Bio Activities, Bioactive Compounds and Chemical Constituents of Mangrove Plants

Wetlands Ecology and Management 10: 421–452, 2002.© 2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. 421

Bioactivities, bioactive compounds and chemical constituents of mangroveplants

W.M. BandaranayakeAustralian Institute of Marine Science, PMB No. 3, Townsville, MC, Q, 4810, Australia,E-mail: [email protected]

Received 30 August 2001; accepted in revised form 18 March 2002

Key words: chemical classes, chemical structures, mangal associates, medicinal and traditional uses

Abstract

This review article presents the traditional and medicinal uses, and examines recent investigations on the biologicalactivities of extracts, and chemicals identified from mangroves and mangal associates. Metabolites identified frommangrove plants are classified according to ‘chemical classes’, and some of their structures are illustrated. Thearticle also presents some of the functions of the chemicals present and attempt to emphasize and create anawareness of the great of potential mangroves and mangal associates possess as a source of novel agrochemicals,compounds of medicinal value, and a new source of many already known biologically active compounds.

Introduction

Mangroves have long been a source of astonishmentfor the layman and of interest for scientist. For manypeople living in the Indo-West Pacific and Americas-East Atlantic regions, the word mangrove will be afamiliar one. For a selected few, long standing famili-arity is based, perhaps on vague and romantic mentalpictures of waterlogged woodlands in which tangledaerial root systems foil the would-be explorer. How-ever, majority sees them as swamps, which are riddenwith mosquitoes and sandflies, inhospitable, unhealthyand dangerous. There is another category of the popu-lation where their knowledge of mangroves is derivedfrom recent publicity given by concerned conserva-tionists to preserve the ever-dwindling mangrove areasof the world. Yet others living in these regions and restof the world have little or no concept of what it is thatconstitutes the mangroves.

The collective noun mangrove designates a inter-tidal wetland ecosystem formed by a very specialassociation of animals and plants which proliferateluxuriantly in the coastal areas and river estuariesthrough out the low lying tropical and sub-tropicallatitudes. These wetland ecosystems are among themost productive and diverse in the world and more

than 80% of marine catches are directly or indirectlydependent on mangrove and other coastal ecosystemsworldwide. They occupy large tracts along shelteredcoasts, estuaries and in deltas where they are in-fluenced by tides and widely different conditions ofsalinity and rainfall regimes. They are also foundaround coastal lagoons, communicating with the seaand where the effect of tides may be weak and thesalinity very low. The term mangrove is also usedto designate halophytic (salt loving) and salt resistantmarine tidal forests comprising of trees, shrubs, palms,epiphytes, ground ferns and grasses, which are associ-ated in stands or groves (166). Mangroves are usuallyfound only in tropical climates, as they need consist-ently warm conditions for development and survival.They occur approximately in 112 countries and ter-ritories (94) and are largely confined to the regionsbetween 30’ north and south of the equator. Notably,extension beyond this are to the north in Bermuda (32’20’ N), Japan (31’ 22’ N), and to the south in Aus-tralia (38’ 45’ S), New Zealand (38’ 03’ S) and onthe East Coast of South Africa (32’ 59’ S). Among re-cent methods used to assess the quantity of mangrovewealth in a country, remote sensing is now consideredthe most practical technique for mangrove inventory.Humans have been residents of mangrove wetlands for

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centuries. As the coastal zone is home to approxim-ately 65% of the global population, they are of greatimportance to many people who live along tropicalshorelines. In countries such as Indonesia, mangrovesprovided protection for people, a function often in-valuable in a region long renowned for its piracy andkidnapping forays. Mangroves have traditionally beenimportant habitat for certain maritime people in South-east Asia, such as Orang Laut of Malaysia and westernIndonesia. Furthermore, mangroves typically borderstreams and river mouths sites, which were particu-larly favorable for settlement because of accessibilityand availability of fresh water.

Mangroves can be classified into three broad cat-egories. True mangroves are mainly restricted to in-tertidal areas between the high water levels of neapand spring tides. Plant species from true mangrovesbelong to at least 20 different families. About 80 spe-cies of true mangrove trees/shrubs are recognized, ofwhich 50–60 species make a significant contributionto the structure of mangrove forests. Minor speciesof mangroves are distinguished by their inability toform conspicuous elements of the vegetation and theyrarely form pure communities. The mangal associates,are salinity tolerant plant species, which are not foundexclusively in the proximity of mangroves and mayoccur only in transitional vegetation, landwards andseawards. However, they do interact with true man-groves (18, 207). Mangroves (mangroves, mangroveminors and mangal associates) are highly productiveecosystem with various important economic and envir-onmental functions. The uses of mangroves are oftenquoted in scientific and popular articles (18, 210) andfall in two major categories: Firstly the indirect useof the mangrove ecosystem are in the form of vitalecological functions such as control of coastal erosionand protection of coastal land, stabilization of sedi-ment, natural purification of coastal water from pollu-tion. Secondly, the economic benefits which are manyand varied. Apart from prawn fisheries, many otherspecies of economic importance are associated withmangroves; these include crabs, shrimp, oysters, lob-sters and fish. Traditionally, the mangroves have beenexploited for firewood and charcoal and their uses in-clude construction of dwellings, furniture, boats andfishing gear and production of tannins for dying andleather production. Mangroves provide food and awide variety of traditional products and artifacts formangrove dwellers. The mangrove leaves are usefulcontributors to the nutrient system of the mangroveenvironment. It is known that mangrove leaves contain

sufficient amounts of minerals, vitamins and aminoacids, which are essential for the growth, and nour-ishment of marine organisms and livestock. Mangrovefoliage plays an important role in the formation of de-tritus, which is utilized by several estuarine and marinedetritovorous organisms, and mangrove leaves makea superior fodder due to their high salt and iodinecontent (18, 173, 210).

Two basic factors justify the study of the chemicalconstituents of mangrove plants.

Firstly, mangroves are one of the easiest tropicalforest types to generate. They have the ability to growwhere no other vascular plants can. The mangrovesexist under stressful conditions such as violent envir-onments, high concentration of moisture, high and lowtides of water, and abundant living microorganismsand insects. They thrive in a very peculiar environmentand serve as a bridging ecosystem between freshwa-ter and marine systems. These have imposed severalmodifications in these plants. They possess an un-usual morphology and physiognomy and the path ofphotosynthesis in mangroves is different from otherglycophytes. They possess modifications to establishwater and salt economy. There are modifications oralterations in other physiological processes such ascarbohydrate metabolism or polyphenol synthesis anddue to these reasons, they may have chemical com-pounds, which protect them from these destructiveelements.

The second reason is that numerous mangroveplants are been used in folklore medicine, and recently,extracts from mangroves and mangrove-dependentspecies have proven activity against human, animaland plant pathogens but only limited investigationshave been carried out to identify the metabolites re-sponsible for their bioactivities.

Chemical classes identified from mangrove plants

Metabolites, some with novel chemical structures, andbelonging to a diversity of ‘chemical classes’, havebeen characterized from mangroves and mangal asso-ciates. Aliphatic alcohols and acids, amino acids andalkaloids, carbohydrates, carotenoids, hydrocarbons,free fatty acids including polyunsaturated fatty acids(PUFAs), lipids, pheromones, phorbol esters, phen-olics, and related compounds, steroids, triterpenes,and their glycosides, tannins, other terpenes and re-lated compounds, are among these classes. Amongthe latest additions are an array of substances from

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gums and glues to alkaloids and saponins and othersubstances of interest to modern industry and medi-cine. Chemicals such as amino acids, carbohydratesand proteins, are products of primary metabolism andare vital for the maintenance of life processes, whileothers like alkaloids, phenolics, steroids, terpenoids,are products of secondary metabolism and have toxic-ological, pharmacological and ecological importance.

Heterocyclic compounds

Heterocycles are those molecules having rings com-posed of both carbon and one or more heteroatoms,chiefly, nitrogen (i), oxygen (ii) and sulfur (iii). Theycan be unsaturated or ‘aromatic’ heterocycles (i, ii) orsaturated heterocycles (iii, iv), and are usually be fiveor six membered. They exist either as ‘independent’rings or fused normally to benzene rings (i, v). Al-kaloids, chromenes, coumarins, flavonoids, xanthonesetc. belong to this general class.

Alkaloids

Alkaloids are nitrogenous bases (usually heterocyc-lic), and are structurally the most diverse class ofsecondary metabolites (60). They range from simplestructures (i, iii, vi) to complex ones such as those ofmany neurotoxins. In very rare instances they containsulfur (iii, vii, viii), as encountered in the diothiolanesisolated from species of Brugeira. Their manifoldpharmacological activities have always excited man’sinterest, and selected plant products containing alkal-oids have been used as poison for hunting, murder andeuthanasia, as euphoriants, psychedelics, stimulantsand medicine. Basic nitrogen compounds from higherplants include many representatives that are potent in-hibitors of various oxidative processes both in vivo andin vitro.

Carbohydrates, lignins and polysaccharides

The carbohydrates or saccharides (‘hydrate of car-bon’) of general formula Cn(H2O)n are mostly sweetcompounds (hence the term sugar) are found abund-antly in higher terrestrial plants, fungi, and seaweedand consist of compounds such as sugars, starch, andcellulose (60). The simple sugars or monosaccharidesof known molecular weight are either polyhydroxy

aldehydes or ketones. Glucose is by far the most com-mon carbohydrate, and although it occurs free in avariety fruit juices, honey etc., it is more commonlyencountered in polymers such as cellulose and starchwhich are termed polysaccharides. Lignins (ix) arenon-carbohydrate polymers present in wood. The in-soluble polysaccharide in plant is cellulose, while sol-uble polysaccharides serve as carbohydrate food stor-age: Starch in plants and glycogen in animals. Poly-saccharides of plant origin have emerged as importantclass of bioactive natural products. Those isolatedfrom fungi usually show anti-tumor activity, whilepolysaccharides of higher plants possess immuno-stimulatory, anti-complementary, anti-inflammatory,hypoglycemic, and anti-viral activities and algal poly-saccharides, which often contain sulfate anions, aregood anti-coagulants. Carbohydrates in general, areessential constituents of all living organisms and areassociated with a variety of vital functions, whichsustain life.

