8/12/2019 Bio 11 Lab Exam 3 Reviewer

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Bio 11 Lab Exam 3 Reviewer

A. HistologyTypes of Tissues

a. Epithelial Tissues

forms outer coverings and inner linings of body surfaces;

tightly packed cells

function: protection, selective absorption secretion

a.1 Covering and lining epithelial membranes (outer body

surfaces)

i. Squamous Epithelium

- tile-like flattened cells

- found in the epidermis of the skin (upper layer)

ii. Ciliated Epithelium

- may be columnar or cuboidal

- found in epithelia lining of upper respiratory tract

iii. Cuboidal and Columnar Epithelia

- found lining many internal cavities

- cuboidal: bile duct = columnar: intestine

a.2 glandular epithelium (inner body surfaces)

function: production of secretory subtances

i.Unicellular: goblet cells (lining of the intestine andrespiratory tracts) secretes mucin (becomes mucus when

dissolved in water) which has protective function against

infectious agents and toxins

ii.Multicellular glands: surface epithelia that grew inward or

became infolded; for large amounts of secretions

Simple: cutaneous gland; gastric gland

Compound: salivary gland; mammary gland; exocrine

(with ducts) and endocrine (ductless) glands

b. Muscular Tissues

function: movement through contraction of muscle fibers

Parts:

Sarcoplasm- muscle cell cytoplasm

Sarcolemma- muscle cell membrane

Myofibrils- contractile element of muscle cells

Muscle fibers- muscle cells (long, spindle-shaped thread-like

structures) with oval-shaped nuclei

Myofilaments- finer filaments within myofiblrils made up of

proteins actin (thin filaments) and myosin (thick filaments)

Types:

i.Smooth Muscles (Non-Striated)

- found in the visceral organs except the heart; involuntary

ii.Striated Muscles

ii.a Skeletal Muscles

- attached to the bones; voluntary

-characterized by the presence of dark bands (anistropic orA-discs) and light bands (isotropic or I-discs)

- has syncytium (occurs when cell divides withoutundergoing cytokinesis)

ii.b Cardiac Muscles

- involuntary; has functional syncytium but NOT structurally

syncytial

- has intercalated disc fibers; form an intricate network

c. Connective Tissues

Characterized by the presence of a large amount of

intercellular material and paucity of cells

function: attach or connect parts, support or bear

weight and provide a medium through which tissue

fluids containing nutrients and wastes may diffuse

Types:

i. Loose Connective Tissue

- formed by fibrocytes (connective tissue cells) that has

ovoid nuclei

- intercellular material that is secreted by the connective

tissue cells are composed of amorphous ground

substance (matrix) and connective tissue fibers

ii. Cartilage

Parts:

chondrocytes- cartilage cells

*Young (less differentiated): flattened = fully differentiated:

big and round

lacunae- spaces where chondrocytes are located

solid intercellular substance (matrix)

- hyaline: ventral ends of ribs; larynx, trachea and bronchi;

articular surface of bone

- fibrous: tendons and ligaments

- elastic: outer ear and epiglottis

iii. Bones

mineralized connective tissues

Parts:

Osteocytes- bone cells

Cannaliculi tiny canals where protoplasmic processes of

immature bone cells used to pass

function: passageway of materials from blood vessels

Haversian canal- tiny, interconnecting, longitudinal channels inbone tissue through which blood vessels, nerve fibers and

lymphatics pass

Volkmanns canals- interconnect Haversian canals

Lamella- thin plates of bone matrix; lines creating ring-like

appearance represent periods of inactivity of bone formation

d. Vascular (blood) Tissues

function: provides nourishment to peripheral tissue via

fluid medium

Types:

i.Erythrocytes (RBC)

function: transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from

the lungs to other body tissues

hemoglobin- color pigment in erythrocyte

ii. leucocytes (WBC)

function: engulfs pathogens via phagocytosis

Kinds of WBC

i. Lymphocytes

20-25% of total WBC; smallest of the WBC

nuclei are large and spherical; there is only narrow rim of

cytoplasm around the nucleus

ii. Monocytes

3-8% of total WBC; largest of the blood vessesls

nuclei varies from slightly indented ovals to horseshoe-

shaped structures

larger amounts of cytoplasm than lymphocytes

iii.

Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes or Polymorphs irregular nuclei with variety of shapes

iii.a Neutrophils

60-75% of total WBC

nuclei is made up of 2 to 5 or more thin lobes

connected by slender chromatin thread

granules are fine and does not stain well at neutral

pH

iii.b Eosinophils

2-5% of total WBC

nuclei is made up of 2 oval lobes linked by thread like

chromatin

granules are coarse and stain pinkish red with acid

stainsiii.c Basophils

0.5-2% of total WBC

nuclei stains very faintly

has coarse cytoplasmic granules that stain blue with

basic dye

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Comparison:

RBC WBC

HumanNo nuclei; biconcave

disk

Larger in size than human

RBC, fewer in #

Frog Darkly stained nucleiSmaller in size than frog

RBC, fewer in #

e. Nervous Tissues

neuron- nerve cellsnerve fibers- elongated outgrowth of neuron; carry sensory

stimuli and motor impulses from central nervous system to an

effector

nerve- bundle of nerve fibers bound by connective tissues

Parts of neuron:

dendrites- carry impulses toward the cell body

axon- carries impulses away from the cell body

Parts of Nerve:

Epineurium- loose connective tissue covering the nerves

Fascicles- number of nerve fibers

Perineurium- covering of each fascicleEndoneurium- covering of each nerve fiber

B. Microscopic Anatomy of Frog Organsa. Skin

2 Main Regions:

Epidermis- outermost layer

Layers:

i. Stratum Corneum

- outermost layer of epidermis; squamous; non-living

ii. Stratum Germinativum

- columnar cells; living and growing layer

- cells continuously divide and replace the constantly shed off

stratum corneumDermis

Layers:

i. Stratum Spongiosum

i.a Chromatophore- pigment granules

function: produce and control skin coloration in frogs

i.b Cutaneous Glands- formed by infolding of stratum

germinativum

function: secrete mucus to keep skin moist

ii. Stratum Compactum- deeper layer of dermis; made of

connective tissue with alternating vertical connective tissue

strands

loose subcutaneous connective tissue- found below stratumcompactum

function: connect the skin with the underlying muscle

b. Liver- largest gland of the body

secretion: bile

function: aids in absorption of fats and neutralizes acidity of

chime(digested food)

Parts:

Liver Cells- polygonal; darkly stained spherical nuclei

Pigment Granules- scattered irregularly

Arteries- thicked-wall

Veins- thinned-wall

Bile Duct- lined with cuboidal epitheliumfunction: emulsify fats

Arterioles and Venules- smaller blood vessels

Sinusoids- endothelial tubes occurring in-between liver cells;

appears like spaces between liver cells

c. Intestine- where digestion takes place

Parts:

Valves of Kerking- circular folds of inner wall of intestine

Tunica Mucosa- mucous coat; innermost layer; lines cavity of

lumen; made up of: simple columnar epithelial cells & goblet

cells

Tunica Submucosa

i. Stratum Circulare: thick inner circular layer; where spindle-

shaped smooth muscle cells are observed

ii. Stratum Longitudinale: thin outer longitudinal layer;

where cross-sections of muscle cells can be seen

Tunica Serosa- outermost covering; covered with mesothelium

* Mesothelium- pavement epithelial cells; lines internal cavity;

derived from mesoderm

d. Stomach

Parts:

Rugae- foldings of inner wall of stomach

Comparison of Intestines and Stomach:

circular folds are both present

both contain tunica mucosa

both lining are composed of alternating muscular and

connective tissue

Tunica Mucosa- composed of columnar cells (innermost) andlamina propria (outermost); where chief and parietal cells are

found

Parietal cells: secrete gastric acid w/c lowers pH and activates

pepsinogen into pepsin

Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen and rennin

Muscalaris Mucosa- outer to the lamina propria; consists of

inner circular layer and outer longitudinal layer of smooth

muscles

function: contains mucous glands and gastric pits

Tela Submucosa- contains large blood and lymph vessels

Tunica Muscularis- thick and made of circular layer of smooth

muscle

function: facilitates movement of food particles

Subserosa- narrow layer w/c contains longitudinal musclestrands; outer to the muscular layer

function: secretion of blood vessels

Tunica Serosa- outermost covering covered by the

mesothelium

e. Kidney- eliminates water, ions, nitrogenous waste and

metabolic wastes of protein, carbohydrates and fat

metabolism; ventral border (concave)

Parts:

