BiodiversityIs the variety of the earth's species, the genes they contain, the ecosystems in which they live, and the ecosystem processes that sustain all life.

Species DiversityThe number in abbundance of species present in different communities.

Genetic DiversityThe variety of genetic material within a species or a population.

Ecosystem DiversityThe variety of terrestial and aquatic ecosystems found in an area or on the Earth.

Biological EvolutionEarth's life changes over time through changes in the genes of populations.

Natural SelectionIndividuals of a population have genetically based traits that enhance their ability to survive and produce offspring with the same traits.

MutationsRandom changes in the structure or number of DNA molecules in a cell that can be inherited by offspring.

AdaptationAny inheritable trait that enables an individual organism to survive through natural selection and to reproduce more than other individuals under prevailing environmental conditions.

Genetic ResistanceThe ability of one or more organisms in a population to tolerate a chemical design to kill it.

FitnessMeasure of reproductive stress, not strength.

Tectonic PlatesHuge flows of molten rock within the Earth's interior breaks its surface into a series of gigantic solid plates.

SpeciationTwo species arrive from one.

Geographic IsolationOccurs when different groups of the same population of a species become physically isolated from one another for long periods.

Reproductive IsolationMutation and change by natural selection operate independently and the gene pools of geographically isolated populations.

Endemic SpeciesSpecies that are found in only one area.

Background ExtinctionSpecies disappearing at a low rate.

Species RichnessThe number of different species in a community or population.

Species EvennessThe reletive abbundance of individuals within each of those species.

Ecological NicheThe role that a species plays in its ecosystem.

Generalist SpeciesSpecies with broad niches.Ex. Cockroach

Specialist SpeciesSpecies that occupy narrow niches.Ex. China's Giant Panda

Indicator SpeciesSpecies that provide early warnings of damage to a community or ecosystem.

Keystone SpeciesHave a large effect on the types and abbundances of species in an ecosystem

Foundation SpeciesSpecies that play a major role in shaping communities by creating and enhancing their habitats in ways that benefit others.

What is most significant when determining the diversity of an Ecosystem?The number of species present

What factors are used to determine what constitutes a species?Physically distance from other groups of organisms, can interbreed with others from the same group

Which of the following is the best description of species evenness?the relative dominance of each species within an ecosystem

Which of the following measures of biodiversity takes into account the number of species present and the relative abundance of the species present?Shannon;s Index

which of the following is the best description of evolution?the genetic change within a population over time

Which (of the following) is the best example of artificial selection?breeding of horses for speed

Which of the following statements about mutations is incorrect?all mutations are harmful

Which of the following is not a key component of the theory of evolution by natural selection?differences in traits are not associated with differences in the ability to survive and reproduce

When a population suddenly reduces in size either from habitat loss , natural disaster, or other changes in the environment, its genetic variation is affected. When this occurs, this is known as:Bottleneck effect

A population of rabbits with typical variations of traits lives in a meadow with a depression that runs through the middle. Over time, the depression fills in with water and becomes a river, separating the one population into two over a period of several years. This is an example of:Allopatric speciation

Which of the following would result in the highest rate of evolution?A population with high genetic variation

Which type of species would be most vulnerable to environmental changes?Niche specialists

Approximately what percentage of species that have lived on the planet is now thought to be extinct?99%

How would a collision with a meteorite lead to a worldwide, mass extinction?A large meteorite would produce a dust cloud that blocked sunlight, reducing photosynthesis

Which of the following is not considered to be contributing to the current increase in extinction rates?Natural selection

What occurs when a small group from a population colonizes a new area?Founder effect

Which is NOT a problem with clear cutting as a means of timber harvest?High cost of clear cutting when compared to other methods

Selective cutting has many benefits, which do NOT includeOptimum growth for sun loving species

Massive forest fires that burn large areas and destroy canopy are most likely to benefitEarly succession species seeking to fill a niche

Before certain projects can begin in the US, the project owner must file an EIS. The purpose of this is toforce land owners to suggest alternative approaches to the project and assess the environmental impacts of those alternatives