Fatty acids and lipids

Fatty acids are long chain alkanoic acids and referprincipally to straight chain, saturated or unsaturatedmonocarboxylic acids with an even number of carbonatoms, usually 12 to 28 in number. The term alsoincludes Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA’s) andsuch derived structures as unsaturated, hydroxylated,branched acids. These fatty acids are ubiquitous innature. They are found only in trace amounts in liv-ing cells in their free, unesterified form, and are ofgreatest importance as components of lipids which,upon alkaline hydrolysis, afford the alkali metal saltsof the fatty acids other components. These include theacylglycerols, the waxes and other species.

Anthocyanins, flavonoids phenolics and quinones

The expression ‘phenolic compounds’ embraces a vastrange of organic substances, which are aromatic com-pounds with hydroxyl substituents and some possess-ing antibiotic properties. Most are polyphenolic andflavonoids (ii) form the largest group, which occurwidely in the plant kingdom (60). However, phenolicquinones, lignans, xanthones, coumarins and otherclasses exist in considerable numbers. In addition tomonomeric and dimeric structures, there are three im-portant groups of phenolic polymers- lignins, black

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Figures (i)–(xvi). (i) n-Methyflindersine, an alkaloid from X. granatum; (ii) Tricin; (iii) Brugine, an alkaloid from B. sexangula; (iv) Xylomollin,a monoterpenoid from X. molluscensis; (v) Benzoxazolinone; (vi) Fagaronine, an alkaloid from F. zanthoxyloides; (vii) Gerradine; (viii)Cassipourine; (ix) Basic unit of lignin; (x) A chalcone from P. pinnata; (xi) Cyanidin, an anthocyanidin; (xii) Rotenone; (xiii) Basic unit ofproanthocyanidin; (xiv) A phytoallexin, a naphthofuranone; (xv) Linalool, a monoterpene; (xvi) A diterpene from C. inerme.

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melanin pigments of plants, and the tannins of woodyplants. Plant polyphenols are economically importantbecause they make major contributions to the tasteand flavor (tea, and beer), and color (red wine) ofour food and drink. In nature, phenolics protect plantsfrom herbivores, and act as chemical signals in theflowering and pollination and in the process of plantsymbiosis and parasitism. It has been recognized forsome time that several classes of flavonoids play asignificant role in many physiological processes andshow antioxidant and fungicidal activity (110) and arenatural antihistamines. Flavonoid, and flavonol-lignanderivatives inhibit lipid peroxidation and are potentquenchers of triplet oxygen. A variety of modifica-tions of the flavonoid skeleton lead to a large classof compounds that includes isoflavones, isoflavononesand chalcones, Some isoflavones are now been mar-keted as therapeutic agents for menstrual disorders.Polyhydroxylated chalcones (x), such as those foundin Pongamia pinnata, which are biosynthetic inter-mediates between cinnamic acids and flavonoids alsoshow considerable antioxidant activity. Anthocyanins,are pigments, which occur as glycosides (often gluc-osides), hydrolysis of, which provides colored agly-cones, known as anthocyanidins (xi). The isoflavone,rotenone (xii), is a natural insecticide. The term ‘pro-anthocyanidin’ (xiii) is not structurally explicit, butis based solely upon the experimental observationthat these colorless compounds yield anthocyanidinsupon treatment with strong acids (177, 190). Theyare astringent to the taste and have the ability to tanleather. Indeed, the so called ‘condensed tannins’ be-long to this class of substances. ‘Oxidized’ phenoliccompounds are commonly referred to as quinones.

Phytoalexins

A wide range of organic compounds, collectivelycalled phytoalexins, many of them fungitoxic or fungi-static, appear in the sapwood of trees after wounding,injury or fungal attack. A diverse range of chem-ical classes including alcohols, alkaloids, flavonoids,lignans, polyketides, polyacetylenes, quinones (xiv),stilbene-derived compounds and terpenes have beenidentified as phytoalexins.

Tannins

Tannins are polyphenolic substances widely distrib-uted among higher plants. They differ from most other

natural phenolic compounds in their ability to pre-cipitate proteins such as gelatin from solution. Thisproperty, sometimes called astringency, is the reasonfor their past and present use in the tanning of animalskin. Tannins are distributed in two groups accord-ing to their structures: Proanthocyanidins (condensedtannins) and hydrolysable or water-soluble tannins(Scalbert, 1991; Stafford, 1988). The class of naturalpolymers variously referred to as condensed tannins,flavotannins, proanthocyanidins or flavolans have thegeneral formula (xiii), with ‘n’ varying from 2 to∼20. Upon heating with alcoholic hydrochloric acid,they yield anthocyanidin pigments. Proanthocyanidinsare found in many food products such as tea, co-coa, sorghum or carob pods. Hydrolysable tanninsare esters of phenolic acids (e.g. gallic acid and gal-lotannins) and a polyol, which is usually glucose. Theleather tanning industry requires water-soluble tan-nins. Although tannins probably evolved in plants as adefense against microbial attack, they are also instru-mental in regulating terrestrial herbivory from preda-tion, either by increasing resistance against pathogensor by protecting essential tissues such as wood againstdecay. Increasing attention is also being paid to theuse of tannins as antimicrobial agents (e.g. wood pre-servation) or prevention of dental caries. They impartflavor to wines. Recently, evidence has been obtainedin support of their potential value as cytotoxic or anti-neoplastic agents. In addition, tannins are now beingused in the manufacture of plastics, paints, ceramicsand water softening agents. Members of the familiesAvicenniaceae, Rhizophoraceae, and Sonneratiaceaeare rich source of tannins (17).

Limonoids, terpenes, steroids and saponins

The diverse, widespread, and exceedingly numerousfamily of natural products constructed from five car-bon building-units (isoprenyl carbon skeleton) and socomprising compounds with C5, C10, C15, C20, . . .,C40 skeletons, are synonymously termed terpenoids,terpenes, or isoprenoids, with the important subgroupof steroids sometimes singled out as a class in itsown right. However, as more and more terpenoidcompounds were discovered, their structures departedfrom, or ‘violated’ this ‘isoprene’ rule. These com-pounds are typically found in all parts of higher plantsand also occur in mosses, liverworts, algae etc. Mem-bers of the class, as components of oil or in extracts,have been used since antiquity as ingredients of fla-

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Figures (xvii)–(xxix). (xvii) β-Amyrin, a triterpene; (xviii) β-Carotene, a carotenoid; (xix) Stigmasterol; (xx) A steroidal saponin; (xxi) Atriterpenoidal saponin; (xxii) Xyloccensin, a limonoid from X. granatum; (xxiii) An anilide from A. donax; (xxiv) 1-Triacontanol, a long chainaliphatic alcohol; (xxv) A substituted cyclobutane diimine from A. donax; (xxvi) Rocaglamide, a benzofuran derivative from A. odorata; (xxvii)Brugierol, a 1,2-dithiolane from B. cylindrica; (xxviii) Hygroline; (xxix) Vallapin, a sesquiterpenoid piscicide from H. littoralis.

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vors, preservatives, perfumes, medicines, narcotics,soaps and pigments. The number of isoprene unitsthey contain in their structures subdivides terpenesinto monoterpenes (C10 compounds) (xv) sesquiter-penes (C15) diterpenes (C20) (xvi), and triterpenes(C30). Triterpenes are the most common terpenes inplants, usually with pentacyclic structures like thoseof amyrin (xvii). The most common example of tet-raterpenes (C40) are the carotenoids (xviii), which arepigments whose principal recognized role is to actas photoreceptive ‘antenna pigments’ for photosyn-thesis. Some of them also have a protective functionagainst oxidative damage. Some of the terpenes wereknown from antiquity and were employed as medi-cines. Steroids (xix) are merely modified triterpenesand are widespread in both animal and plant king-doms and many microorganisms. The saponins haveattracted much attention in recent years because oftheir varied biological properties, some of which aredeleterious, but many of which are beneficial to humanhealth (120). They are plant glycosides, which havethe property of forming a soapy lather when shakenwith water. They are used in traditional and modernmedicine and in food and agriculture and are classi-fied as steroidal (xx) or triterpenoidal (xxi) saponinsdepending upon the nature of the aglycone: The sapo-genin. A third groups of saponins, which are calledbasic steroid saponins, contain nitrogen analogues ofsteroid sapogenins as aglycones. The primitive peopleknew the use of saponins as natural detergents and theleaves containing them are used as natural soaps. Mostmolluscicides of plant origin are saponins and thesecompounds are toxic to fish. Triterpenoidal sapon-ins exhibit divergent antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory,antibiotic, hemolytic analgesic, hypoglycemic, an-thelmintic and cytotoxic activities. The use of plantsaponins in a liposomal drug delivery system hasbeen demonstrated. The interesting pharmacologicalproperties associated with the Chinese drug ‘ginseng’,which is considered a panacea and a drug for longev-ity, is attributed to the various saponins present init. Steroidal saponins are commercially sought afteras starting materials for the synthesis of steroidalhormones. Limonoids (xxii) are modified triterpenes.They are the most distinctive secondary metabolites ofthe plant order Rutales. In particular, they character-ize members of the family Meliaceae, where they arediverse and abundant and to a limited extent, in thefamily Rutaceae. Recently limonoids have attractedmuch attention because of the marked insect antifeed-ant, insecticidal, antifungal, bactericidal, and antiviral

activity, growth regulating properties, and a variety ofmedicinal effects in animals and humans (33). The bit-terness of fresh citrus juice is due to flavonones. Thebitter taste gradually increases after expression and thecausative factor was found to be due to limonoids.