Adrenal Gland- part of endocrine system

Malpighian Bodies/ Renal Corpuscles- round masses on

ventral part of the kidney

Glomerulus- network of capillaries of Malpighian bodies

Bowmans Capsule- cup-shaped double membrane of

glomerulus

Uniferous Tubule- where reabsorption of water, amino acid,

glucose and other subs. occurs

Collecting Tubule- where uniferous tubule continue; fewer

Mesonephric Duct- where collecting tubules open to

Renal Portal Vein- adheres to lateral side of kidney

renal vein- thin-walled; carries deoxygenated blood

renal artery- thick-walled; carries oxygenated blood

Path of blood:

glomerulus Bowmans capsule Glomerular artery

Uniferous TubulesCollecting TubulesMesonephric Duct

f. Spinal Cord

Parts:

White Matter- outer layer made up of loosely arranged

medulatted nerve fibers and neuroglia

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Gray Matter- inner layer made up of cell bodies of neurons

and neuroglia

Dosal Cornua- 2 dorsal projection

Ventral Cornua- wider and farther apart

Central Canal- found in the center of spinal cord; contains

cererbrospinal fluid

Ependymal Cell- lines the central canal

Neuroglia- small oval bodies scattered over spinal cord

Motor Cells- most prominent neurons; concentrated in ventral

gray horn; bigger than neuroglia; have chromophilic bodies

Dura Mater- cylindrical covering of spinal cord

Subdural Space- lies beneath dura mater

Pia Mater- Closely investing the spinal cord; thin layer of

connective tissue (with a number of blood vessels)

Dorsal and Ventral Fissure

Ventral fissure- contains ventral spinal artery w/c supplies

most of the blood in the spinal cord

C. Animal FormsType of Symmetry:

a. Universal: exhibited by animals with spherical bodies; can be

divided into 2 or more symmetrical parts by cutting thru the

center of body ex. sea urchinb. Radial: similar parts regularly arranged about central axis; can

be divided into 5 radial lines running from the center of the

body

orientation: oral/aboral (bears mouth faces the substratum)

c. Bilateral

longitudinal: dorsal (back) and ventral (front)

transverse: anterior (head end) and posterior end (tail end)

sagittal: lateral sides (left and right)

Metamerism/ Segmentation- regular repetition of body parts

along anterio-posterior axis

* annelids and arthropods exhibit metamerism

Regionalization

Having parts of the body more or less differentiated into

recognizable zones, such as the head, trunk and tail

Cephalization: The nervous system and sense organs tend to

concentrate in the head

Appendages

Cephalic appendages may be in the form of antennae, tentacles,

horns, antlers, lophophores (ciliated tentacles), limbs, wings, etc

May be segmented or unsegmented

D. Animal Integuments

function: waterproof, cushion and protect the deeper tissues;

excrete wastes; regulate temperature; attachment site forsensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure and

temperature

Thin, slimy epithelium of Planaria- simplest form of integument;

allows diffusion of gases into the body

Epithelium of earthworm- secretes cuticle; allows diffusion of

gases

Mantle of Mollusks- secretes shell

Arthropods- with chitin

Crabs and Lobster- arthropods with chitinous integument

impregnated with lime or calium carbonate

Echinoderms- comparable to vertebrate skin

Animal Kind of Integument Skin Derivatives

Planaria Slimy epithelium Cilia

EarthwormCuticle secreting

epitheliumSetae

Mollusk Mantle Shell

Insect Chitinous integument Chitin

Shark Skin Placoid Scales

Fish Skin Scales

Snake Skin Scales

Frog Skin (naked) Gland

Bird Skin Feather/ Claws

Man Skin Hairs/ Nails

E. Skeletal Muscle

Exoskeleton:

Corals: calcareous

Mollusks shells: calcareous-made of calcium carbonate; single

piece (univalve) or two piece (bivalve)

Crustaceans and Insects: chitinous

Turtle Shells: Dorsal Carapace (bony) and Ventral Plastron

(horny)

Fishes: Bony Scales

Snakes, Lizards, and Crocodiles: Horny shields form a continuous

mat

Birds: Plumage (feathers)

Mammals: Pelage (covering of hairs)

Cattle, Buffalos: True Horns; hollow

Deer: Antlers; bony, shed periodicallyLizards, birds, cats, and dogs: claws

Monkeys, apes, man: nails

Horses and cattle: hooves

Endoskeleton:

function: constitutes principal support of the body; leverage for

locomotion; protection of delicate organ

Squid and Cuttlefish: Pen

Sea Urchin: Test or Corona calcerous w/c composed of dermal

plates and covered by integument

locomotory organ: tube feet

Vertebrate: bone (principal element); cartilage (flexibility);

ligament (connects the bone together)