Public lands in the US are categorized for use based on the managing agency. In general Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) lands are used forWildlife conservation, hunting, and recreation

Public lands in the US are categorized for use based on the managing agency. In general Bureau of Land Management (BLM) lands are used forGrazing, mining, timber harvesting, and recreation

Public lands in the US are categorized for use based on the managing agency. In general National Park Service (NPS) lands are used forRecreation and conservation

Public lands in the US are categorized for use based on the managing agency. In general US Forestry Service (USFS) lands are used forTimber harvesting, grazing, and recreation

The best forest management techniques mimic natural processes. This is most likely to includeAllowing prescribed burns to remove accumulated dead biomass

National wildlife refuges are managed primarily for the purpose of protecting wildlife. They are usually managed byFWS (fish and wildlife service)

A management system that includes prescribed burns will likely lead toLarge quantities of biomass accumulating on the forest floor, A decrease in the likelihood of uncontrolled natural fires

The U.S. has a total land area of about 980,000,000 hectares. Approximately how many hectares are used for recreational and wildlife lands?107,500,000 hectares

Instrumental value of ecosystems, also known as ecosystem services, includes all of the following EXCEPT:intrinsic value

Including the mass extinction events that occurred prior to human existence, ecologists hypothesize that human activity could currently be the reason behind mass extinction number:six

The event that is defined by the last member of a species dying is termedextinction

The IUCN labels species that are at high risk of extinction as:threatened

Evaluating the overall status of different plant and animal groups is difficult mostly because:the majority of known species have not been assessed for current population trends

River barriers such as dams are an example of which of the following factors that can lead to species endangerment?habitat alteration

Which North American species was driven extinct by overharvesting?Passenger pigeon

An example of an alien species that would have been introduced by the ballast water of ocean freighters would be:zebra mussel

The international legislation that establishes a "Red List" for species susceptible to trade and thus endangerment is called the:Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species

The Lacey act, mandated by the government of the United States, was designed to:inhibit the interstate commerce of illegally harvested species

In the United States, which agency is responsible for monitoring the import of threatened species as well as administering the Endangered Species Act?U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Climate change would most likely have the greatest impact on which of the following groups of species?organisms in extreme environments such as the polar bear

The United States legislation that is designed specifically to protect organisms such as manatees, polar bears, sea otters, and sea lions would be the:Marine Mammal Protection Act

The greatest threat to the northern spotted owl population is most likely:continued logging of old growth forests in the pacific northwest

According to the principles of island biogeography, which of the following factors increases island biodiversity?increased proximity to the mainland, increased island size

The phenomenon of forgiving the debt of economically underprivileged nations in exchange for preserving habitat for biodiversity is known as:debt for nature swap

All of the following could be considered ecosystem services that may benefit a nation that is forgiving the debt of a developing nation in exchange for the preservation of biodiversity EXCEPT:

fossilsSkeletons, bones, shells, body parts, leaves, seeds, or impressions of such items that provide recognizable evidence of organisms that lived long ago.

biological evolutionChange in the genetic makeup of a population of a species in successive generations. If continued long enough, it can lead to the formation of a new species. Note that populations, not individuals, evolve.

micelleAn aggregate of surfactant molecules dispersed in a liquid colloid.

protocellA self-organized, endogenously ordered, spherical collection of lipids proposed as a stepping-stone to the origin of life.

macroevolutionEvolution on a scale of separated gene pools. Macroevolutionary studies focus on change that occurs at or above the level of species.

microevolutionThe change in allele frequencies that occur over time within a population. This change is due to four different processes: mutation, selection (natural and artificial), gene flow, and genetic drift.

natural selectionProcess by which a particular beneficial gene (or set of genes) is reproduced in succeeding generations more than other genes. The result of natural selection is a population that contains a greater proportion of organisms better adapted to certain environmental conditions.

mutationRandom change in DNA molecules making up genes that can alter anatomy, physiology, or behavior in offspring.

