Bidirectional integrated on-board chargers for electric vehicles—areview

CAROLINE ANN SAM* and V JEGATHESAN

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences,

Coimbatore, India

e-mail: carolineannsam@gmail.com; jegathesan@karunya.edu

MS received 27 July 2020; revised 9 October 2020; accepted 22 November 2020

Abstract. This paper reviews about the bidirectional on-board chargers for electric vehicles. The chargers are

of two types: on-board chargers and off-board chargers. The overall size, weight and cost of the onboard

chargers can be reduced using integrated on-board chargers where the drive train components are used for

propulsion as well as for charging. Four-quadrant operation of the drive is possible using the bidirectional

converters in the drive train. Regenerative braking control in the integrated on-board chargers aids in proper

utilization of braking energy, which in turn increases the driving range of the vehicle. Various on-board chargers

are presented and their working, advantages and limitations are discussed here.

Keywords. Electric vehicle; four-quadrant operation; integrated on-board chargers; power factor correction;

regenerative braking.

1. Introduction

The increased demand of modern transportation system for

the economic development and societal comfort is creating

the growing presence of global warming and some dan-

gerous climate changes. The major cause of these adverse

environmental effects is due to the harmful environmental

pollutants emitted by Internal Combustion (IC)-enabled

automobiles. One potential alternative to the world’s

dependence on standard combustion engine vehicles is

electric vehicles (EVs).

The popularity of EV is increasing day by due to their

nearly zero carbon emission and less dependence on fossil

fuels. Also, since the electric motors used in EV are more

efficient than the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE), this

transportation system results in saving energy than the ICE

vehicles.

Different types of EV configurations are Battery

Electric Vehicles (BEVs), Hybrid Electric Vehicles

(HEVs) and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs). BEV

consists of an electric battery for energy storage, an

electric motor and a controller. The electric battery can

be recharged using a charging unit, which can be carried

along with the vehicle or it can be fitted at the charging

point. HEV has a combination of two energy sources [1].

It can be a combination of electric/IC engine, flywheel/IC

engine and battery/fuel cell. Among the two sources, one

will be used as a means of storage and other is used for

providing driving energy.

Depending on the level of hybridization, HEVs are

classified as Micro-HEV, Mild HEV, Full HEV and fuel

cell HEV [2–4].

An EV power train mainly consists of an energy storage

system [5–7], electric motor, power converter to drive the

motor [8–11] and EV charging circuit.

The EV charging circuit is basically classified as on-

board chargers and off-board chargers depending on its

location. If the charging circuit is incorporated in the EV

power train itself it is an on-board charger and if it is placed

outside, separately in a public area, it is an off-board

charger.

This paper reviews about the different configurations

of bidirectional on-board chargers that make the drive

train suitable for four-quadrant operation utilizing very

less space in the vehicle. The paper is organized as

follows. Section 1 gives an outline of the significance

of EV, different types of EV and briefly explains about

different parts of EV powertrain. Sections 2 and 3 give

a general description about the power electronic system

in EV and the different types of chargers used in EV,

respectively. Section 4 gives a review on different

configurations of bidirectional on-board chargers for

EV. The circuit configuration of integrated on-board

chargers and braking control methods of on-board

chargers are discussed in the subsequent subsections.

Finally, section 5 provides conclusions for the

paper.*For correspondence

Sådhanå (2021) 46:26 � Indian Academy of Sciences

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12046-020-01556-2Sadhana(0123456789().,-volV)FT3](0123456789().,-volV)

2. Power electronics in EV

The role of power electronics in EV is to provide supply to

the traction motor to obtain the desired performance and to

charge the batteries during idle time [12, 13]. It has to

control the reverse power flow, which can be fed back to

the battery during regenerative braking conduction or to the

grid during idle condition [14, 15]. Figure 1 presents the

power electronic system used in EV.

During propulsion mode the traction motor will be driven

by a power converter, which regulates the power flow to the

motor. The energy storage system provides power to the

traction converter through a DC–DC converter. The DC–

DC converter will step up or step down the power from the

storage system as required by the motor. During charging

mode the vehicle battery, which forms a part of the energy

storage system, will be charged from the utility through a

rectifier and a DC–DC converter. The control pulses for the

power electronic converters in the drive train will be pro-

duced by electronic controllers.

3. Classification of EV chargers

Compared with conventional ICE vehicles the main chal-

lenge faced by EV is the driving range, which depends

upon the battery performance. Research works have been

carried out on battery design, battery management system

and also on the battery charging techniques for improving

the performance of the battery [16, 17]. Depending upon

the location, battery chargers are of two types, on-board

chargers and off-board chargers.

On-board chargers are low-power slow chargers, which

are placed on the vehicle itself. Although it takes longer

charging time, it can be utilized for charging the battery in

home/office/parking area through the utility supply.

Off-board chargers are high-power, fast chargers placed

at public area, which can be used for charging the vehicle

batteries. They are similar to gas stations used for refilling

the fuel tank of ICE vehicles [18].

Based on the power levels, battery chargers are classified

as Level 1 chargers, Level 2 chargers and DC fast chargers.

Level 1 charging can be done even at home overnight,

where the EV will be plugged to a Single-Phase AC power

outlet. Level 2 charging requires a single phase or three-

phase AC outlet and is intended for private and public

applications. DC fast chargers are intended for commercial

and public applications and require a three-phase power

outlet. Table 1 describes the classification of EV chargers

based on their power level [19].

Earlier the EV chargers were based on diode bridge

rectification, which were subsequently replaced by thyris-

tor-based chargers. These chargers support only unidirec-

tional current flow.