Skeletal System of Frogs:

Parts:

a. Skull- chief skeleton of the head

i. Cranium- hollow median portion of the skull

function: encloses the brain and sense organs

*separated by jagged lines (sutures)

*synarthrosis- immovable type of joint

Parts:

Olfactory Capsules- anterior to the cranium

Otic Capsules- lodges inner ear; posterior to the cranium

Occipital Region- posterior end of skull

Foramen Magnum- large hole at the center through which

spinal cord passesOccipital Condyles- articulated with the 1st vertebra;

ventrolateral to the foramen magnum

ii. Maxillary Arch- borders the orbit laterally; anterior part of

the teeth; constitutes upper jaw and is immovably fused

to cranium

Parts:

Premaxillary Proccess- adjoins paired triangular bones of the

cranium

b. Lower Jaw/Mandible- bony arch that articulates with posterior

end of skull

c. Vertebrate- longitudinal row of irregular bones forming a

column (vertebrate column)

Atlas- 1st

vertebra; cervical vertebra; articulates occipital

condyles

2nd

to 10th

vertebra (Trunk vertebra)

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Typical Vertebra- composed of 2nd

to 8th

vertebrae

Parts:

i.Centrum- body of vertebra; front (concave) and back

(convex)

ii.Neural arch- dorsal to the centrum

iii.Neural canal- contains the spinal cord

iv.Neural spine- posteriorly directed

v.Transverse Processes- extend laterally and help support the

body wall (junction of centrum and neural arch)

vi.Zygapophyses- posterior and anterior of neural arch

Pre-zygapophyses (hidden); Post-zygapophyses (covers the

pre)

Sacral- 9th

vertebra

Urostyle- 10th

vertebra

Structure AtlasTypical

VertebraSacral Urostyle

Neural spine + + + +

Neural arch + - + +

Neural canal + - - +

Centrum + + + +

Pre-zygapophyses - + + -

Post-zygapophyses + + - -

Transverse

Processes- + + -

d. Hyoid- flat skeleton

e. Pectoral Girdle- arch of bones and cartilages at shoulder

region

Parts:

Suprascapula- most dorsal, flat trapezoidal and cartilaginous

Scapula- articulating the suprascapula; smooth concavity on its

proximal end

Glenoid fosa- where the upper arm bone fits

Fenestra- articulate with the scapula on its proximal end

Clavicle- anterior to the fenestra; where an inverted y-shaped

bone belonging to the sternum rests

Coracoid- posterior to the fenestra and shaped like the scapula;

contributes also to the glenoid fossa

Epicoracoid cartilages- joins the two halves

f. Sternum- series of bones and cartilages anterior and posterior

to pectoral girdle on its mid-ventral aspect

Parts:

Episternum- flat, rounded cartilage

Omosternum- inverted y-shaped bone, with its two arms resting

on the clavicle

Mesosternum- bone wedged between the coracoids in its

anterior end

Xiphisternum- cartilage lying posterior to the mesosternum

g.

Pelvic Girdle- U-shaped structure with lateral processes of 9th

vertebra and posterior tip of the elongate 10

th

function: strengthens posterior region of body and provides

support to hind limbs

*os innominatum- each half of pelvic girdle

Parts:

