure of 8 Swift Caltoris pagana NR

327. Yellow Fringed Swift Caltoris aurociliata

328. Sirius Swift Caltoris sirius C

329. Colon Swift Caltoris bromus R

330. Colon Swift

Caltoris cara NR

331. Caltoris tenius NR

332. Full stop Swift Caltoris moolata C

333. Tufted Swift Caltoris plebeia NR

334. Purple Swift Caltoris tulsi R

335. Blank Swift

Caltoris kumara C

336. Caltoris malaya NR

337. Philippine Swift Caltoris philippina belli NR

338. Baby Swift Polytremis minuta R

339. Contiguous Swift Polytremis lubricans

340. Yellow Spot Swift Polytremis eltola

71

341. Himalayan Swift Polytremis discreta

342. Great Swift Pelopidas assamensis R

343. Conjoined Swift Pelopidas conjuncta javana R

344. Large Branded Swift Pelopidas sinensis C

345. Small Branded Swift Pelopidas mathias C

346. Straight Swift Parnara guttatus C

347. Ceylon Swift Parnara bada C

348. Rice Swift Borbo cinnara C

349. Bevan’s Swift Pseudoborbo bevani C

Abbreviations -VC: Very common (abundant) C: Common NR: Not rare (uncommon) R: Rare VR: Very

rare (endemic)

*Multiple subspecies excluded.

72

Annexure 2

Habitatwise distribution of Orthoptera and Mantodea in Kaziranga National Park, Assam

(Senthilkumar 2010)

Sr.

No.

Species Family Forest Savannah Grassland

1 Xenocatantops humilis Acrididae + + +

2 Phlaeoba infumata Acrididae + + +

3 Phlaeoba tenebrosa Acrididae - + +

4 Spathosternum prasiniferum Acrididae + - -

5 Atractomorpha crenulata Acrididae - + +

6 Catantops ferruginuous Acrididae + + +

7 Gesonula punctifrons Acrididae - + +

8 Phlaeoba antennata Acrididae + - -

9 Phlaeoba sp. Acrididae - + -

10 Trilophidia annulata Acrididae + - -

11 Caryanda sp. Acrididae + - -

12 Atractomorpha sp. Acrididae - + +

13 Tagasta indica Acrididae + - -

14 Oxya hyla hyla Acrididae - - +

15 Heiroglyphus banian Acrididae - + +

16 Eyprepocnemis alacris Acrididae - + +

17 Orthacris maindroni Acrididae - + +

18 Acrida exaltata Acrididae - + +

19 Oxya nitidula Acrididae - - +

20 Conocephalus maculatus Tettigoniidae + + +

21 Conocephalus (Xiphidion)

melaenus

Tettigoniidae + - -

22 Euconocephalus indicus Tettigoniidae - + +

23 Letana rubescens Tettigoniidae + - -

73

24 Hexacentrus unicolor Serville. Tettigoniidae + + -

25 Khaoyaiana sp. Tettigoniidae + - -

26 Hexacentrus major Redtenb. Tettigoniidae + - -

27 Elimaea (Orthelimaea)

securigera

Tettigoniidae + + +

28 Mirrollia sp. Tettigoniidae - - +

29 Teleogryllus sp. Gryllidae - + +

30 Gryllinae sp. Gryllidae + - -

31 Gryllodes sigillatus Gryllidae + + +

32 Hierodula sp. Mantidae - + -

33 Creobroter sp. Mantidae + - -

34 Statilia sp. Mantidae - - +

35 Tenodera sp. Mantidae - + +

36 Mantodea sp. Mantidae + - -

+ is Presence; - is Absence

74

Annexure 3

List of thrips from Kaziranga National Park, Assam

(Singh and Varatharajan 2013)