Medicinal uses, bioactivity of extracts, andmetabolites characterised from selectedmangroves and mangal associates

Acanthus illicifolius, a plant useful in the treatmentof paralysis, asthma, rheumatic pains and possess-ing analgesic, anti-inflammatory and, leishmanicidalactivities, is a rich source of long chain alcohols,triterpenes, steroids and triterpenoidal saponins. Stig-masterol (xix), a common plant steroid, abundantlypresent in A. illicifolius and many other mangroveplants, has been shown to have hypercholesterolemiceffects. 2-Benzoxazoline (v), a synthetic compoundused extensively as a central nervous system depress-ant, also exhibiting antipyretic, hypnotic, and musclerelaxant activity has been isolated from the plant.Benzoxazoline also showed resistance to fungi. Fur-thermore, the ribose derivatives of this compound areactive as anticancer and anti-viral agents (88, 101,140). Jongsuvat (1981) found that the extracts ofthe plant were not toxic to experimental mice butdisplayed significant anti-leukemic activity. A novelalkaloid, acanthicifolin, has been isolated from theplant (103). Benzoquinones have been identified fromAegicers corniculatum and Kandelia candel. Decoc-tions made from the rhizome of the reed grass Arundodonax has been used as emollients and diuretics andare said to stimulate menstrual discharge and dimin-ish secretion of milk. Triterpenes, sterols, alkaloids,and the novel compound, N-(4’-bromophenyl)-2,2-diphenylacetanilide (xxiii), hitherto known only asa synthetic compound, has been isolated from dif-ferent parts of this plant. Bioassays indicated thatwhile sterols showed limited anti-feedant activity,significant activity was shown by the isolates tricon-tanol (xxiv), tricin (ii), and tetramethyl-N, N-bis(2,6-dimethylphenyl) cyclobutane-1, 3-diimine (xxv)(138). Tricin (ii), a flavonoid, is the metabolite com-mon to most mangroves showing anti-feedant activity.Known triterpenes, steroids, and a novel triterpenoidester have been isolated from Acrostichum aureum andRhizophora apiculata, a mangrove fern and tree re-spectively, The extracts of these plants are being usedin folklore medicine (102, 103, 193). Rocaglamide

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(xxvi), a substituted benzofuran, along with its con-geners, has been identified as the active insecticidalconstituent of the Chinese rice flower bush Aglaiaodorata. Clopentabenzofuran, and aglaiastatin, twoprotein synthesis inhibitors, have also been identified(78, 80, 148, 175). Anti-plasmodial and cytotoxicactivities of Alstonia macrophylla are due to an ar-ray of alkaloids present in the extracts. Avicenniaalba is a rich source of naphthoquinones. Injectionof the tissues of A.marina by a fungus belonging tothe genus Phytophthora produced three chemicallyrelated phytoalexins (xiv). Naphthoquinone derivat-ives occurring in the Diospyros species have potentanti-tumor promoting activity. Novel sesquiterpenoidquinones and related compounds have been character-ized from the mangal associates. Tannin from speciesof Diospyros has anti-hemorrhages (snakebite) effects.Plants of the family Rhizophoraceae may be gener-ally divided into mangrove species and inland species.Either group of the plants contains organic sulfurcontaining compounds. The alkaloids brugine (iii)and gerradine (vii) are 1,2-dithiolane (sulfur contain-ing) compounds, have been isolated from Bruguierasexangula (mangrove species) and Cassipourea ger-rardii (mangal associate) respectively. Extracts ofB.sexangula bark were active against two tumors, Sar-coma 180 and Lewis Lung Carcinoma. The activitywas partly associated with tannins and partly withtannin-free aqueous residue containing the alkaloidbrugine (iii) as well as tropine and its acetic acid es-ter. The alkaloids were found to be toxic (118, 219).Kato and coworkers (96, 97) identified 1,2-dithiolanecompounds, brugierol (xxvii), isobrugierol, and 4-hydroxy-1, 2-dithiolane-1-oxide, from the mangrovespecies B. conjugata. Brugierol and several of itssynthetic derivatives such as the carbamates, phos-phates, and N, N-dialkylates of dithiolane or trithianeshowed antibacterial and insecticidal activities. Katoand Hashimoto (97) established to a certain extent,the relationship between insecticidal activity and thechemical structures of the natural metabolites andtheir synthetic analogues. The bark of Gymnotrochesaxillaris has yielded hygroline (xxviii).

Metabolites belonging to different ‘chemicalclasses’ have been identified as antifungal agents andin chemical narcosing of fish. Antifungal metabolitesinclude alkaloids, flavonoids and related compounds,modified fatty acids, oxygen heterocyclics, proantho-cyanidins, quinones, stilbenes, terpenoids and triter-penoid saponins. The extracts of the bark and root ofthe mollucidal and piscicidal plant Balanites aegyp-

tiaca, are also used for the treatment of abdominalpains, as a purgative, and as an anthelmintic, whilethe bark is employed as a detergent, fish poison, andalso as a remedy for malaria and syphilis (129). Theleaf is edible and has been once regarded as an effect-ive medicine for sleeping sickness. The effects of oraladministration of crude saponin extract of the plantcaused myositis or peritonitis among chicks. The pis-cicidal effect of B. aegyptaica to the Nile Tilapia andthe molluscicidal activity is due the metabolites balan-itin, 1,2, and 3 (116, 208). The saponins are the mainconstituent responsible for the piscicidal activity ofAegiceras majus, Derris trifoliata, D. elliptica, and D.urucu. Rotenone (xii), a well-known fish poison and anatural insecticide (141), is found among tropical plantspecies such as, Derris, Lonchocarpus, and Tephro-sia. The sesquiterpenes heritianin, heritol, heritonin,vallapin (xxix) and vallapianin are the ichthyotoxinsisolated from the mangrove plant Heritiera littoralis.Vallapin and vallapianin also showed activity againstBoll Weevils (137). A triterpene ester isolated fromH. littoralis showed significant anti-fungal and BollWeevil anti-feedant activities (103). The piscicidalactivity of the extracts of Aegiceras corniculatum isdue the benzoquinones embelin (xxx) and 5-O-methylembelin (xxxi). 5-O-Methyl embelin also inhibitedthe growth of the fungi Pythium ultimum. Fagaron-ine (2-hydroxy-3, 8, 9-trimethoxy-5-methylbenzo(c)phenanthridine) (vi), an antileukemic alkaloid, hasbeen isolated from Fagara zanthoxyloides. The al-kaloid was found to be bactericidal but not muta-genic. Caesalpinia bonducella, extensively used inJamaican folk medicine is a rich source of furanod-iterpenes collectively referred to as caesalpins (xxxii)(155). The oleoresin from the bark of Callophyl-lum inophyllum (Guttiferae) is used as a cicatrisant,whereas an infusion or decoction of the leaves hasbeen traditionally used for the treatment of eye dis-eases and as an ingredient in aromatic powders andliniments. Anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and pha-gocytosis stimulant activities have been reported forthis plant. Guttiferaceous species are a rich source ofxanthones (xxxiii), biflavonoids, benzophenones, neo-flavonoids, and coumarin derivatives (156). Recently,various bioactivities such as cytotoxic, and antitu-mour, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, enhancement ofcholine acetyltransferase activity, and inhibition oflipid peroxidase due to xanthones have been revealed.Two new xanthones, calaxanthones A (xxxiii) andB have been isolated from the root bark of C. in-ophyllum. The giant African snail, Achatina fulica,

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Figures (xxx)–(xlv). (xxx) Embelin; (xxxi) 5-O-Methyl embelin; (xxxii) A caesalpin from C. bonducella; (xxxiii) Calaxanthone A, a xanthonefrom C. inophyllum; (xxxiv) Callophillolide, a coumarin derivative from C. inophyllum; (xxxv) A neolignan from C. inerme; (xxxvi) Cleroin-ermin, a diterpenoid from C. inerme; (xxxvii) Ellagic acid; (xxxviii) A phorbol from H. mancinella; (xxxix) Excoecariatoxin, a piscicidalconstituent of E. agallocha; (xl) A hibiscone from H. tiliaceus; (xli) Lapachol, a quinone from H. tileaceus; (xlii) β-Damascenone from I.pes-caprae; (xliii) Phytol; (xliv) A stilbene from M. leucadendron; (xlv) A eudesmane from P. indica.

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feeds on the leaves of C. inophyllum. Fractionationof the extracts of the animal yielded inophyllums andcalophyllolides (xxxiv) previously isolated from C.inophyllum. A xanthone derivative, subelliptenone,and related compounds showed intensively inhibit-ory effect against topoisomerases 1 and 11, in invitro experiments. These xanthones are claimed tobe prospective lead compounds for anticancer drugsand some compounds and their derivatives were act-ive against HIV-1 in cell culture (62, 77, 156). Therelationship between structures of the metabolites andactivity has been investigated. Earlier phytochemicalstudies had revealed that C. inophyllum to be a richsource of benzopyrans, coumarins, steroids, triter-penes, and xanthones. Plants of the genus Cleroden-dron are well known for their pesticidal properties(119). They are used as armyworm antifeedants andto arrest bleeding from cuts and other wounds, aswell as for stopping post-partum hemorrhage. Clero-dendron inerme, a mangal associate, is a recognizedmedicinal plant having febrifugal properties as wellas exhibiting larvicidal, antiviral and uterine stimu-lant activity. Extracts of C. inerme were effective assurface protectants for cowpea seeds against pulsebeetle infestation. The anti-viral resistance-inducingprotein isolated from the plant is a polyncleotide (51,149). A number of flavonoids, a neolignan (xxxv),and novel complex iridoids, phenyl propanoids, ster-ols and known terpenes, a new diterpene acid havebeen characterized from the plant. The aerial parts ofthe plant yielded the diterpenoid cleroinermin (xxxvi),and the flavonoid, apigenin, while the seeds yieldedtwo new neolignans, novel sterols and phenols (4, 9,31). Cyprus rotundus is among the useful plants usedin traditional control of insect pests. Novel sesquiter-pene alkaloids were found to be the compounds withinsecticidal properties (3, 45, 81, 168). Triterpenes,steroids, long chain aliphatic carboxylic acids are re-sponsible for the antifeedant activity of Eleocharisdulcis (139). Hippomane mancinella has enjoyed thereputation of being one of the most toxic and ill-famedplants in tropical America. The sap causes a reactioncharacteristic of a burn and contact with eye, pro-duce severe conjunctivitis which, if complicated bysecondary infection, could result in loss of sight (65).Surprisingly, the poisonous latex has been used as aningredient in many native preparations. It is a veryrich source of various metabolites. 2-Hydroxy-2, 6-dimethoxyacetophenone, mono, di and trimethyl eth-ers of ellagic acid (xxxvii), and a novel alkaloid havebeen isolated from various parts of the plant. Fraction-

