A

SEMINAR REPORT

ON

BIOCHIPS

Submitted ByU.SIVA NAGU(07X21A0552)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

PRIYADARSHINI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES

(Affiliated to J.N.T.U Kakinada, Chintalapudi-522 306)

TENALI

2010-2011

CONTENTS

1. DEFINITION

2. IN WHAT WAY THEY WORK

GETTING UNDER THE SKIN

THE S4MS CHIP

BIOCHIPS USED TO DETECT AND MONITOR DISEASES

CHIPS THAT FOLLOW FOOT STEPS

OXY SENSORS

BRAIN SURGERY WITH AN ON AND OFF SWITCH

ADDING SOUND TO LIFE

‘CLRION’ AND ‘NUCLEUS’

EXPERIMENT WITH LOST SIGHT

FENDING OFF DRUG RESISTANT TB WITH BIOCHIP

TECHNOLOGY

5. BIOCHIPS RAISE CRITICAL ISSUES OF PERSONAL

PRIVACY

6. IMPLANTABLE BIOCHIPS THE END OF HUMAN

FREEEDOM AND DIGNITY

7. TRULY EMBEDDED CHIPS.

8. ADVANTAGES

9. DISADVANTAGES

INTRODUCTION

Biochips were invented 9 years ago by gene scientist Stephen Fodor . In a flash of

light he saw that photolithography, the process used to etch semi conductor circuits in

to silicon could also be used to assemble particular DNA molecules on a chip.

The human body is the next biggest target of chip makers . medical

researchers have been working since a long period to integrate humans body

and chips . In no time or at maximum within a short period of time Biochips

can get implanted into the body of humans . So integration of humans and

chips is achieved this way .

Money and research has already gone into this area of

technology .Anyway such implants are already being experimented with animals

. A

simple chip is being is being implanted into tens of thousands of animals

especially pets.

DEFINITION:- A biochip is a collection of miniaturized test sites (microarrays) arranged on

a solid substrate that permits many tests to be performe At the same time

inorder to achieve higher throughput and speed . Typically a biochips surface

is no larger than a finger nail . Like A computer chip that can perform

millions of mathematical operations In one second , a biochip can perform

thousands of biological reactions Such as decoding genes , in a few seconds .

A genetic biochip is designed to “freeze” into place the structures of

many short strands of DNA ( deoxyribo nucleic acid ) , the basic chemical

instruction that determines the characterstics of an organism . effectively , it is

used as a kind of “ test tube “ for real chemical samples. A specially designed

microscope can determine where the sample hybridised with DNA strands in

the biochip.

IN WHAT WAY THEY WORK:-

The chips are of the size of an uncooked grain of rice small enough

to be injected under the skin using a syringe needle . They respond to a

signal from the detector , held just a few feet away by transmitting an

identification number . This number is then compared with a database listing of

registered pets .

GETTING UNDER THE SKIN :-

Hausdorffs chips are external , but another chip currently under development will be injected under skin . The chips will allow diabetics to monitor the level of sugar glucose in their blood . Diabetics currently use a skin prick and a handheld blood test and then medicate themselves with insulin , depending on the result . The system is simple and works well , but drawing blood each time is pain full so patients donot test themselves as often as it is needed .

THE S4MS CHIP:-

The new s4ms chip will get underneath the skin sense the glucose

level and send the result back by radio frequency communication. A light

emitting diode starts of the detection process . The light that it produces hits a

fluorescent chemical : one that absorbs incoming light and re emits it at a

longer wavelength . The longer wavelength of light is then detected , and the

result is sent to a control panel outside the body . Glucose is detected, because the

sugar reduces the amount of light that the florescent chemical re emits . the more

glucose there is the less light that is detected.

S4MS is still developing the perfect fluorescent chemical, but

the key design innovation of the S4MS chip has been fully worked out. The idea is

simple : the LED is sitting in a sea of the fluorescent molecules. In most detectors the

light source is far away from the fluorescent molecules, and the inefficiencies that

come with that mean more power and larger devices. The prototype S4MS chip 22W

LED, almost 40 times less powerful than the tiny power on buttons on a computer

keyboard. The low power requirements mean that energy can be supplied from the

outside, by the process called induction. The fluorescent detection itself does not

consume any chemicals or proteins, so the device is self – sustaining.