Acetabulum- cup-shaped depression; where the proximal end of

the thigh bone (femur) fits; formed by the convergence of the

raised edges of the bones comprising the girdle

Ilium- forms the anterior border of the acetabulum and

articulates with the lateral processes of the 9th vertebra

Ischium- fan-shaped bone contributing to the posterior border

of the acetabulum and wedged between the ilium and the pubis

Pubis- triangular bone (cartilaginous in young frogs) wedged

ventrally between the ilium and ischium

Hindlimb

Parts

Femur- long bone whose rounded proximal end articulates with the

acetabulum

Tibio-fibula (thigh bone)- slightly longer bone distal to the femur

Tarsals (ankle bones)- consisting of a proximal row of two elongate

bones and a distal row of two or three short bones

Metatarsals (sole bones)- a row of five elongate bones

Phallanges

F. Musculature

*Muscles- contractile

function: for motion and locomotion

2 Types of Muscles:1. Skeletal - attached to skeletons; comprising the bulk of the

body

*fascia: connective tissue that bound skeletal muscles

2. Visceral- those that form part of the wall of internal organs

Origin: point of attachment that is fixed

Insertion: point of attachment that is movable

Head: more than one point of origin

Slips: Several points of insertion

Muscle Origin Insertion Function

Temporalis mid- dorsal line

Posterior

region of

mandible

Raises lower

jawDepressor

Mandibulaemid-dorsal line

Angle of lower

jawLowers the jaw

Mylohyoid Median raphne -Raises the floor

of mouth

Median Raphne - - -

Coccygeosacralis -Taper towards

anus-

Coccygeoilacus -Taper towards

anus-

Longissimus Dorsi -Taper towards

anus-

External ObliqueLumbo-dorsal

fascia

Beneath

muscles on

ventral side of

abdomen

-

Rectus Abdominis Pubis SternumCompresses

the abdomen

Linea Alba - -Compresses

the abdomen

Inscriptiones

Tendinae- - -

Latissimus DorsiFascia on

anterior trunk

Shoulder joint

and humerus

Draw arm

away from

body

Sterno-Radialis EpisternumProximal end

of radio-ulna-

Pectoralis

Pectoral girdle

(1), sternum (2)

& fascia of

rectus

abdominis (3)

HumerusDraws arm

toward chest

Deltoid CoracoidProximal end

of humerus

Draws arm

toward chest

Triceps Brachii Scapulocoracoid

Humerus and

proximal end

of radio-ulna

Straightens

forearm

Triceps Extensor

Femoris

Posterior

border of ilium;

anterior border

of acetabulum

Proximal end

of tibia-fibula

Straightens

shank and

bends thigh

Semimembranous Ischium

Proximal end

of tibia-fibula,

back of knee

Draws thigh

medially and

bends shank

Biceps Femoris - -

Draws thigh

medially and

bends shank

Gracilis Major

Posterior

margin of

ischium

Proximal end

of tibia-fibulaBends the leg

Sartorius - - -

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Adductor MagnusLower end of

ilium

Proximal end

of tibio-fibulaBends the leg

GastrocnemiusSmall head and

big head

Tendons of

Achilles

Bends shank

and extends

foot

PeroneusDistal end of

femur

Distal end of

tibia-fibula

and Proximal

end of tarsals

Straightens

shank and

bends foot

Tibialis AnticusDistal end of

femur

2 tendons

onto the

tarsals

Bends foot

Tibialis PosticusEntire length of

tibia-fibula

Proximal end

of tarsalsExtends foot

G. Movement and Locomotion

Antagonist: actions are OPPOSITE

Synergist: actions in concert

Adductor: moves part TOWARDS axis of the bosy

Abductor: produces OPPOSITE action

Flexor: BENDS a part

Levator: RAISES a part

Depressor: LOWERS a part

Constrictor: CLOSES an aperture

Dilator: OPENS an aperture

Rotator: ROTATES a part

Synergistic muscles:

1. Gastrocnemius and tibialis posticusextends foot

2. Peroneus and tibialis anticusbends foot

3. Rectus abdominis and external obliquecompress abdomen

4. Sterno-radialis, pectoralis, and deltoiddraw arm toward chest

Antagonistic muscles:

1. Depressor mandibulae (lowers jaw) vs temporalis (raises lower

jaw)

2. Latissimus dorsi (draw arm away from body) vs sterno-radialis,

pectoralis, and deltoid (draw arm toward chest)3. Gastrocnemius and tibialis posticus (extends foot) vs peroneus

and tibialis anticus (bends foot)

Locomotion of Vertebra

a. Undulatory Swimming- body is thrown into waves from head

to tail due to contraction of trunk musculature; for fishes

FISHES

trunk and tail: propulsive fore

pectoral and pelvic fins: brakes

caudal fin: rudder

dorsal fin: stabilizer

b. Pedal Locomotion- due to contraction of the limb muscles

c.

True Flight- for birds and bats

Locomotion in Gastropod Mollusks

Locomotion: flattened muscular foot through pedal

locomotory waves

Foot is analogous to the whole body of the flatworm but while

the flatworm body has a constant volume, the gastropod foot

may be inflated by blood

Locomotion in Earthworms

exemplify the highest form of a locomotor system dependent

on a hydrostatic skeleton

contraction of the circular muscles on the anterior end of the

body extends to a number of segments contraction of the circular muscles makes the segments longer

and thinner, while contraction of the longitudinal muscles

shortens the segments in preparation for next phase of muscle

contraction