ation of extracts of leaves and twigs, based on toxicityto mice, yielded ‘crystalline tannins.’ Hippomanin Aand B were the toxic principles of the extracts. Theirritant factor was assigned to esters of deoxyphor-bol (xxxviii), resiniferonol, and 13-hexadeca-2, 4,6-trienoic acid. Some aspects on structure- activityrelations have been deduced (7). Apart from its folkmedicinal utilization, Excoecaria agallocha containstoxic principles injurious particularly to the skin. Thelatex is well known for its biocidal effects on mar-ine organisms and phytoplankton, causes metabolicdepression of the rice field crab, Oziotelphusa senexand is used as an uterotonic, fish poison, dart poison,and contains novel chalcones and piperidine alkaloids.The latex showed no activity against bacteria and yeastbut some activity against fungi. Soil bacteria and yeastactively degrade the latex, which probably helps inthe detoxification of the latex in nature. The infusionof leaves posses antioxidant and anti-tumor promot-ing properties. Bioassay guided isolation led to thecharacterization of excoecarin, an irritant and a tumorpromoter and excoecariatoxin (xxxix), the metabol-ite responsible for the piscicidal activity, and whoseactivity was very comparable with natural rotenone.The activity was associated with the aliphatic sidechain in the molecule. A novel phorbol ester wasisolated as the anti-HIV principle of the leaves andstems (55, 105, 106, 130, 169, 217). Sesquiterpen-oid quinones, the hibiscones (xl), hibiscoquinones andbenzoquinones (xli) are the major constituents of Hi-biscus tileaceous. Ipomoea pes-caprae is a traditionalmedicinal plant used in the treatment of headacheand various types of inflammation including jellyfishsting dermatitis. The extracts from the leaves exhibitsanti-inflammatory activity, reduce prostaglandin syn-thesis in vitro, and inhibit smooth muscle contraction.Bio-assay-guided fractionation of the extracts led tothe isolation of 2-Hydroxy-4, 4, 7-trimethyl-1 (4H)-naphthalenone, mellein, eugenol, and 4-vinylguaicol,which inhibited prostaglandin synthesis. The isopren-oids β-damasscenone (xlii) and E-phytol (xliii) wereresponsible for the antispasmodic and antinociceptiveactivities (108, 159, 174). Melaleuca leucadendronexists in three chemotypoes, the volatile leaf oil oftwo of which are characterized by very high contentof phenylpropanoids. In addition to small amounts ofknown mono-, di-, sesqui-, and triterpenes, stilbeneglycosides, novel triterpenoid esters, and hydrolysabletannins, have been isolated from the plant, whose ex-tracts posses antifungal properties. The leaves were arich source of a different class of terpenoids and along

431

with stilbenes (xliv), inhibited histamine release fromrat mast cells and were active against Bacillus andStaphylococcus (46). Known glycosides, fatty acid es-ters, and a novel trisaccharide have been characterizedfrom ripe fruits of Morinda citrifolia, which is toxicto nematodes and Drosophila. Octanoic acid, toxic tomany insect species, along with hexanoic and othercarboxylic acids, are the main toxic compounds isol-ated from the extracts (214). Hirazuma and Furusawa(72) reported the presence of a ‘polysaccharide-richsubstance’ with antitumor activity in the fruit juice ofM. citrifolia, which also showed anticancer and an-algesic activity. A polysaccharide extracted from theleaves of B. cylindrica, E. agallocha, R. apiculata,R. mucronata, Salicornia brachiata, Sesuvium por-tulacastrum, Sueda maritima and S. monica showedpositive activity against human immunodeficiency vir-uses (151, 162).

Antioxidative activity of extractives of Pandanusodoratissimus has been demonstrated as due to phen-olic and lignan type compounds, and a benzofuranderivative (83). A number of Pluchea species are notedfor their ethnomedical properties, of which the reputedviper venom neutralization activities of P.odorata andP. indica are probably the best known. Neuropharma-cological actions (including viper venom neutraliza-tion) of the shrub P indica has been investigated (10,179, 206). The leaves and roots of the shrub have beenreported to possess anti-inflammatory and anti-ulcer,astringent and antipyretic properties and are used asa diaphoretic in fevers. Fresh leaves are used in theform of poultices against atonic and gangrenous ulcersand chemicals with novel structures have been isol-ated from the leaves (xlv). Cigarettes prepared fromthe chopped stem bark are smoked to relieve the painof sinusitis, and in Indo-China, the leaves and youngshoots are crushed, mixed with alcohol, and appliedin the back, in cases of lumbago and are also used torelieve rheumatic pains and in baths to treat scabies. Anumber of known compounds and a new eudesmanederivative (xlvi) have been identified from the leaves(143).

(Z)-5-Tetradecenyl acetate and tetradecyl acetatewere identified as sex pheromone components ofan unnamed Planotortrix leaf roller moth speciesfound in Avicennia resinifera. All parts of the plantPongamia pinnata, used as a crude drug for the treat-ment of tumors, piles, skin diseases, wounds, ulcers,is a rich source of flavonoid and related compounds(197, 198). Extracts of the plant showed positive activ-ity against human and Simian immunodeficiency vir-

uses (54, 164, 165). Porteresia coarctata and Carapaobovata are rich sources of steroids.

The alkaloid rhizophorine (xlvi) is a major con-stituent of the leaves of Rhizophora mucronata and anovel type of natural water soluble polymer has beenisolated from the leaves of R. stylosa (103). Triterpen-oids from R. mangle possess insecticidal propertiesand has clinical use in the control of diabetes. Warmaqueous extract of the bark of R. apiculata is usedas an astringent for diarrhoea, nausea, and vomit-ing, and as an antiseptic. The extract is also used tostop bleeding in fresh wounds and for the treatmentof chronic typhoid fever. The plant also has uses inthe textile industry (102, 103). Using a new methodof purification which involves high-speed centrifugalliquid chromatography followed by adsorption andpartition chromatography, a nitrogen containing phor-bol ester, sapintoxin A (xlvii), a piscicidal agent, hasbeen isolated from the poisonous plant Sapium in-dicum. This is the first nitrogen containing phorbolderivative to be isolated and its biological activity hasbeen demonstrated in vivo using an erythema skintest. Sapinine, a diterpine ester (a phorbol derivative),and a non-biologically active metabolite was isol-ated using traditional purification techniques (199).Skin irritant and tumor promoting diterpene ester,12-deoxyphorbol, has been identified from Sapium se-biferum (178). Sesuvium portulacastrum, a salt marshhalophyte, is a rich source of an array of amino acids(85). An unusual secondary metabolite, 2-nitro-4- (2’-nitroethenyl) phenol (xlviii) has been isolated from thefruits of Sonneratia acida. The fruits are used as poult-ice in swelling and sprains. Fermented juice of the fruitis useful for arresting hemorrhage. The wood has yiel-ded three anthraquinones and the leaves contain plantgrowth regulators, the diterpenoid gibberellins (xlix)(25). Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Rhizophora mucranataand Sonneratia apetala were also found to containgibberellins (58, 123).

Terminalia catappa is used in folk medicine forpreventing hepatoma and treating hepatitis and is arich source of tannins. Antioxidant and hepatopro-tective activity, anti-sickling potential, and the effectsof the major tannin components, punicalagin andpunicalin of T. catappa on carrageenan-induced in-flammation in rats, bleomycin-induced genotoxicityin rabbits, have been evaluated (37, 115, 130). Anti-bacterial activity of the leaves of Thespesia populneais due to the known triterpene lupeol, and gossypolwas the active ingredient in the flowers, which ac-counted for its antifertility activity (64). Naturally oc-

432

CO2H

NH

xlvi

OR2O

H3C

H3C

OR1H3C

CH3

CH2OH

OH

R1 = N-Methylaminobenzoyl R2 = Acetyl

xlvii

OH

NO2

HH

NO2

xlviii

OH

COOHCH3

OC

O

HO

CH3

xlix

O

OOH

OSO 3-

-O3SO

l

Figures (xlvi)–(l). (xlvi) Rhizophorine; (xlvii) Sapintoxin A, a nitrogen containing phorbol ester from S. indicum; (xlviii) A nitrophenolderivative from S. acida; (xlix) A gibberllin from S. apetala; (l) A flavonoid sulphate.

curring quinones, the mansonones, extracted from theheartwood of T. populnea showed cytotoxicity, anti-bacterial and anti-steroidogenic activities (70, 135).The limonoid ester, xyloccensins (xxii), the estersof alcohols, isobutyrates and alpha-methylbutyrates,methyl angolensate, gedunin, phragmalin were thenovel constituents of X. moluccenis (43, 144). InFiji, the bark pressings are used to treat fever in-cluding those caused by malaria. Alvi et al. (13)characterized two new liminoids, xyloccensin 1 and2 from the Fijian species of X. granatum and X.moluccensis. These two compounds failed to showany positive biological activity. The fruit of X. mol-luscensis is used in folk medicine in East Africa. Thefruits are used as aphrodisiacs and the young fruitstasted bitter. The bitter principle tested positive asan antifeedant and strongly inhibited the respiratoryreactions of mitochondria from rat liver. The meta-bolite responsible for these activities were identifiedas xylomollin (iv), an unusual monoterpenoid hav-ing a nonglycosidic hemiactal function (109). Insectantifeedant bioassays employing African armywormsand Mexican bean beetle has led to the isolation andcharacterization of N-methylflindersine (i) and severalbenz [C] phenanthridone alkaloids from the extracts ofX. granatum, The former metabolite has been identi-fied as the principle responsible for insect antifeedantactivity (40).

Submerged magrove roots, trunks and branchesare islands of habitat that attract rich epifaunal com-munities. The epifauna include a diverse array ofinvertebratate groups including anemones, bivalves,

barnacles, bryozoans, hydroids, mollusks, polychaetesand sponges. Epifaunal species that do occur in otherhabitats show distinctly different growth forms whenthey are attached to mangrove substrates and theseorganisms play important roles in the structure andfunction of mangal. ‘Reef’ sponges, for example,have anti-predatory defenses including siliceous orcalcareous spicules and noxious or toxic chemicals.However, mangrove species are generally not as welldefended chemically as sponges from reef habitats.Species here rely on faster growth or greater repro-ductive output to compensate for predation losses.Mangrove sponges are also limited in allelochemicalsthat protect them from overgrowth by other speciesin space-limited coral environments. In contrast tothe sponges, some of the mangrove ascidians haveunusual chemicals that are potent feeding deterrents.Despite a seeming lower level of anti-predatory andanti-competitor chemicals in mangal than in coral reefcommunities, epifaunal invertebrates inhabiting themangroves and salt marshes are sources of metaboliteswith useful biologicall activities. Ecteinascidia turbin-ate, for instance, is a colonial ascidian that grows inthe submerged prop roots of Rhizophora mangle inmany areas of the Caribbean. E. turbinate producescompounds that show strong activity against a varietyof carcinomas, melanomas, and lymphomas. Anti-fungal and cytotoxic effects of the methanol extractsof three mangrove dwelling mollusks have been evalu-ated. Sea stars are dominant predators in many marinehabitats, and spongivory by sea stars has been doc-umented from polar seas to the tropics. The extracts

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from the same sponges but from different habitats re-sponded differently to the predation by the same seastar.