BIOCHIPS USED TO DETECT AND MONITOR DISEASES:-

CHIPS THAT FOLLOW FOOT STEPS : -

The civil debate over biochips has obscured their more ethically

benign and medically useful applications . Jeffery housdoff of the Beth Israel

deaconess medical center in Boston has used the type of pressure sensitive

resistors found in the buttons of a microwave oven as stride timers .He places

one sensor in the heel of a shoe and other in the ankle and adds a computer

to the ankle to calculate the duration of each stride(step).

Young healthy people can regulate the duration of each step very

accurately , but elderly patients prone to frequent falls have extremely variable

stride times . by using this information doctors can change their medication and

ask them to do exercises . Hausdorff is also is also using the system to

determine the success of treatment of congestive heart failure . By monitoring

the number of strides that a person takes , he can directly measure the

patients activity level , by passing the often flawed estimate made by patient .

Oxy sensors

The working model of an oxygen sensor uses the same layout.

With its current circuitry it is about the size of a large shirt button, but the final silicon

wafer will be less than a millimeter square. The oxygen sensor will be useful not only

to monitor breathing in the intensive care units, but also to check that packages of

food or containers of semi conductors stored under nitrogen gas, remain air tight.

Another version of an oxygen sensing chip currently under

development sends like pulses out into the body. The light is absorbed to varying

extends, depending on how much oxygen is being carried in the blood, and this chip

detects the light that is left. The rushes of blood pumped by the heart or also detected,

so the same chip is pulse monitor. The number of companies already make large scale

versions of such detectors.

This oxygen chip is perhaps about two years away, but the dimensions of

another temperature – sensing chip has been reduced to 3mm per side. The transition

of certain semi conductors to their conducting state is inherently sensitive to

temperature, so designing the sensor was simple enough. With some miniature radio

frequency transmitters, and foam rubber earplugs to hold the chip in place, the device

is complete. Applications range from sick children, to chemotherapy patience who

can be plagued by sudden raises in body temperature in response to their anti cancer

drugs.

Brain Surgery with an on off switch

Sensing and measuring is one thing, but can we switch the body on and off?

Heart pace makers use the crude approach : large jolts of electricity to synchronize the

pumping of the heart. The electric pulses of the Activa implant, made by US – based

medtronics or directed not at the heart but the brain, they turn off brain signals that

cause the uncontrolled movements, or tremors, associated with diseases such as

Parkinson’s.

Drug therapy for Parkinson’s disease aims to replace the brain messenger,

dopamine, the product of the brain cells that are dying. But eventually that drugs

affects wear off, and the erratic movements come charging back.

The activa implant , cleared for use in the US in AUG, 1997 is a new

alternative that users high frequency electrical pulses to reversibly shut off the

thalamus. The implementation surgery is far less traumatic than thalamotony

And if there are any post operative problems the stimulator can simply be turned off.

The implant primarily interferes with aberrant brain functioning.

Adding Sound To Life

The most ambitious bio engineers are today trying to add back brain functions,

restoring sight and sound where there was darkness and silence.

The success story in this field is the cochlear implant. Most hearing aids are

Glorified amplifiers, but the cochlear implant is for patients who have lost the hair

cells that detect sound waves. For these individuals no amount of amplification is

enough.

The cochlear implant delivers electrical pulses directly to the nerve cells

In the cochlea, the spiral-shaped structure that translates sound into nerve pulses. In

normal hearing individuals, sound waves set up vibrations in the walls of the cochlea,

and hair cells detect these vibrations. High frequency noises ( deep notes) vibrate the

base of the cochlea, while low frequency notes vibrate nearer the top of the spiral.

The implant mimics the job of the hair cells. It splits the frequencies of incoming

noises into a number of channels ( typically eight)

And then stimulates the appropriate part of the cochlea.

‘Clarion ‘ and ‘Nucleus’

The two most successful cochlear implants are the clarion ( developed at the

university of California at San Francisco (UCSF) and Advanced Bionics Corporation

of Sylmar in California) and the Nucleus ( developed at the University of

Melbourne,Australis, and made by cochlear of Sydney, Australia).

Upgrades largely focus on improving the speech processing software, which is

operated by a minicomputer worn on the patient’s belt. Theoretically, increasing the

number of channels( and electrodes) could improve sound perception.

But speech is perceived in an area of the cochlea only 14mm long, and spacing the

electrodes too close to each other causes signals to bleed from one channel to another.