differential reproductionPhenomenon in which individuals with adaptive genetic traits produce more living offspring than do individuals without such traits.

adaptationAny genetically controlled structural, physiological, or behavioral characteristic that helps an organism survive and reproduce under a given set of environmental conditions. It usually results from a beneficial mutation.

coevolution

Evolution in which two or more species interact and exert selective pressures on each other that can lead each species to undergo adaptations.

ecological nicheTotal way of life or role of a species in an ecosystem. It includes all physical, chemical, and biological conditions that a species needs to live and reproduce in an ecosystem.

fundamental nicheFull potential range of the physical, chemical, and biological factors a species can use if it does not face any competition from other species.

realized nicheParts of the fundamental niche of a species that are actually used by that species.

generalist speciesSpecies with a broad ecological niche. They can live in many different places, eat a variety of foods, and tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions. Examples include flies, cockroaches, mice, rats, and humans.

specialist speciesSpecies with a narrow ecological niche. They may be able to live in only one type of habitat, tolerate only a narrow range of climatic and other environmental conditions, or use only one type or a few types of food.

speciationFormation of two species from one species because of divergent natural selection in response to changes in environmental conditions; usually takes thousands of years.

sympatric speciationOccurs when populations of a species that share the same habitat become reproductively isolated from each other. This speciation phenomenon most commonly occurs through polyploidy, in which an offspring or

group of offspring will be produced with twice the normal number of chromosomes. Where a normal individual has two copies of each chromosome (diploidy), these offspring may have four copies (tetraploidy). A tetraploid individual cannot mate with a diploid individual, creating reproductive isolation.

Sympatric speciation is rare. It occurs more often among plants than animals, since it is so much easier for plants to self-fertilize than it is for animals. A tetraploidy plant can fertilize itself and create offspring.

allopatric speciationOccurs when populations of a species become geographically isolated. When populations become separated, gene flow between them ceases. Over time, the populations may become genetically different in response to the natural selection imposed by their different environments.

Allopatric speciation is the most common form of speciation.

geographic isolationSeparation of populations of a species for long times into different areas.

reproductive isolationLong-term geographic separation of members of a particular sexually reproducing species.

genetic driftThe change in the frequency of a gene variant (allele) in a population due to random sampling. The alleles in the offspring are a sample of those in the parents, and chance has a role in determining whether a given individual survives and reproduces. Genetic drift may cause gene variants to disappear completely and thereby reduce genetic variation.

population bottleneckOccurs when a population's size is reduced for at least one generation. Because genetic drift acts more quickly to reduce genetic variation in small populations,

undergoing a bottleneck can reduce a population's genetic variation by a lot, even if the bottleneck doesn't last for very many generations. Ex.: Northern elephant seals have reduced genetic variation probably because of a population bottleneck humans inflicted on them in the 1890s. Hunting reduced their population size to as few as 20 individuals at the end of the 19th century. Their population has since rebounded to over 30,000—but their genes still carry the marks of this bottleneck: they have much less genetic variation than a population of southern elephant seals that was not so intensely hunted.

founder effectThe loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population. Ex.: Afrikaaners have an unusually high frequency of Huntington's disease, probably because of the founder effect.

parapatric speciationOccurs when populations are separated not by a geographical barrier, such as a body of water, but by an extreme change in habitat. While populations in these areas may interbreed, they often develop distinct characteristics and lifestyles. Reproductive isolation in these cases is not geographic but rather temporal or behavioral. For example, plants that live on boundaries between very distinct climates may flower at different times in response to their different environments, making them unable to interbreed.