Epiphytic red algae of the order Ceramiales frommangrove and salt marshes produces varying levels ofdifferent UV-absorbing compounds, the mycosporine-like amino acids, which are considered to be bio-chemical photoprotectants against exposure to UV-radiation (18). Mangals are home to a group of fungicalled ‘manglicolous fungi’ which are vitally import-ant to nutrient cylcing in these habitats and many ofthe species produce interesting compounds. For ex-ample, most of the soil fungi produce lignocellulose-modifying exoenzymes like lactase. Preussia aur-antiaca synthesizes two new depsidones (AuranticinsA and B) that display antimicrobial activity. Cirrenaliapygmea produces melanin pigments that appear toprotect the hyphae from sudden changes in osmoticpressure; when melanin synthesis in cultures is inhib-ited with tricyclazole, the fungus becomes sensitiveto osmotic shock. High salinities also increase thenumber and types of amino acids this species pro-duces. The ethyl acetate extract of a mangrove en-dophytic fungus from the South China Sea Showsinhibition effect on yeast and mold. The studies onthe secondary metabolites of the fungus revealed thatthe fungus could produce a series of antibiotics, in-cluding griseofulvin, which was originally found inPenicillium griseofulvum.

Plants growing in or near the sea or in salt watermarshes are subjected to influx of other ions besidessodium and chloride and it is conceivable that ad-aptation to other inorganic salts present in brackishwaters may be necessary for survival of plants in suchhabitats. One such ion present in sea-water in somequantity is inorganic sulfate; one possible route forinactivation or storage is through conjugation withnaturally occurring phenolic compounds, and partic-ularly with flavonoids and remarkably enough, suchcompound occur principally in plants which are sub-ject to water stress, and especially in halophytes.Flavonoid sulfates (l) have been identified in land halo-phytes such as Armeria maritima, Halophila ovalis,Limonium vulgare, Nypa frutican, Suaeda maritimaand species of Atriplex, Frankenia and Tamarix. Theyalso occur abundantly in sea-grasses such as Thalas-sia, Zannichellia and Zostera. Arsenic is accumulatedin the leaves of some mangroves (68). Monocoty-ledonous salt marsh plants accumulated potassium,the amino acid proline, glycinebetaine and dimethyl-sulphoniopropionate (68, 132).

Cations such as Na+K+, Ca++, Mg++, andNH4

+and anions Cl −, Br −, NO2−, NO3

−, SO4−−

etc. have been found in various parts of species ofAvecennia Bruguiera and Rhizophora, K. candel, H.litoralis, E. agallocha and A. corniculatum. Organicacids such as citric, malic, oxalic and tartaric and car-bohydrates such as glucose and sucrose is abundant inthe roots and seeds of many mangrove plants.

Most mangrove species directly regulate salts.They may also accumulate or synthesize other solutesto regulate and maintain osmotic balance. For ex-ample, Aegiceras corniculatum, Aegialitis annulataand Laguncularia racemosa and the halophytes As-ter tripolium and Armeria maritima accumulate man-nitol and two nitrogen compounds, the protein im-ino acid proline and the quaternary nitrogen com-pound glycine betaine. Avicennia marina accumu-lates glycine, betaine, asparagine and Sonneratia albasynthesizes purine nucleotides (68). It is proposedthat the high levels of proline actually provide thebasis of resistance to salt accumulation. Evidencethat the accumulation of aliphatic quaternary am-monium compounds provide with relief from NaClstress has been obtained. Most attention has beengiven to choline Me3N+CH2CH2OH and the relatedacid betaine Me3N+CH2CO2

− both of which are widespread. It is believed that the concentration of acidbetaine increases with salt stress (68, 94).

Conclusion

Drugs of ‘natural’ origin, either the ‘original’ nat-ural product, products derived ‘Semi-synthetically’from natural products or synthetic products based onnatural products models, play an invaluable role inthe drug discovery process. Marine organisms andplants produce novel metabolites unique to the envir-onment. Mangroves and mangal associates living inyet another different environment to that of marineand terrestrial plants, can produce metabolites, whichmay in turn, are unique to these plants and are ofinterest to the ‘curious’ chemist. Although the chem-istry of the natural products of mangrove plants islittle known, there have been some examples in recentyears to support the need to study the chemistry ofthe mangroves. This belief is well supported by the il-lustrated examples. The chemistry of mangrove plantstends to establish that they may be a source of novelcompounds along with providing a new source formany already known biologically active compounds.

434

They may have great potential as a source of novelagrochemical compounds (Table 1). They are also arich source of toxic compounds. Rotenoids, alkaloids,terpenoids are among the classes of natural productswhich provide numerous toxins. Toxin in plants oftenhas the role of feeding repellents. A remarkable num-ber of insecticidal plants seem to have been recognizedfirst as fish poisons. Knowledge of the toxins in higherplants has led to a variety of useful drugs. Metabolitesthough toxic, are still used clinically for the treatmentof diseases. The physiological activity of an alkaloidmanifests in an extreme toxicity; yet many alkaloidshave therapeutically useful pharmacological proper-ties at sublethal dosage and have become establishedas valuable drugs in general medicine. A typical ex-ample is that of the toxic drug sodium stiboggluconateand pentamidine, used in the treatment of leishmaniadonovani infection (88). Though numerous mangrovesand mangal associates are recommended in traditionalmedicine as active against various diseases (Table 1),very little attempts have been made to investigate theveracity of these assertions in controlled experiments.Few workers have investigated the reputation of suchplants by performing in vitro and in vivo experimentsin order to demonstrate whether there are any protect-ive effects, using drugs or mixtures of drugs preparedusing traditional formulae. Different methods havebeen employed to test these effects: 1. Extracts wereadministered to mice, insect larvae, worms, fish, etc.2. Bioassays were carried to test their capacity toinhibit enzyme activities. 3. Effects on various vir-uses and bacteria, and 4. Evaluation of physiologicaland biochemical properties (such as effects on uterinetone or protection of mitichondrial membranes). Eventhough there are few recent investigations of the chem-ical constituents describing several novel compounds,very little research has been carried out to identify thechemical or chemicals directly responsible for the spe-cific biological activity. A knowledge of the chemicalconstituents of these plants is desirable, not only forthe discovery of new therapeutic agents, but becausesuch information may be of further value to those in-terested in ‘deciphering" the actual value of folkloreremedies.

The world of plants, and indeed all-natural sources,represents a virtually untapped reservoir of noveldrugs awaiting imaginative and progressive organiza-tions. Further more, infectious diseases are potentiallythe largest threat to human security. Coupled with con-tinuing threat to biodiversity through the destruction ofterrestrial and marine ecosystems and proven record of

natural products in drug discovery, there is a compel-ling argument for expanding the exploration of natureas source of novel active agents.

Acknowledgements

My thanks are due Wendy and Stan Sparkes for as-sistance in formulating the Table in the text and MsMary Anne Tenby and Helen Crosby for assistancewith the Bibliography. Assistance from Dr B. Bowdenand Mr J. Doyle in editing and critical commentsand suggestions from Dr E. Wolanski is gratefullyacknowledged.

435

Table 1. Traditional uses, chemical constituents and activities of mangroves and mangal associates.

Botanical name Traditionaluses/Properties

Tested for Chemical constituents References

Acanthusebracteatus∗∗

as an antiseptic, bloodpurifier, diuretic, cure forcolds, diabetes, gangren-ous wounds, rheumatism,skin allergies, snake bites,(B, Fr, L).

analgesic, antiviral activ-ity, (B,L)

alkaloids, carbohydrates,flavonoids, fatty acids, hy-drocarbons, lipids,polysaccharides, proteins,saponins, steroids,tannins, (L,W)

42, 73, 121, 151,152, 163, 164,165, 166, 173, 176

Acanthusilicifolius∗∗∗

as an aphrodisiac, bloodpurifier, diuretic, treat-ment of asthma, diabetes,dyspepsia, hepatitis, lep-rosy, neuralgia, paralysis,ringworms, rheumatism,skin diseases, snake bites,stomach pains, leukemia,(B, Fr, L, R)

analgesic, anti-inflammatory,leishmanicidal andantiviral activity, activ-ity towards leukemia virusand erythroleukemicSwiss mice, biotoxicity onfingerlings of fish, andmosquito larvae, (B, Fr, L,S, Fl, W, R)

alkaloids, long chainalcohols, steroids andtriterpenes, triterpenoidalsaponins, and sulphur,(S8), (B, L, R, S)

19, 61, 84, 88,101, 103, 119, 140

Acrostichumaureum∗∗

to treat wounds boilsandrheumatism, (L,Rhizome).

biotoxicity on fingerlingsof fish, (Fr, L, S, Sd, R)

amino acids, condensedand hydrolysable tannins,diterpenes, flavonoids,hydrocarbons, sesquit-erpene, steroids, sugars,triterpenes, (B, L, P, R, S)

16, 119, 193, 196

Acrostichumspeciosum∗∗

inorganic salts, sugars, (L) 160, 161

Aegialitisannulata∗∗∗

aminoacids, inorganicsalts, sugars, (L)

160

Aegicerascorniculatum∗∗∗

cure for asthma, diabetes,rheumatism, and as a fishpoison, (B, L, S)

antiviral activity, toxicityto fish and influence onthe growth of fungi, (B,Fr, Fl, L, S, R, W)

aminoacids,benzoquinones, car-bohydrates, carotenoids,chlorophyll a, b, a + b,condensed andhydrolysable tannins,coumarins, flavonoids,minerals; polyphenols,proteins, sugars, saponins,triterpenes, triterpenesglycosides, (B,L,R,S)

16, 20, 63, 69,160, 161, 212

Aegicerasmajus∗∗∗

treatment of haemataria,leprosy, ulcers, and as afish poison, (B, L)

alkaloids, benzofurans,flavonoids, saponins,tannins, triterpenes,(B, Fr, W)

74, 78, 176, 212

Aglaia cucullata∗ chlorophyll a, b, a +b, carotenoids, proteins,polyphenols, tannins, (L)

20

Aglaia odorata∗ insecticide, (L) inhibition of larval growthand protein synthesis, in-secticidal effects, (L, B,S)

benzofurans, nitrogen het-erocycles, triterpenes, (L)

78, 80, 148, 175

Alstoniamacrophylla∗

cytotoxic activity towardshuman lung cancer cells,antiplasmodial and anti-neoplastic activity, (L, St)

carotenoids, chlorophylla, b, a+b, alkaloids, poly-phenols, proteins, tannins,(B, L, R, S, W)

1, 20, 98

Ardesia elliptica∗∗ quinones, (B) 40, 41

436

Table 1. Continued.