Suborder: Terebrantia; family: Thripidae

1. Anaphothripssudanensis Trybom,1911

2. AyyariachaetophoraKarny1927

3. Chaetanaphothripsorchidii(Moulton,1907)

4. Craspedothripsminor(Bagnall,1921)

5. Dendrothripsstannardi(Ananthakrishnan,1957)

6. DichromothripsnakahariMound, 1976

7. Dichromothripssmithi(Zimmerman,1900)

8. Frankliniellaintonsa(Trybom,1895)

9. Fulmekiolaserrata(Kubos, 1893)

10. HydatothripsaureusBhatti, 1973

11. Lefroyothripslefroyi(Bagnall, 1913)

12. Megalurothripsdistalis(Karny 1913)

13. M.mucunae (Priesner,1938)

14. M. pecularis(Bagnall,1918)

15. M.typicusBagnall, 1915

16. M.usitatus(Bagnall,1913)

17. Microcephalothripsabdominalis(Crawford,1910)

18. Mycterothripssetiventris(Bagnall,1918)

19. NeohydatothripsraniaeBhatti,1967

20. Rhamphothripsparviceps Hood,1919

21. Sciothrips cardamomi (Ramakrishna,1935)

22. ScirtothripsdorsalisHood,

23. Stenchaetothripsbiformis(Bagnall,1913)

24. TaeniothripsmajorBagnall, 1916

25. Thripsandrewsi(Bagnall,1921)

26. T.coloratusSchmutz, 1913

75

27. T. flavidulus (Bagnall, 1923)

28. T. flavus Schrank, 1776

29. T. hawaiiensis (Morgan, 1913)

30.T. kodaikanalensis Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish,1966