Parapatric speciation is extremely rare.

extinctionComplete disappearance of a species from the Earth. It happens when a species cannot adapt and successfully reproduce under new environmental conditions or when a species evolves into one or more new species.

endemic speciesSpecies that is found in only one area. Such species are especially vulnerable to extinction.

background extinctionNormal extinction of various species as a result of changes in local environmental conditions.

mass extinctionA catastrophic, widespread, often global event in which major groups of species are wiped out over a short time compared with normal (background) extinctions.

mass depletionWidespread, often global period during which extinction rates are higher than normal but not high enough to classify as a mass extinction.

artificial selectionProcess by which humans select one or more desirable genetic traits in the population of a plant or animal species and then use selective breeding to produce populations containing many individuals with the desired traits.

genetic engineeringInsertion of an alien gene into an organism to give it a beneficial genetic trait.

recombinant DNADNA that has been altered to contain genes or portions of genes from organisms of different species.

genetically modified organism (GMO)Organism whose genetic makeup has been altered by genetic engineering. Also known as a transgenic organism.

biological diversity or biodiversitythe variety of the earth's species, or varying life-forms, the genes they contain, the ecosystems in which they live, and the ecosystem processes of energy flow and nutrient cycling that sustain all life.

species

a set of individuals that can mate (if they are sexually reproducing) and produce fertile offspring. Ex.: homo sapiens sapiens

ecosystem diversitythe earth's variety of deserts, grasslands, forests, mountains, oceans, lakes, rivers, and wetlands. A major component of biodiversity.

biomeslarge regions such as forests, deserts, and grasslands with distinct climates and certain species adapted to them.

functional diversitythe variety of processes such as energy flow and matter cycling that occur within ecosystems as species interact with one another in food chains or webs.

fossilsmineralized or petrified replicas of skeletons, bones, teeth, shells, leaves, and seeds, or impressions of such items found in rocks.

fossil recordthe entire body of evidence gathered using fossils. It is uneven and incomplete.

biological evolution or evolutionthe process whereby earth's life changes over time through changes in the genetic characteristics of populations.

theory of evolutionall species descended from earlier, ancestral species.

natural selectionwhere individuals with certain traits are more likely to survive and reproduce under a particular set of environmental conditions than those without the traits.

mutations

random changes in DNA molecules of a gene in any cell that can be inherited (sex cell).

heritable traita trait that can be passed down from generation to generation.

adaptation or adaptive traitany heritable trait that improves the ability of an individual organism to survive and to reproduce at a higher rate than other individuals in a population under prevailing environmental conditions.

differential reproductionenables individuals with a heritable trait to produce more surviving offspring than other members of the population produce.

genetic resistancethe ability of one or more organisms in a population to tolerate a chemical designed to kill it.

tectonic platesgigantic solid plates on the earth's surface.

speciationwhen one species splits into two or more different species.

geographic isolationoccurs when different groups of the same species become physically isolated from one another for a long period of time.

reproductive isolationoccurs when geographically isolated populations of sexually reproducing organisms become so different in genetic makeup that they cannot produce live, fertile offspring if they are rejoined and attempt to interbreed.

extinction

a process in which an entire species ceases to exist or a population of a species becomes extinct over a large region.

endemic speciesspecies only found in one area and are vulnerable to extinction. Ex: those species found only on islands.

background extinctiona low rate of extinction of about 1 - 5 species for each million on earth.

mass extinctiona significant rise in extinction rates above the background level.

artificial selectionwhere humans change the genetic characteristics of populations by crossbreeding those with desireable traits.

species diversitythe number and variety of species in an ecosystem. It is a combination of species richness and species evenness.

species richnessthe number of different species present in an ecosystem. Ex.: a coral reef is high and an aspen forest is low

species evennessthe comparative numbers of individuals of each species present in an ecosystem. Ex.: tropical forests high and aspen forest low

theory of island biogeographythe number of different species (richness) found on an island is determined by the interaction of (1) the rate at which new species immigrate and (2) the rate at which species become locally extinct.

ecological niche or niche

a way of life for a species in a community and includes everything that affects its survival and reproduction, such as how much water and sunlight it needs, how much space it requires, what it feeds on, what feeds on it, and the temperatures it can tolerate.

habitata species' home or place where it lives.

generalist speciesspecies that have broad niches, such as flies, cockroaches, raccoons, humans.

specialist speciesspecies that have narrow niches, such as giant panda, some shorebirds

native speciesspecies that normally live and thrive in a particular ecosystem. Ex.: deer in NJ.