Arundo donax∗ as an emollients and diur-etic, stimulation of men-strual discharge; dimin-ishes secretion of milk,(W)

antifeedant and agro-chemical activity, (W)

aliphatic amines andanilides, aromaticanilides, flavonoids,steroids, (W)

138

Atriplexvesicaria∗

treatment of leukemia,(B).

173

Avicenniaafricana∗∗∗

cure for cancer, gangren-ous wounds, lice, mange,ring worms, skin para-sites, thrush, tumors, ul-cers, (B)

naphthoquinones, (St, B) 79

Avicennia alba∗∗∗ treatment of antifertililty,skin diseases, tumors, ul-cers, (Resin)

lipids, hydrocarbons,naphthoquinones,phytoallexins (Naph-thofurans), triterpenoids,(B,L,S)

79

Avicenniaebracteatus∗∗∗

as a blood purifier, treat-ment of boils, snake bites,(Fr).

173

Avicenniagerminans∗∗∗

treatment of rheumatism,throat pains, ulcers of themouth, (B, L).

glycosides, (B,L) 56, 173, 183

Avicenniamarina∗∗∗

treatment of rheumatism,small pox, ulcers, fodderfor livestock; (S)

analgesic and antiviralactivity, (B, Fl, Fr, L, R,S,W)

alcohols, amino acids,carbohydrates, fatty acids,hydrocarbons, inorganicsalts, minerals, phytoalex-ins, carboxylic acids, ster-oids, tannins, triterpenes,vitamins, (B, L, R, S, Sd)

21, 73, 12, 151,152, 194

Avicennia marina(fungus phytoph-thora)

phytoalexins, (B) 194

Avicennianitida∗∗∗

cure for thrush, tumors,ulcers, (B, L, Resin, Sd)

119, 183

Avicenniaofficinalis∗∗∗

as an aphrodisiac, diur-etic, cure for hepatitis,leprosy, (B, Fr, L).

antiviral activity, biotox-icity on fingerlings of fish,(B, Fl, Fr, L, R, S, Sd, W)

alkaloids, arsenic, car-bohydrates, carotenoids,chlorophyll a, b, a +b, flavonoids, glycosides,lipids, polyphenols, pro-teins, saponins, tanninstriterpenoids, (B, L, S, W)

16, 20, 56, 61,119, 176, 183

Avicenniatomentosa∗∗∗

treatment of rheumatism,(B,S).

triterpenoids, (B,L,S) 123

Bacopamonniera∗∗∗

as a nerve tonic, (L). rat poison, (L) 185

Balanitesaegyptiaca∗

to reduce abdominal pain,as an anthelmintic, deter-gent, as a purgative, treat-ment of malaria, intestinaldisorders, sleeping sick-ness, syphilis, as a fishpoison, (B,L,R).

molluscicidal and poison-ous activity, fish poison,(B, Fr, L, R, St)

balanitins, saponins, (B,Fr, L, R, St)

116, 173, 208

Barringtoniaracemosa∗∗

tannins, (B) 16

Batis maritima∗∗ flavonoids, (B, L) 87

437

Table 1. Continued.



Bruguieracaryophylloides∗∗∗

treatment of ulcers, (B, L) 15, 150, 173

Bruguieraconjugata∗∗∗

sulphur containing alkal-oids, (B,S)

96, 97, 119, 150,151, 162, 184, 204

Bruguieracylindrica∗∗∗

treatment of hepatitis, (Fr,L, R).

antiviral and larvicidalactivity, biotoxicity ontobacco mosaic virus andfingerlings of fish, (B, Fr,L, W)

minerals, ( Ca, Na, Mg,K ), sulphur containing al-kaloids, tannins, (B, S)

89, 96, 119, 150,151, 173

Bruguieraexaristata∗∗∗

as an antitumor agent, (B). alkaloids, inositols, (B, L,S)

118, 172, 173

Bruguieragymnorrhiza∗∗∗

treatment of eye diseases,(Fr).

growth hormone tests onplants, (B, R)

anthocyanins, carbo-hydrates, carotenoids,catechins, condensedand hydrolysabletannins, diterpenes,gibberellins, fatty acids,hydrocarbons, inorganicsalts, lipids, flavans andflavan polymers, minerals,phenolic compounds,procyanidins, proteins,steroids, carboxylic acids,triterpenes, (B, Fr, L, R, S)

6, 16, 58, 61, 73,171, 173, 180, 184

Bruguieraparviflora∗∗∗

as an antitumor agent, (B). carbohydrates, caroten-oids, chlorophyll a, b, a +b, lipids, minerals, phen-olic compounds,procyanidins, proteins,tannins, (B, L, S)

20, 23, 173, 180,184

Bruguierarumphii∗∗∗

treatment of diabetes, (B,L).

173

Bruguierasexangula∗∗∗

as an antitumor agent, (B) anthocyanins, carbo-hydrates, carotenoids,chlorophyll a, b, a + b,fatty acids, hydrocarbons,lipids, minerals, phenoliccompounds, procyanidins,proteins, steroids, alkal-oids, tannins, triterpenes,(B, L, S)

20, 73, 96, 118,173

Caesalpiniabonducella,(bonduc)∗∗

as an antitumor agent,cure for rheumatism, (B,L).

diterpenes, fatty acids,isoflavones, lipids, phen-olic compounds, (B, L)

59, 155, 173

Calophylluminophyllum∗

as a cicatrisant, anticanceragent, disinfectant, treat-ment of bone fracture, andeye diseases, (B, Fr, L).

anticancer, antitumour,antifungal, transferase andlipid peroxidase activity,cytotoxicity, inhibitoryeffect against DNA, (B, L)

flavonoids, inophyllums,lipids, proanthocyanidinpolymers, xanthones, (R,S)

62, 77, 156, 170,173, 202

438

Table 1. Continued.



Calophylluminophyllum(African snailAchatina fulica)

antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiviraland phagocytosisstimulant activity,inhibitors of HIV-1reverse transcriptase, (B,L, S)

benzopyrans, coumarins,steroids, triterpenes,xanthones (B, L, S)

156, 170

Campospermaauriculata∗

alkaloids, saponins, ster-oids, triterpenes, (L, Fl, S,W)

32

Carapaguianensis∗∗

steroids, triterpenes, (B) 122

Carapamoluccensis∗∗

treatment of diarrhoea,and as a febrifuge, (Fr)

173

Carapa obovata∗∗ treatment of diarrhoea,and as a febrifuge, (Fr)

steroids, triterpenes, (B) 61, 122, 173

Carapa procera∗ antibacterial activity (W) 61, 122

Cassia fistula∗ antiviral activity, toxicityto fish

alkaloids, gibberellic acid,organic acids; steroids,triterpenes, (B, Fl, L, R,W)

122, 186

Cassipoureagerradii∗∗

carbohydrates, organicacids; alkaloids (B, L, S)

16, 44, 53, 82, 97,219

Cassipoureagummiflua∗∗

carbohydrates, minerals,organic acids; alkaloids(L, S)

44, 160, 161, 219

Casuarinaequisetifolia∗∗

activity towards soil arth-ropods, immunochemicalproperties, agrochemicaltrials (B, L)

triterpenes glucosides 29, 195, 218

Cerberamanghas∗∗

as a purgative, treatmentof rheumatism, (B, Fr, Sd)

cardenolides glycosides,(L)

173, 220

Cerbera odollam∗ cardenolide glycosides,(L)

220

Ceriopscandolleana∗∗

cure for diabetes, (B) anthocyanidins, procyan-idins, tannins (B)

160, 161, 173, 181

Ceriopsdecandra∗∗∗

cure for hepatitis, ulcers,(B, Fr, L)

antiviral activity, (B, Fl,Fr, L, R, S, W)

carotenoids, flavonoids,chlorophyll a, b, a +b, lipids and waxes,polyphenols, proteins,steroids, tannins,triterpenes, (L)

20, 61, 91, 122,162, 163, 173

Ceriopsroxburghiana∗∗∗

alkaloids, anthocyanins,flavonoids, gibberellins,minerals, procyanidins,saponins, steroids tannins,trace metals; triterpenes,(B, W)

35, 122, 176, 180,181, 213

439

Table 1. Continued.