31. Thrips (Isothrips) orientalis (Bagnall, 1915)

32. T. palmi Karny, 1925

33. T. tabaci Lindeman, 1889

34. Astrothrips tumiceps (Karny, 1923)

35. Helionothrips kadaliphilus (Ramakrishna and Margabandhu, 1931)

36. H. parvus Bhatti, 1968

37. Monilothrips kempi Moulton, 1929

38. Panchaetothrips indicus Bagnall, 1912

39. Phibalothrips peringueyi (Faure, 1925)

40. Retithrips syriacus (Mayet, 1890)

41. Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood, 1919

42. Selenothrips rubrocinctus (Giard, 1901)

43. Zaniothrips ricini Bhatti, 1967

Suborder: Tubulifera, family: Phlaeothripidae

44. Androthrips flavitibia Moulton, 1932

45. A. ramachandrai Karny, 1926

46. Araeothrips longisetis Ananthakrishnan, 1976

47. Araeothrips vamana Muraleedharan, 1982

48. Arrhenothrips longisetis Sen, 1977

49. Bamboosiella nayari (Ananthakrishnan, 1958)

50. Crotonothrips cacharensis Muraleedharan & Sen,1978

51. Dexiothrips madrasensis (Ananthakrishnan, 1964)

52. Dolichothrips indicus (Hood, 1919)

53. D. montanus Ananthakrishnan, 1964

54. Ecacanthothrips tibialis (Ashmead, 1905)

76

55. Eurynchothrips ordinarius (Hood, 1919)

56. Gigantothrips elegans Zimmerman, 1900

57. G. tibialis (Bagnall, 1921.

58. Gynaikothrips bengalensis Ananthakrishnan, 1973

59. G. cecidii Ananthakrishnan, 1968

60. G. uzeli Zimmerman, 1900

61. Haplothrips ceylonicus Schmutz, 1913

62. H. ganglbaueri Schmutz, 1913

63. H. gowdeyi (Franklin, 1908)

64. H. longisetosus Ananthakrishnan, 1955

65. Haplothrips (Haplothrips) montanus (Ananthakrishnan & Jagadish, 1970)

66. H. tenuipennis Bagnall, 1918

67. Hoplandrothrips flavipes Bagnall, 1923

68. Hoplothrips fungosus Moulton, 1928

69. Leeuwenia ananthakrishnani Varatharajan and Sen, 2000

70. L. karnyiana Priesner, 1925

71. Liophloeothrips amoenus Ananthakrishnan, 1966

72. L. pavettae Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish, 1969

73. Liothrips aequilus Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish, 1969

74. L. associatus Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish, 1969

75. L. himalayanus Ananthakrishnan & Jagadish, 1970

76. L. infrequens Muraleedharan and Sen, 1979

77. L. mohanrami Bhatti et al., 2006

78. L. morulus Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish, 1970

79. L. ramakrishnae Ananthakrishnan and Jagadish, 1969

80. Membrothrips indicus (Hood, 1919)

81. Mesothrips ambasensis Muraleedharan and Sen, 1981

82. M. extensivus Ananthakrishnan & Jagadish, 1969

83. M. lividicornis (Karny, 1923)

77

84. Mimothrips orientalis Ananthakrishnan, 1949

85. Neodixothrips assamensis Sen amd Muraleedharan, 1976

86. Tylothrips indicus Sen & Muraleedharan, 1977

87. Xylaplothrips pusillus Ananthakrishnan & Jagadish, 1969

88. Dinothrips sumatrensis Bagnall, 1908

89. Elaphrothrips curvipes Priesner, 1929

90. E. denticollis (Bagnall, 1914)

91. E. greeni (Bagnall, 1914)

92. E. procer (Schmutz, 1913)

93. E. spiniceps Bagnall, 193

94. Meiothrips nepalensis Kudo and Ananthakrishnan, 197

95. Nesothrips brevicolis (Bagnall, 1914)

96. N. lativentris (Karny, 1913)

78

Annexure 4

Checklist of butterflies observed during this study

Sr.