The result is a broad brush version of hearing.while some recipients of the

devices report speech like sounds,many characterise their new world as being

populated with quacking ducks or banging garbage cans. But the success is

undeniable.currently two thirds to three quarters of patients (with more recent models)

can understand speech without lip reading says Steve Rebscher,a member of UCSF

team.”its pretty amazing , and certainly better than a lot of people anticipated these

devices would do”.

EXPERIMENTS WITH LOST SIGHT:-

With the ear atleast partially conquered , the next logical target is the eye.

Several groups are working on implantable chips that mimic the action of photo

receptors , the light sensing cells at the back of the eye. Photo receptors are lost in

retinitis pigmentosa , a genetic disease,and in age related macular degeneration , the

most common cause of lost sight in the developed world. Joseph Rizzo of the

Massachusetts eye and ear infirmary , and john Wyatt of the Massachusetts institute

of technology have made a twenty electrode,1mm square chip,and implanted it at the

back of rabbits eyes.

The original chip,the thickness of human hair,put too much stress on the eyes

the new version is ten times thinner. The final set up will include a fancy camera

mounted on a pair of glasses.The camera will detect and encode the scene,then send it

in to the eye as a ;laser pulse,with the laser also providing the energy to drive the chip.

Rizzo has confirmed that his tiny array of light receivers(photo diodes) can

generate enough electricity to run the chip.He has also found that the amount of

electricity needed to fire a nerve cell into action is about hundred fold lower in the eye

than in the ear,so the currents can be smaller,and the electrodes more closely spaced.

For now,the power supply comes from a wire inserted directly into the eye

and ,using this device , Rizzo has detected signals reaching the brain. Eugene de Juan

of Johns Hopkins Wilmer eye Institute is trying to answer that question by using

human subjects.His electrodes , inserted directly in to the eye , are large and some

what crude .But his results have been startling . Completely blind patients have seen

well defined flashes, which change in position and brightness as De Juan changes the

position of the electrode for the amount of current.

In his most recent experiments , patients have identified simple shapes out

lined by multiple electrodes . With as little as an 8x8 array , de Juan believes he could

approximate character recognition, and a 25x25 array might give a crude image.

The big money in eye implant is in Germany , where the government has

pledged millions of US$.One is similar to the US projects in which chips are

implanted on the surface of the retina,the structure at the back of the eye.the other

project is putting its implants at the back of the retina where the photo receptors are

normally found.These “subretinal” chips may block the transport of oxygen and food

to the overlying nerve cells, so Everhart Zrenner of the university of Tubinger of

Germany is developing ‘chain mail’ electrode arrays, with plenty of holes for the

delivery of supplies.

FENDING OFF DRUG RESISTANT TB STRAINS WITH

BIOCHIP TECHNOLOGY:-

As tuberculosis threatens to make its come back shrouded in a drug

resistent form ,a new biochip technology developed by Argonne National Laboratory

and the Russian Academy of Sciences’ Englehardt Institute of Microbiology, may

help stem a global epidemic.

In October, Argonne will begin testing its biochip’s ability to distinguish

between different TB strains.l The tests will be done on harmless segments of genetic

material removed from TB bacteria.

The biochips are designed to carry out thousands of biochemical reactions

simultaneously, and have performed well in laboratory tests. “But this will be their

first test in the realm of real-world medical diagnostics.

They chose TB for the test because new drug resistant strains have

sprung up in Russia and can easily spread to the whole world, including US.If they

can quickly identify specific strains, it will help doctors prescribe the best

Treatments quickly and possibly help prevent a world wide academic.

According to World Health Organization, TB kills more youth and adults

than any other infectious disease, including AIDS and malaria combined.

Every year, 7 to 8 million people become sick with the disease.

Today, TB patients are often prescribed several antibiotics

simultaneously because it takes weeks or months to identify specific TB strains, and

patients can die during this time. “If our biochip can do the job,” “physicians can

prescribe the most effective treatment without delay.”

If successful, these initial studies will set the precedent for similar

evaluations of other bacterial and viral diseases.

DRUG-RESISTANT TB

Antibiotic resistance results from the natural selection of stronger

bacteria over weaker ones. Stronger bacteria have mutated genes that confer

antibiotic resistance.

Because TB cells grow slowly,antiobiotics must be taken daily for atleast

six months to ensure that all the bacteria are eliminated.If treatment is shortened or

inconsistent, surviving bacteria-those most resistant to the treatment-can reproduce,

passing their resistance on to their offspring.