Ceriops tagal∗∗∗ treatment ofhaemorrhages, (B).

condensed and hydrolys-able tannins, fatty acids,hydrocarbons, inorganicsalts, inositols, aliphaticcarboxylic acids, steroids,carotenoids, chlorophylla, b, a+b, indole alkal-oids, polyphenols, pro-teins, tannins, (B, L, R,Sd)

16, 20, 73, 160,161, 172, 173, 184

Clerodendroninerme∗

as a febrifugal and uter-ine stimulant, a pest con-trol agent and antiseptic,to arrest bleeding, treat-ment of asthma, hepatitis,ringworm, stomach pains,(B, L, S)

surface protectants ofseeds against insects,biotoxicity on fingerlingsof fish, toxicity againstmosquito larvae, antiviralactivity, (Fr, L, S, Sd, R,W)

carboxylic acids, diter-penes, flavonoids, hydro-carbons, iridoid bigylcos-ide, neolignans, phenols,protein, steroids, trigly-cerols, triterpenes, (L, S,Sd)

4, 9, 31, 51, 119,149, 173

Cocos nucifera∗ as a pest control, (Husk) pheromones aliphatic long chain hy-drocarbons and acids, aro-matic aldehydes, ketones,phenols, (B)

66

Concocarpuserecta (erectus)∗∗

treatment of catarrh, go-norrhoea, malaria, to stopbleeding, as a febrifuge,(B, L, R)

173

Cynometrairipa∗∗∗

carotenoids, chlorophylla, b, a + b, polyphenols,proteins, tannins, (L)

20

Cyprus rotundus∗ to control insect pests fungitoxicity, effecton spore germination,cytoprotective effects,insecticidal properties,(Rhizome, L)

phytotoxins, ses-quiterpene alkaloids,sesquiterpenes, starch,(Rhizome)

3, 45, 75, 81,86, 147, 168, 173,209, 222

Dalbergiaecastophyllum∗∗∗

chalcones, flavonoids andisoflavonoids, steroids,(B)

2, 52, 131

Derrisararipensis∗

toxicity to fish, (B) rotenones (isoflavonoids),(B, St)

128

Derris elliptica∗ fish poison, (L, B) piscicidal activity, (B, Fr) 173

Derrisheterophylla∗∗

toxicity against mosquitolarvae (L)


32, 51

Derris nicou∗ toxicity to fish, (B, L) rotenones (isoflavonoids)(B, L)

128

Derris sericeae∗ toxicity to fish, (B, L) rotenones (isoflavonoids)(B, L)

128

Derristrifoliata∗∗∗

as a stimulant, spasmodicand counter irritant, laxat-ive, fish poison, pesticide(L, R, T, W)

toxicity to fish, (B, L, Fr) alkaloids, carbohydrates,flavonoids and flavonolglycosides, lipids,polysaccharides, proteins,rotenone, steroids andtriterpenes, (L, R)

61, 141, 173, 221

Derrisuliginosa∗∗∗

as an antispasmodic andstimulant, to arrest haem-orrhages, (B, Fr)

alkaloids, long chain n-alkanes, (hydrocarbons),lipids, (L)

133, 173

440

Table 1. Continued.



Derris urucu∗ fish poison insecticide (B,R)

activity against fly larvae,toxicity to fish, (R)

alkaloids, rotenones(isoflavonoids), saponins,triterpenes, (B)

128, 154, 173

Diospyroscordifolia∗

piscicidal and antifungalactivity, (Fr)

alkaloids, flavonoids,naphthoquinones, sapon-ins, tannins, (W)

176, 203

Diospyroslancifolia∗

alkaloids, flavonoids,naphthoquinones, sapon-ins, steroids,triterpenes, (L, Fl, S, W)

32, 203

Diospyrosmelanoxylon∗

triterpenes, (B) 126

Eleocharis dulcis∗ antifeedant activity, (W) long chain acids, steroids,triterpenes, (W)

139

Excoecariaagallocha∗∗∗

as an uterotonic, purgat-ive, treatment of epilepsy,conjunctivitis, dermatitis,haematuria, leprosy,toothache, as a piscicide,dart poison, and a skin ir-ritant, (B, Fr, Fl, L, Lt, S,Sd, R, W)

antiviral, antioxidant, an-algesic, piscicidal activ-ity, antimicrobial activityagainst bacteria, yeast andfungi, activity against tu-mour growth, human im-monodeficiency, biotox-icity towards fish, andfield crabs, pest control,(B, L, Lt, S, W)

alkaloids, carotenoids,chalcones, chlorophyll a,b, a + b, cyclitol, diter-penes, excoecariatoxins,fluratoxin, glyceridesof fatty acids, lipidsand waxes; phorbolesters, polyphenols,polysaccharides, proteins,saponins, steroids, sugars,tannins, triterpenes, (B,Fl, L, Lt, S, W)

14, 20, 32, 55, 90,92, 93, 94, 105,106, 107, 119,130, 150, 151,160, 161, 162,163, 169, 173, 217

Excoecariabicolor∗∗

as an uterotonic, skin irrit-ant, toxic, (L, Lt)

piscicidal and tumour pro-moting activity, (L)

phorbol esters, excoecari-atoxin, (B, L, S)

173, 217

Excoecariaoppositifolia∗∗

skin irritant (L, Lt) 173, 217

Fagarazanthoxyloides∗

in dental hygiene, (S) bactericidal and antileuk-emic activity, (R, W)

alkaloids, (R) 158, 173

Ficusbengalensis∗

lipids, waxes, fatty acids,(L)

15

Ficus microcarpa∗ monoterpenes, iso-flavones, phenols,triterpenes, (B, R, S)

38, 112

Gymnotrochesaxillaris∗

alkaloids, (B) 82

Halophila ovalis∗∗ Toxicity to mosquito lar-vae (L)

sulphated flavonoids, (L) 51, 132

Heritiera formes∗∗ carotenoids, chlorophylla, b, a + b, polyphenols,proteins, tannins, (L)

20

Heritieralittoralis∗∗∗

control mosquitos anddiarrhoea, as a fishtoxicant, (S)

ichthytoxicity to fish, an-tifungal, antifeedant activ-ity, (B, Fr, L)

alkaloids, aminoacida,carbohydrates, caroten-oids, chlorophyll a,b, a & b, condensedand hydrolysabletannins, fatty acids;flavonoids, lipids andwaxes; polyphenols,polysaccharides, proteins,saponins, sesquiterpenes,aliphatic carboxylic acids,sugars (gum), (B, L, R,W)

15, 16, 20, 49,59, 103, 136, 137,160, 161, 173, 176

441

Table 1. Continued.



Heritieramacrophylla∗∗∗

carotenoids, chlorophylla, b, a & b, polyphenols,proteins, tannins, (L)

20

Heritieraminor∗∗∗

alkaloids, flavonoids,saponins, steroids,tannins, triterpenes (L, W)

176

Hibiscustiliaceus∗∗

cure for ear infections,(Fl).

alkaloids, amino acids,carbohydrates, organicacids, fatty acids, sapon-ins, sesquiterpenes andsesquiterpenoid quinones,steroids, triterpenes, (Fl,L, S, W)

12, 16, 32, 160,161, 173

Hippomanemancinella∗

causes dermatitis, severeconjunctivitis and blind-ness, to poison arrows,toxic poison, irritant to theskin, (Fr, L, Lt)

poisonous constituents,skin irritant activity,cocarcinogenicity andcryptic cocarcinogenicity(L, Sap)

alcohols alkaloids, aro-matic ketones, carotenoidlike substances, diterpenelong chain hydrocarbons,hippomanins, long chain(C29-C35) hydrocarbons,nitrogen and sulphurcontaining compoundsand their oxygen analogs,phorbols, sesquiterpenes,sugars, tannins, (Fr, L,Sap)

7, 65, 142, 173

Inocarpus fagifer(fagiferus)∗∗

Lipids (B, L) 188

Intsia bijuga∗∗∗ dye leucocyanidins, polyphen-ols; stilbenes, polysac-charides, water solublepolymers, (B)

71, 173

Intsiapalembanica∗∗

dye leucocyanidins, polyphen-ols; stilbenes, polysac-charides, water solublepolymers (B)

71, 173

Ipomoeapes-caprae∗

treat headache, jelly fishsting, causes dermatitis(L)

anti-inflammatory, antis-pasmodic, analgesic activ-ity, antinociceptive action,inhibition of platelet ag-grgation (L, S)

alkaloids, aminoacids,monoterpenes, quinones,saponins, steroids,triterpenes, (Fl, L, S, W)

5, 32, 50, 108,159, 173, 174,211, 215

Juncusroemerianus∗

glucosides, glycosides,steroids,(B, L)

34

Kandeliacandel∗∗∗

alkaloids, benzoquinones,carbohydrates, caroten-oids, chlorophyll a, b, a& b, flavonoids, inorganicsalts, polyphenols,proteins, tannins,saponins, short chainaliphatic carboxylic acids,sugars, (Gum, L, R, S, Sd,W)

20, 63, 113, 160,161, 176

Kandeliarheedii∗∗∗

treatment of diabetes, (B,Fr, L)

anthocyanins, steroids andtriterpenes

122, 173

442

Table 1. Continued.



Lagunculariaracemosa∗∗

Herbicide, (B) antihypertensive,herbicide toxicity, (B)

amino acds; polysacchar-ides, sugars; tannins triter-penes, (B)

111, 173

Lumnitzeracoccinea∗∗

treatment of thrush, (L) sugars, (L) 160, 173

Lumnitzeralittorea∗∗

sugars, (L) 160

Lumnitzeraracemosa∗∗

antifertility, treatment ofasthma, diabetes, snakebite, (Fr)

antiviral activity, (B, Fr,Fl, L, S, R, W)

cyclitols, sugars, tannins,(B, L)

16, 114, 125, 160,162, 173

Melaleucaleucadendron∗

fungicide (L) antifungal, anti HSV-1,herpes simplex virusactivity, antigenic andallergenic cross-reactivity,inhibitors of inducedhistamine release, activitytowards microorganisms,(Fr, L)

hydrolysable tannins,mono- and diterpenes,sesquiterpenes, poly-phenols, proteins,triterpenoids, stilbenesand stilbene glycosides,(B, Fr, L, Oil, Pollens)

27, 48, 173

Millettiaauriculata∗

flavones and isoflavones,(W)

167, 191

Morindacitrifolia∗

treatment of chronic renaldiseases, (Fr,R)

anti-tumour, anticancer,analgesic, antineoplastic,and antinematodalactivity, toxicity tomosquito larvae, (Fr, R)

aliphatic long chaincarboxylic acids, anthra-quinones, carotenoids,fatty acid esters, glycos-ides, mineral potassium,polysaccharides, steroids,trisaccharides, vitamins,(Fr)

72, 173, 189, 214

Murrayellapericlados∗

antibiotic, (B) 173

Nypafruiticans∗∗∗

treatment of asthma, dia-betes, leprosy, rheumat-ism, snake bite, and as abeverage, (Fr, L)

acetic acid, ethanol, sug-ars, (W)

153, 173

Oncospermatigillarium∗∗∗

added to rice as seasoning,(Fl)

organic acids, sterols, (Fr) 173, 210

Osborniaoctodonta

amino acids, carbo-hydrates, essential oils,organic acids, (L)

28, 160, 161

Pandanusodoratissimus∗

anti-oxidant activity benzofurans, lignans,phenolic compounds, (R)

83

Pandanusodoratissimus(Botryo-diplodiaparasite)

causes post-harvest rot ofvegetables

phytotoxic metabolites 83, 173

Pandanusrecurvatus∗


32

Pandanus spiralis∗ Food, (Fr) Vitamins, (Fr) 157, 173

Pemphis acidula∗∗ purposes relating to hu-man reproduction, (W)

oestrogenic and spasmo-lytic activity, (W)

26, 173

Phoenixdactylifera∗

carotenoids, triterpenesand steroids, (W)

124

Phoenixpaludosa∗

Food (Fr) alcohol, carotenoids, fattyacids, flavonoids, steroids,triterpenes, (W)

76, 124, 173

443

Table 1. Continued.