nonnative species, invasive, alien, or exotic speciesspecies that migrate into, or are deliberately or accidentally introduced into an ecosystem. Ex.: gypsy moths in NJ.

indicator speciesspecies that provide early warnings of damage to a community or an ecosystem. Ex.: Loss of seabirds on NJ shore.

keystone speciesspecies whose roles have a large effect on the types and abundance of other species in an ecosystem. They are limited in number. Ex.: butterflies, alligators, or sharks

foundation speciesa species that play a major role in shaping their communities by creating and enhancing their habitats in ways that benefit other species. Ex.: beaver, elephants, bats, birds

Passenger pigeonOnce most abundant bird in N. America; more than all other N.A. birds combined. Last flock destroyed in 1896; last one died in 1914 in a Cincinnati Zoo. Humans killed species in just 50 years

Natural SelectionThe process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction are passed on more frequently to future generations than those that do not, thus altering the genetic makeup of populations through time.

Alfred Russell WallaceEnglish naturalist who proposed, independently of Charles Darwin, the concept of natural selection as a mechanism for evolution and as a way to explain the great variety of living things

Logistical growth curveA population graph that initial shows exponential growth and then plateaus because the population maxes out the ecosystems carrying capacity.

Charles DarwinEnglish naturalist. He studied the plants and animals of South America and the Pacific islands(Galapagos), and in his book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859) set forth his theory of evolution.

EvolutionThe genetic changes in populations of organisms through generations by means of natural selection.

Adaptive traitAny heritable trait that enables an organism to survive through natural selections and reproduce better under prevailing environmental conditions

MutationsRandom errors in gene replication that lead to a change in the sequence of nucleotides; the source of all genetic diversity

RecombinationThe formation of new combinations of the different alleles of each gene on a chromosome; the result of crossing over.

Directional selectionForm of natural selection in which the entire curve moves; occurs when individuals at one end of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end of the curve

Stabilizing selectionForm of natural selection in which the entire curves area begins to form in the

middle. Favors intermediate types of the species.

Disruptive selectionForm of natural selection in which a single curve splits into two; occurs when individuals at the upper and lower ends of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle

selective breedingThe process of selecting a few organisms with desired traits to serve as parents of the next generation.

Artificial selectionThe selective breeding of domesticated plants and animals to encourage the occurrence of desirable traits.

BiodiversityThe variety of organisms in a given area, the genetic variation within a population, the variety of species in a community, or the variety of communities in an ecosystem

Species

A group of organisms so similar to one another that they can breed and produce fertile offspring

PopulationA group of organisms of the same species in a given area

SpeciationThe process by which a new species evolves from a prior species, the most basic process in macroevolution.

Allopatric SpeciationSpeciation due to organisms of a species being separated by geographical barriers so that eventually they become so different that they cannot interbreed.

Sympatric SpeciationSpeciation that occurs within one area - some factor other than geographical separation has prevented free interbreeding between members of the species.

Bottleneck effectGenetic drift resulting from the reduction of a population, typically by a natural disaster, such that the surviving population is no longer genetically representative of the original population.

Genetic driftThe gradual changes in gene frequencies in a population due to random events

Phylogenetic treesAlso called cladograms, a treelike diagram that represents the history of divergence of species or other taxonomic groups of organisms

Burgess ShaleCanadian fossil formation that contains Cambrian soft-bodied organisms as well as organisms with hard parts. Fossils date from approximately 530 million years ago.

ExtinctionDisappearance of a species from all parts of its geographical range

Survivorship curvesThey show the likelihood of survival at different ages throughout the lifetime of the organism. Type 1 (high probability of death at old age - humans, elephants). Type 2 ( straight equal probability of death at all age - birds). Type 3( high probability of death at young age -Toads)

EndemicA disease that is constantly present to a greater or lesser degree in people of a certain class or in people living in a particular location

Background extinction rate

The average rate at which species go extinct over the long term. Approximately 10 per year.