In impoverished nations, where people cannot afford months of

medication, victims effectively become incubation chambers for new drug-resistant

strains. In some Russian institutions, roughly 80 percent of the TB patients were

found resistant to atleast one antibiotic, and 50 percent showed multiple resistance.

Although airborne, TB is not remarkably contagious compared to other

viral and bacterial infections. With only one exposure, the body’s defenses normally

keep the bacteria at bay, unless the immune system is weakened by a disease such as

AIDS. However,with continued exposure, as when living with a person with active

TB, someone can develop the disease quickly.

BETTER, CHEAPER, FASTER

Like computer chips, which perform millions of mathematical operations

a second, Biochips can perform thousands of biological reactions in a few seconds.

The Argonne/Englehardt biochip is essentially a glass side containing up

to 10,000 tiny gel pads, each serving as a mini test-tube. Attached to each gel pad is a

short strand of DNA, the unique set of blueprints that determine the building blocks of

every living species. The information in DNA is encoded in long sequences of four

molecular units, or bases – adenine(A), cytosine(C), guanine(G) and thymine(T). The

precise pairing of A on one strand with T on another strand and G with C, allows

DNA to form it’s “double helix”.

By fixing only one strand of the double helix to each gel pad, the chip

employs the natural tendency of each DNA base to pair with it’s complementary base.

When tests begin, a sample of unknown single strands of TB DNA will be spread on a

chip and allowed to naturally pair up with single strands of known TB DNA already

in the gels. A direct match will identify drug resistant TB strains.

By changing the DNA samples in the gels, scientists can also use this

technique to diagnose a unlimited range of other diseases quickly and efficiently.

One of the biggest advantages of Argonne’s Biochips, over

conventional Biochips, is that they can be cleansed and reused up to 50 times,

making them more economical than conventional biochip technology . Also, the gel’s

greater size allows them to hold up to 1,000 times the material, making them more

sensitive than any other biochip.

In standard TB diagnostics, a patient must endure a number of tests.

First, a skin test is done to determine if they had ever been exposed. Second, a chest

X-ray is done to determine if TB has damaged any lung tissue. Finally, a throat

culture is done to determine if the TB is still growing and what antibiotics it resists.

Results from the throat culture alone can take a month.

“With the advanced biochip technology, we’d be able to get all

information we need in a couple of hours”, “Without any false positives.”

EVIDENCE OF SUCCESS

The researchers have reason for being optimistic about this project. “The fact

that it has worked in one sample and it wasn’t difficult to perform, shows us that this

has a lot of potential,” . “The current round of tests will tell us more.”

However, bringing the test into the clinical setting is another giant

leap. “We’re using DNA , not actual fluid from patients,” “But it does give us a good

idea of the direction we want to go.”

If successful, they would move to a larger scale study with more patients and

more conditions and then try to get it to work using fluid samples from active TB

patients.

“We’ll be doing a full scale clinical diagnosis bit it’ll take years to get to the

market,” “Considering that TB is becoming a global epidemic, some urgent steps

must be taken to speed up the process. The first step is to figure out if this has a

chance to work.”

BIOCHIPS RAISE CRITICAL ISSUES OF PERSONAL PRIVACY

DNA microchips will soon be able to reveal to anyone an accurate profile of

your personality and potential.

In the new millennium there is a chance of loss of individual privacy, not in

the sense of listening through key holes or reading my e-mail.Everyone’s mind has

much more personal things. What everyone fears to lose in the coming decade is their

private sense of self, that unique collection of foibles and strengths that make them a

particular person. Before this decade ends, a simple sample of anyone’s blood, tested

with a biochip, will quickly and cheaply yield a computer characterization of his

genes, a summary that can reveal to any stranger the secrets of his innermost self.

A biochip, also called a gene microarray, is a square of glass smaller than a

postage stamp, covered with millions of strands of DNA like blades of grass. Think of

the chip surface as a field of assembly sites, much as a TV screen is a field of colored

dots. Just as a scanning beam moves over each individual TV dot instructing it to be

red, green, or blue, so a scanning beam moves over each biochip spot, commanding

the addition there of a base to a growing strand of DNA. A computer, by varying the

wavelength of the scanning beam, determines which of four possible units, called

nucleotides, is added to the growing DNA strand anchored to each spot. When the

entire chip has been scanned, each DNA strand has been lengthened one nucleotide

unit. The computer repeats the process, layer by layer, until each DNA strand is an

entire gene or gene fragment. One biochip made in this way contains hundreds of

thousands of specific gene sequences.