Planotortaix ex-cessana (leafrollermoth foundon Avicenniaresinifera)

bait to catch moths sex pheromone long chain fatty acid esters 57, 173

Pluchea indica∗∗ cure for rheumatism, sca-bies, sinusitis, used as aantipyretic, diaphoretic infevers, as an astringent, totreat ulcers, (L, R, B, S)

neutralisation of snakevenom (neurophar-macological action),hepatoprotective,locomotory activity,anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer, abortifacientand enimenagogue,and anti-implantation,uterine relaxation activity,inhibitor of gastricdamage, (L, R)

sesquiterpenes, (L) 10, 36, 143, 173,179, 206

Pongamiapinnata∗∗

in febrile and inflammat-ory diseases, treatment oftumours, piles, skin dis-eases, wounds, ulcers,fever, piles, rheumatism,scabies, sinus, stomachpain and intestinal dis-orders, causes clinical le-sions of skin and genitalia,(B, L, S, W)

antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiviralactivity againstherpes simplex virus,fungitoxicity, (L, S, Sd)

amino acids, chalconesand chromones, fattyacids; flavones andflavone glycosides,indole-3-acetic acid,lipids, monoglycerides,phenyl propanoids,proteins, sugars, tannins,(B, R)

8, 16, 54, 99, 100,168, 173, 187, 192

Porteresiacoarctata∗

animal food, (L) fatty acids, hydrocarbons,steroids and sterol es-ter, triacylglycerols, triter-penes, waxes, (B, W)

173

Preussiaaurantiaca(fungus)

antibacterial 173

Raphia sp∗∗ Beverage (Fr) alcohol, sugar and vitamincontents, (Fr)

alcohol, fatty acids, lip-ids, polysaccharides, ster-ols, sugars, vitamins, (Fr)

39, 173

Rhizophoraapiculata∗∗∗

astringent for diarrhoea,treatment of nausea,vomiting, typhoid,hepatitis, an antiseptic,insecticide, (B, Fl, Fr, L).

antiviral, larvicidal,antifungal, antifeedant,antimicrobial activity,antiviral propertiesagainst human immun-odeficiency, (B, Fr, Fl, L,S, R, W)

aliphatic alcoholsaldehydes, and carboxylicacids, carotenoids,condensed and hy-drolysable tannins,benzoquinones, lipids,n-alkanes, minerals,phenolic compounds,polysaccharides, steroids,triterpenes, (B, L, R, S)

16, 95, 104, 164,173, 184, 204, 205

Rhizophoraconjugata∗∗∗

Anthocyanins and, procy-anidins, steroids, tannins,triterpenes, (B)

122, 181

Rhizophoragymnorrhiza∗∗∗

anthocyanins and antho-cyanidins, procyanidins,steroids, tannins,triterpenes, (B)

122

Rhizophoralamarckii∗∗∗

hepatitis, (Fl, L). antiviral activity (B, Fr, Fl,L, S, R, W)

122, 173

444

Table 1. Continued.



Rhizophoramangle (ascidian,Ecteinascidiaturbinata)

activity against variety ofcancer cells (carcinimas,melanomas, and lympho-mas), (B)

Sulphur containing nitro-genous compounds, (B)

219

Rhizophoramangle∗∗∗

treatment of diabetes,angina, boils, minorbruises, and fungalinfections, diarrhoea,dysentery, elephantiasis,fever, malaria, leprosy,plaster for fracturedbones, tuberculosis,antiseptic, (B, L)

anti-hyperglycemiceffects, (W)

11, 173, 216

Rhizophoramucronata∗∗∗

treatment of elephantiasis,haematoma, hepatitis, ul-cers, and a febrifuge, ((B,Fl, Fr, L, R)

Antiviral, anti-HIV activ-ity, growth hormone testson plants, biotoxicity onfingerlings of fish, (B, Fr,L, S, Fl, W, R)

alkaloids, anthocyanidins,carbohydrates, caroten-oids, chlorophyll a, b,a & b, condensed and hy-drolysable tannins,gibberellins, flavonoids,inositols, lipids, minerals,polysaccharides, poly-phenols, procyanidins,proteins, saponins,steroid, triterpenes, (B, L,R, S)

16, 20, 58, 61,82, 119, 151, 172,173, 176, 181, 184

Rhizophoraracemosa∗∗∗

to stop bleeding, (Fl, L). 151, 173

Rhizophora sp∗∗∗ aminoacids, carbo-hydrates, polysaccharides,polyphenols, sugars,tannins, triterpenes,waxes (gum, L)

160, 161

Rhizophorastylosa∗∗∗

aliphatic carboxylic acids,fatty acids, flavoglycans,hydrocarbons, inorganicsalts, inositols,steroids, (L,R, Sd)

73, 146, 171, 172

Salicorniabrachiata∗∗∗

treat hepatitis, (L, S). antiviral activity, (B, L) 151, 173

Salvadorapersica∗∗

toxicity against mosquitolarvae, (L)

51

Sapium indicum∗ as a piscicidal agent toxic,irritant, (B)

poisonous constituents,(B)

diterpenes, nitrogencontaining phorbol esters,phorbol, (B, Fr, L)

127, 134, 173,199, 200

Sapiumsebiferum∗

relieve stress, (B). skin irritant and tumourpromoting activity, (B)

diterpenes, nitrogencontaining phorbol esters,phorbol, (Sd)

75, 173, 178

Scaevola sericea(plumieri)∗

Treat coughs, diabetes,eye infections, gastro-intestinal disorders,headache, stings andbites, antiseptic, (B, L)

anti-inflammatory, activity,(B, L)

173, 188

Scyphiphorahydrophylacea∗∗

cyclitol, polyol, sucrose,glucose, fructose, (L)

160

445

Table 1. Continued.



Serjania lethalis∗ fish poison, (L) ichthyocid activity, (L) 173, 201

Sesuviumportulacastrum∗

treat hepatitis, (L). antiviral activity, (B, Fl,Fr, L, S, R, W)

alkaloids, aminoacids,minerals, saponins,steroids, triterpenes, (L,Fl, S, W)

32, 85, 151, 162,173

Sonneratiaacida∗∗∗

as poultice in swellingsand sprains, to arresthaemorrhage, treatasthma, febrifuge, ulcers,(B,L)

plant-growth regulators,(B,L)

anthraquinones, car-bohydrates, carboxylicacids and lactones,gibberellins, lipids andwaxes, phenols, proteins,steroids, triterpenes, (B,L, S)

15, 25, 173

Sonneratiaalba∗∗∗

poultice in swellings andsprains, (Fr)

cyclitol, polyol, sucrose,glucose, fructose, con-densed and hydrolysabletannins, minerals, nucle-otides (B, L, R, S)

16, 160, 161, 173,184

Sonneratiaapetala∗∗∗

treat hepatitis, (L) plant growth regulators,growth hormone tests onplants, antiviral activity,(B, Fl, Fr, L, S, R, W)

anthroquinoids, triter-penes and steroids,gibberellins, carboxylicacids and lactones,polyphenols, (B, L, S)

58, 162, 173, 199

Sonneratiacaseolaris∗∗∗

stop bleeding, checkhemorrhages, treatmentof piles, sprain poultices,(Fr)

toxicity against mosquitolarvae, (Fr)

fatty acids, hydrocarbons,steroids, (L)

51, 73, 173

Sonneratiaovata∗∗∗

checks hemorrhages,(juice)

24, 173

Spinifexlongifolius∗

reduce internal pains, asan antiseptic, (W)

173

Sueda fruticosa∗ hypercholesterolaemicactivity

22

Sueda maritima∗ cure hepatitis, (L) antiviral activity, (B, Fl,Fr, L, S, R, W)

Steroid, triterpenes, (L) 61, 151, 162, 173,192

Tamarix gallica∗∗ condensed and hydrolys-able tannins, (B, L, R)

16

Terminaliacatappa∗

treatment of hepatitis andprevent hepatoma, food,(Fr)

antioxidant and hep-atoprotective activity,genotoxicity, activityagainst inflammation,anti-sickling potential, (L)

lipids, sterols, tannins to-copherols, fats and fattyacids, proteins, (Fr)

37, 115, 117, 130,173, 188

Terminaliaoblongata∗

poisonous to cattle, (L) toxicity to mice condensed tannins 188

Thespesiapopulnea(populneoides)∗∗∗

antifertility agent, causesdermatitis, (B, S)

antibacterial, anti-steroidogenic, cytotoxic,antifertility activity, (B,Fl, S, W)

amino acids, carbo-hydrates, glycerides andglycosides, gossypol,fatty acids, mansonones,phenolic sesquiterpenes,phytolectins, organicacids, triterpenes,quinones, sterols, (B,S)

16, 47, 60, 64, 67,70, 135, 145, 173,182

Tillandsiausneoides∗

antidiabetic activity, (W) cycloartane derivatives,(W)

30

446

Table 1. Continued.



Xylocarpusgranatum∗∗∗

treat fevers, malaria, chol-era, (B)

antifungal activity, insectantifeedant activity

alkaloids, amino acids;carbohydrates; caroten-oids, chlorophyll a,b, a &b, fatty acids, flavonoids,hydrocarbons; limonoids,minerals, organic acids;polyphenols, proteins,tannins, triterpenes,saponins, steroids, sugars,(B, Fr, L, R, S, W)

13, 20, 40, 43,73, 109, 122, 160,161, 173, 176,184, 200

Xylocarpusmoluccensis∗∗∗

treat fevers, malaria, as anaphrodisiac, (B, Fr).

antifeedant activity andinhibition of respiratoryreactions, (B)

limonoids and limonoidesters, monoterpenoids;xyloccensins, limonoids,(Fr, S, St)

43, 109, 173, 192,200

∗∗∗ mangroves; ∗∗ mangrove minors; ∗ mangrove associates.B = bark; L = leaves; Fr = fruits; R = roots; St = stems; Fl = flower; Sd = seed; W = whole plant; Lt = latex.

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Bio Activities, Bioactive Compounds and Chemical Constituents of Mangrove Plants

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