Mass extinction eventsThe extinction of a large proportion of the worlds species in a very short time period due to some extreme and rapid change or catastrophic event. There has been five of these in the bast half billion years.

AlvarezFather/son team that first proposed that a giant asteroid caused the K-T extinction.

K-T Mass extinctionThis mass extinction event was the most recent and occurred approximately 65 million years ago. Killed off 70% of all living species including dinosaurs. Proposed meteorite origin was proposed

by the Alvarez scientists by comparing iridium levels.

Adaptive radiationProcess by which a single species or small group of species evolves into several different forms that live in different ways; rapid growth in the diversity of a group of organisms. Example of this is birds with different beaks adapted to different beaks.

BiosphereAll the parts of the planet that are inhabited by living things; sum of all earth's ecosystems

Population ecologyThe study of populations in relation to the environment, including environmental influences on population density and distribution, age structure, and variations in population size.

Community EcologyThe study of how interactions between species affect community structure and organization.

Ecosystem EcologyThe study of energy flow and the cycling of chemicals among the various biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem.

EcosystemA specific biological community and its physical environment interacting in an exchange of matter and energy.

HabitatThe place or set of environmental conditions in which a particular organism lives.

Habitat selectionThe process by which organisms actively select habitats in which to live

NicheThe full range of physical and biological conditions in which an organism lives and the way in which the organism uses those conditions

SpecialistsSpecies with a narrow niche and thus having very specific requirements to survive in their ecosystem.

GeneralistsSpecies with a broad niche who are able to live in a large variety of habitats or use a wide variety of resources.

Population densityThe number of organisms per unit area.

Population dispersion

Also known as distribution, the way in which individuals of a population are spread in an area or volume; the three types are clumped, uniform, and random

Uniform distributionThe distribution characteristic of a population with a relatively regular spacing of individuals, commonly as a result of territorial behavior

Clumped distributionThe most common type of population distribution where many members of the population live close together(usually near resources), humans for example. Also called patchy.

Random distributionDistribution in which the location of members in a population is totally random, location of each individual is determined by chance.

Sex ratioThe proportion of males to females. To maximize population growth needs to be 50/50.

Age structureThe number and proportion of people at each age in a population

Age PyramidsA way to display information about the number of organisms alive in particular age groups of a population.

Crude birth rateThe number of live births in a given period of time per thousand organisms.

Crude death rate

The number of deaths in a given time span per 1,000 organisms.

Growth rateAn expression of the increase in the size of an organism or population over a given period of time. (Sorry but this time I'm too lazy to add the formula)

EmigrationThe movement of organisms OUT of a population

ImmigrationThe movement of organisms INTO a population

Exponential GrowthGrowth of a population that multiplies by a constant factor at constant time intervals(geometric increases). Forms J-shaped curve.

Carrying capacityThe largest number of individuals of a population that a given environment can support at a given time.

limiting factorsAny biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the existence, numbers, reproduction, or distribution of organisms

Environmental resistance

All the limiting factors that tend to reduce population growth rates and set the maximum allowable population size or carrying capacity of an ecosystem

density dependent factorsLimiting factors (such as competition, predation, parasitism, and disease) that are affected by the number of individuals in a given area

density independent factorsLimiting factor that affects all populations in similiar ways, regardless of population size.

Biotic potentialThe maximum reproductive rate of an organism, given unlimited resources and ideal environmental conditions

Gestation periodThe length of time between fertilization and birth

k selectedOrganisms that reproduce later in life, produce fewer offspring and devote significant time and energy to the nurturing of their offspring. Populations usually stabilize at carrying capacity.

r selectedOrganisms that reproduce early in life and often and have a high capacity for reproductive growth(biotic potential). Populations usually fluctuate greatly.

Golden ToadIs now extinct, used to live in the Costa Rican cloud forests; could be due to El Nino, fungus or Global climate change,

restricted range of its habitat, airborne pollution, lower pH levels

EcotourismA form of tourism that supports the conservation and sustainable development of ecologically unique areas.