How could you use such a biochip to delve into my genes? All you

would have to do is to obtain a little of my DNA, say from a blood sample or even a

bit of hair. Flush fluid containing my DNA over the biochip surface. Every place my

DNA has a gene matching one of the biochip strands, it will stick to it in a way the

computer can detect.

Now here is where it gets interesting – and scary. The mad rush to

sequence the human genome is over. The gene research firm Celera announced

Monday it has essentially completed the sequence, with over 90% of genes done.

Already the researchers are busily comparing their consensus “reference sequence” to

the DNA of individual people, and noting any differences they detect.

Called single nucleotide polymorphism’s, or snps, these spot

differences in the identity of particular nucleotides record every way in which a

particular individual differs from reference sequence. Some single nucleotide snips

cause diseases like cystic fibrosis or sickle cell anemia. In my case, particular snps

give me red hair and elevated levels of cholesterol in my blood.

Everything genetic about me that is different from you is caused by a few thousand

snps; otherwise you and I are identical.

The scary part is snps on chips.researchers planned to have identified some

300,000 different snps by year’s end all of which could reside on a single

biochip.when anyone’s DNA is flushed over a snp biochip , the sequences that light

up will instantly reveal his snp profile.Every thing about him that makes him,every

gene that might affect his health,my behavior ,his future potential –all are there to be

read by any stranger clever enough to interpret his profile.That much of what he is

strongly affected by his genetic makeup.researchers have proved beyond any real

dispute that intelligence and major personality traits like aggressiveness and

inquisitiveness are about 80% inheritable.

Ones snp profile will reflect all of this variation ,a table of contents of my

chromosomes, a molecular windows to my soul. When millions of such snp profiles

have been gathered – and we’re talking years, not decades – any computers worth

keeping will be able to identify other individuals with profiles like mine, and, by

examining health records, standard personality tests, and the like, correlate parts of

my profile with particular traits.

There is no place my identity can hide. Even behavioral characteristics

involving many genes, which until now have been thought too complex to ever

analyze, cannot resist a determined assault by a computer comparing snp profiles.

All this lies in the future, but no far, I’d wager.

IMPLANTABLE BIOCHIPS END OF HUMAN FREEDOM AND DIGNITY:-

Will every American citizen soon be forced to receive a programmable

biochip implant in their bodies? Will the biochip implant make possible the

surveillance and tracking of people by ground sensors and satellites in the sky, linked

together with a massive, super computer system?

Texe Marrs documents that the United States government is working on such a

system at this very moment. By the year 2000 it will be fully implemented. Many

animals and some human beings are already having Biochips implanted. Almost all

of the people with implants are unsuspecting victims. Biochips were surgically

inserted in their arms, hands, foreheads, ears, brains, or buttocks without their

knowledge.

But U.S. and foreign intelligence agencies are taking this technology one giant

step further. They fully intend to use Implantable Biochips to turn every man,

woman, and child into a controlled slave. Through cybernetic, biochip brain implants,

people will think and act exactly as pre-programmed. What a tremendous bonanza for

the coming Antichrist ! Inject the chip into a man or woman’s brain and he or she

instantly becomes a living vegetable and a subservient, New World Order Slave !.

Implantable Biochips are getting smaller and more powerful(left). At right, a laboratory mouse has a biochip injected into its body.

Implantable Biochips and The End of Human Freedom and Dignity exposes the

government plot to wield this invasive, life destroying technology. Texe Marrs quotes

an executive officer of the World Future Society ( 27,000 influential members) as

saying : “A biochip implant could be used in a variety of human applications… A

number could be assigned at birth and follow that person throughout life ..It would be

implanted on the back of the right or left hand so that it would be easy to scan at

stores. The biochip implant could also be used as a universal type of identification

card”.

A top White House official addressing a high tech conference sponsored by

IBM, stated : “The smart card is a wonderful idea, but even better would be a chip in

your ear.. We need to go beyond the narrow conceptualization of the smart card and

really use some of the technology that’s out there”.

Science News, an authoritative scientific journal, reports that, “New electronic

techniques have been developed to eavesdrop on the brain. The technique allows

outsiders to influence the person’s brain cell conversations and to talk directly with

the individual’s brain neurons”.

The Wall Street Journal says that a U.S. Naval research laboratory, funded by

intelligence agencies, is now able to unite living brain cells with microchips.; some

authorities fear that the Defense Departments intend to produce an “army killer

zombies !” One army expert alarmingly calls the new biochip implant a “Frankenstein

_ type weapon”.