No. Common Name Scientific name Family

1. Zema Banded Ace Halpezema Hesperiidae

2. Pale Palm-Dart Telicota colon Hesperiidae

3. Dark Palm-Dart Telicotabambusae Hesperiidae

4. Common Small Flat Sarangesadasahara Hesperiidae

5. Black Angle Tapenathwaitesi Hesperiidae

6. Water Snow Flat Tagiadeslitigiosa Hesperiidae

7. Common Snow Flat Tagiadesjapetus Hesperiidae

8. Fulvous Pied Flat Pseudocoladeniadan Hesperiidae

9. Common Spotted Flat Celaenorrhinusleucocera Hesperiidae

10. Dark Velvet Bob Koruthaialosbutleri Hesperiidae

11. Chestnut Bob Iambrixsalsala Hesperiidae

12. ExtraForest Bob Scoburacephala Hesperiidae

13. Dingy Scrub Hopper Aeromachusdubius Hesperiidae

14. Restricted Demon Notocryptacurvifascia Hesperiidae

15. Spotted Demon Notocryptafeisthamelii Hesperiidae

16. Common BrandedRedeye Matapa aria Hesperiidae

17. SmallerDartlet Oriensgoloides Hesperiidae

18. Common Pierrot Castaliusrosimon Lycaenidae

19. Elbowed Pierrot Caletaelna Lycaenidae

20. Straight Pierrot Caleta(Pycnophallium)roxus Lycaenidae

21. Banded Blue Pierrot Discolampaethion Lycaenidae

22. Common Tit Hypolycaenaerylus Lycaenidae

23. Fluffy Tit Zeltusamasa Lycaenidae

24. Common Imperial Cheritrafreja Lycaenidae

25. Blue Imperial Ticherraacte Lycaenidae

79

26. Witch Araoteslapithis Lycaenidae

27. Dark Cerulean Jamidesbochus Lycaenidae

28. Silver Forget-me-not Catochrysopspanormus Lycaenidae

29. Zebra Blue Leptotesplinius Lycaenidae

30. Malayan Megisba malaya Lycaenidae

31. Common Hedge Blue Acytolepispuspa Lycaenidae

32. Acute Sunbeam Curetisacuta Lycaenidae

33. Purple Sapphire Heliophorusepicles Lycaenidae

34. Common Ciliate Blue Antheneemolus Lycaenidae

35. Lesser Grass Blue Zizinaotis Lycaenidae

36. Pale Grass Blue Pseudozizeeriamaha Lycaenidae

37. Dark Mottle Loganiadistanti Lycaenidae

38. Yamfly Loxuraatymnus Lycaenidae

39. Plum Judy Abisara echerius Riodinidae

40. Punchinello Zemeros flegyas Riodinidae

41. Large Yeoman Cirrochroaaoris Nymphalidae

42. Vagrant Vagransegista Nymphalidae

43. Common Baron Euthaliaaconthea Nymphalidae

44. Powdered Baron Euthaliamonina Nymphalidae

45. Common Earl Tanaeciajulii Nymphalidae

46. Common Bushbrown Mycalesisperseus Nymphalidae

47. Plain Bushbrown Mycalesismalsarida Nymphalidae

48. Common Evening Brown Melanitisleda Nymphalidae

49. Angled Red Forester Lethe chandica Nymphalidae

50. White-bar Bushbrown Mycalesisanaxias Nymphalidae

51. Common Faun Fauniscanens Nymphalidae

52. Nigger Orsotriaenamedus Nymphalidae

53. Angled Castor Ariadne ariadne Nymphalidae

54. Rustic Cuphaerymanthis Nymphalidae

80

55. Psyche Leptosianina Nymphalidae

56. Grey Count Tanaecialepidea Nymphalidae

57. Courtesan Euripus nyctelius Nymphalidae

58. Common Palmfly Elymniashypermnestra Nymphalidae

59. Grey Pansy Junoniaatlites Nymphalidae

60. Peacock Pansy Junoniaalmana Nymphalidae

61. Lemon Pansy Junonialemonias Nymphalidae

62. Yellow Pansy Junoniahierta Nymphalidae

63. Commander Moduzaprocris Nymphalidae

64. Staff Sergeant Athymaselenophora Nymphalidae

65. Colour Sergeant Athymainara Nymphalidae

66. Common Sergeant Athymaperius Nymphalidae

67. Unbroken Sergeant Athymapravara Nymphalidae

68. Common Four-ring Ypthimahuebneri Nymphalidae

69. Common Five-ring Ypthimabaldus Nymphalidae

70. Tawny Rajah Charaxesbernardus Nymphalidae

71. DingiestSailer Neptisharita Nymphalidae

72. False DingiSailer Neptispseudovikasi Nymphalidae

73. Sullied/CreamySailer Neptis soma Nymphalidae

74. Small Yellow Sailer Neptismiah Nymphalidae

75. Clear Sailer Neptisnata Nymphalidae

76. Plain Tiger Danauschrysippus Nymphalidae

77. Common or Striped Tiger Danausgenutia Nymphalidae

78. Blue Tiger Tirumalalimniace Nymphalidae

79. Glassy Tiger Paranticaaglea Nymphalidae

80. Dark Blue Tiger Tirumalaseptentrionis Nymphalidae

81. Common Indian Crow Euploea core Nymphalidae

82. Striped Blue Crow Euploeamulciber Nymphalidae

83. Magpie Crow Euploearadamanthus Nymphalidae

81

84. DanaidEggfly Hypolimnasmisippus Nymphalidae

85. Knight Lebadeamartha Nymphalidae

86. Common Nawab Charaxesathamas Nymphalidae

87. Wizard Rhinopalpapolynice Nymphalidae

88. Pallid Nawab Charaxesarja Nymphalidae

89. Leopard Lacewing Cethosiacyane Nymphalidae

90. Common Lascar Pantoporiahordonia Nymphalidae

91. Common Birdwing Troideshelena Papilionidae

92. Common Mormon Papiliopolytes Papilionidae

93. Common Bluebottle Graphiumsarpedon Papilionidae

94. Paris Peacock Papilioparis Papilionidae

95. Great Mormon Papiliomemnon Papilionidae

96. Tailed Jay Graphiumagamemnon Papilionidae

97. Lime Butterfly Papiliodemoleus Papilionidae

98. Yellow Helen Papilionephelus Papilionidae

99. Mottled Emigrant Catopsiliapyranthe Pieridae

100. Common Emigrant Catopsiliapomona Pieridae

101. Yellow Orange-tip Ixias pyrene Pieridae

102. Great Orange-tip Hebomoiaglaucippe Pieridae

103. Chocolate Albatross Appiaslyncida Pieridae

104. Painted Jezebel Deliashyparete Pieridae

105. Red-spot Jezebel Deliasdescombesi Pieridae

82

83

Annexure XIII: Images of Butterflies

84

Some Butterflies recorded by BNHS team during the Survey

Colour Seargeant Athyma nefte

Paris Peacock Papilio paris

Common Lascar Pantoporia hordonia

Unbroken Sergeant Athyma pravara

Common Birdwing Troideshelena

Courtesan Euripus nyctelius

All

photo

s by D

r. R

aju

Kas

ambe

85

Wizard Rhinopalpa polynice

Large Yeoman Cirrochro aaoris

Common Earl Tanaecia julii

Knight Lebadea martha

Nigger Orsotriaena medus Angled Red Forester Lethe chandica

All

photo

s by D

r. R

aju

Kas

ambe

86

Swinhoe’s Forest Bob Scobura isota

Dark Mottle Logania distanti Witch Araotes lapithis

Long-banded Silverline Spindasis lohita

Pygmy Scrub Hopper Aeromachus pygmaeus

Common Ciliate Blue Anthene emolus

All

photo

s by D

r. R

aju K

asam

be