TRULY EMBEDDED CHIPS:-

Media Medical And Industrial Complex had a long term plan to implant

subcutaneous microprocessor for a variety of help , entertainment and

communication purposes by acclimating a generation of prospective customers to

such skin altering conditions.companies are seeding the market for their future

offerings.

This is the stuff of science fiction,but serious medical researchers are

developing chips with tiny doses of medication that can be dispensed

automatically,without the patient having to measure a dose or remember to

take it at regular intervals.

Talk about embedded software!

The recent attention to bioinformatics rekindles the imagination about where

such blend of bioscience and infotechnology may take us. Adrenaline and

BMSG will provide a due diligence service for investors and biotech

companies ,offering independent analysis of ventures into bioinformatics,which

they define as the art and science of using computational tools to find answers

to biological questions.In other words they are looking at near term projects

such as Genome and Molecular biology research as well as individualized

medicine.Their collaborative work will help scientists and it professionals use

data mining and knowledge management and process management to investigate

biological frontiers. Vital stepping stones but not wondrous or delicious as the

future potential applications of bioinfotech.

Looking future ahead when implanted chips are programmed with

telecommunications capability they can open new connectivity and

entertainment options . Preserving that the first chips are ‘receive only’.They

would become the ultimate pagers : delivering a unification or internal ‘ping’

directly to human neurons.

Eventually entertainment providers will begin to exploit this

capability ,sending music or visceral experiences directly through chip.some

programming may be tied to video shows , giving you the mosh-pit

experiences while watching MTV or feeling the polar freeze while a discovery

documentary about Antarctica.More probably porn merchants will be the first to

capitalize on such in body experiences.So that watching a playboy channel show

could also trigger the appropriate internal response among chip equipped

viewers.

Later the implemented microprocessor will be upgraded to two way

capacity transmitting internal data back in the appropriate network through a

wireless feed.The medical monitoring opportunities are immense but so are the

tracking capabilities.It is the ultimate loss of personal privacy when your body

is sending signals about where you are and what you are sending.?

Several other roots towards bioinfotech connection are already being

followed.Predictive network of Cambridge is developing biometric system used

to identify which individuals interface with computer and media

devices.Predictive networks is monitoring personal usage patterns (how

individuals use specific keys and buttons ,including the speed and measure of

finger close) to identify and categorize customer.Although it’s a major leap from

such tracking of external behaviors to inserting a microprocessor under the

skin, the eventual outcome could be the same:data gathering and response based

on physical connection and the response.

Bio-infotech seems to be a promising sector for the region-even across-

river opportunity that would combine the bio-medical resources in Mary land

with the Infotech strengths of Virginia .

FUTURE:-

If people feel that they loose their privacy because of Biochips, they

may resist use of it.But if they feel that it could help in a lot of ways like

detecting,minitoring and curing of diseases they can use them intensively.

So it is users of chip who determine its future .

ADVANTAGES OF BIOCHIPS:-

1. TO RESCUE THE SICK

2. TO FIND LOST PEOPLE.

3. TO LOCATE DOWNED CHILDREN AND WANDERING ALZHEIMER’S

PATIENTS.

4. TO IDENTIFY PERSON UNIQUELY.

5. THEY CAN PERFORM THOUSANDS OF BIOLOGICAL

REACTIONSOPERATIONS IN FEW SECONDS.

6. IN MONITORING HEALTH CONDITION OF INDIVIDUALS IN WHICH

THEY ARE SPECIFICALLY EMPLOYED.

7. THEY CAN PERFORM THOUSANDS OF BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS.

SIMULTANEOUSLY.

DISADVANTAGES:-

1. THEY RAISE CRITICAL ISSUES OF PERSONAL PRIVACY.

2. THEY MARK THE END OF HUMAN FREEDOM AND DIGNITY.

3.THEY MAY NOT BE SUPPORTED BY LARGE % OF PEOPLE.

4.THERE IS A DANGER OF TURNING EVERY MAN ,WOMEN,AND

CHILD INTO A CONTROLLED SLAVE.

5.THROUGH CYBERNITIC BIOCHIP IMPLANTS PEOPLE WILL THINK AND ACT AS EXACTLY PRE-PROGRAMMED.

6.THEY CAN BE IMPLANTED INTO ONES BODY WITHOUT THEIR KNOWLEDGE.