The EV charger designs were modified with micropro-

cessor-based control incorporating Pulse Width Modulation

(PWM) control. This kind of chargers have several charge

algorithms for providing better battery charging control

[20–22].

EV chargers, when connected to AC mains, introduce

harmonics in the utility, which results in voltage distortion,

heating, noise and reduction in supply capability to provide

energy. Power Factor Correction (PFC) techniques [23]

have to be incorporated to comply with power quality

standards and recommendations.

Power Factor (PF) has been improved in unidirectional

battery chargers by suitably shaping and phasing the

input current. Bidirectional battery chargers [24] have

been introduced, which support power flow in both

directions.

Some of the power devices of the traction inverter of AC

motors can be used to set up the charger circuit for charging

the energy storage system in EV drive trains. The circuit is

named as integrated battery chargers (IBCs), which have

the advantage of reducing the circuit components. This

circuit can be unidirectional or bidirectional [25, 26].

Figure 1. Power electronics in EV power train.

26 Page 2 of 14 Sådhanå (2021) 46:26

4. Bidirectional on-board chargers

For EV batteries, fast charging is made possible using a DC

charging station with off-board charger. However, in the

current scenario, due to its cost, it is not widely used. One

of the cheaper alternatives is to place a separate on-board

charger unit in the vehicle power train, which is capable of

charging the battery from commonly available 3-phase or

single-phase supply outlets. Figure 2 shows the general

block diagram for bidirectional on-board charger topology,

which facilitates the bidirectional flow of power from

utility to energy storage and back to utility in grid-con-

nected system.

Different topologies of bidirectional AC/DC converters

have been reviewed and the circuit complexity and the

performance of these converters are compared in [27, 28].

Bidirectional on-board chargers are broadly classified under

single-stage and two-stage topologies. The commonly used

single-stage topologies are half-bridge, full-bridge and

multilevel converters.

Most commonly used bidirectional AC–DC converters

are half-bridge, full-bridge and multilevel converters.

The half-bridge converters have two controllable

switches and two diodes. The major drawback of this

topology is high voltage stress on the switches. The two

capacitors increase the size and complexity of the con-

verter [27].

The full-bridge PWM AC–DC converters consist of four

controllable switches and four diodes. Compared with half-

bridge topology, full-bridge topology has a greater number

of controllable switches but requires only one capacitor.

Component stress is lesser for full-bridge topology. The

circuit requires four PWM switching pulses, which

increases the complexity of control circuitry [28]

Another type of bidirectional converter gives multilevel

output by combining the features of half-bridge and full-

bridge converters. One major concern with this topology is

the additional complexity with increased number of com-

ponents [29]. Compared with single-stage topologies, two-

stage topologies can handle more than one charging level;

thus, they exhibit improved performance. The first stage

performs AC–DC conversion, which is basically responsi-

ble for PFC and regulating the DC link voltage. The second

stage, which performs the DC–DC conversion, controls the

battery charging and discharging operation.

Different topologies of bidirectional DC–DC converters

used in on-board chargers are summarized in Table 2

[30–45].

4.1 Bidirectional integrated on-board chargers

In a conventional electric drive train, there are separate

circuits for propulsion and charging modes. This additional

Table 1. Classification of EV chargers [19].

Power level types Charger location Typical use Expected power level Charging time

Level 1 chargers On-board 1-phase Charging at home or office 1.4 kW (12 A) 4–11 hours

1.9 kW (20 A) 11–36 hours

Level 2 chargers On-board 1- or 3-phase Charging at private or public outlet 4 kW (17 A) 1–4 hours

8 kW (32 A) 2–6 hours

19.2 kW (80 A) 2–3 hours

DC fast chargers Off-board Commercial, analogous to filling stations 50 kW 0.4–1 hour

100 kW 0.2–0.5 hour

Figure 2. General bidirectional on-board charging topology.

Sådhanå (2021) 46:26 Page 3 of 14 26

Table 2. Features of different bidirectional on-board chargers in an electric vehicle.

Sl.

no. Converter Features

1 [30] •Consists of a bridge rectifier, 2-phase interleaved buck–boost converter with PFC.

•It gives an efficiency of 97.6% and a PF of 0.99.

2 [31] •Applicable in case of hybrid energy inputs like Photovoltaic (PV) cell, fuel cell and battery are

available.

•Regenerative braking analysis is done for the proposed system.

3 [32] •Fuzzy logic controller implemented for hybrid electric vehicle with converter powered by

battery and PV cell.

•Fuzzy logic regulates the battery current, which reduces the battery damage, thereby increasing

its lifetime.

4 [33] •Half-bridge topology with PI controller and Zero Voltage •Soft switching technique is

proposed for DC motor.

•Bidirectional power during regenerative braking is clearly indicated by the increase of battery

State of Charge (SoC).

5 [34] •The circuit has 4 switches and diodes with charging and discharging modes of operation.

•Regenerative braking energy is used to charge any one of the sources depending on its voltage

level.

•The converter efficiency of 93% is obtained in both operating modes.

6 [35] •The proposed converter has 6 SiC MOSFETs and 2 inductors connected to get boost-

interleaved operation.

•The 2 MOSFETs among 6 are operated as synchronous rectifier.

•The maximum efficiency of the converter reaches 99.2% with a PF of 0.99.

•The bidirectional operation makes it suitable for Vehicle to Grid (V2G) and Grid to Vehicle

(G2V) operations.

7 [36] •In addition to V2G and G2V operations, Vehicle for Grid (V4G) and Vehicle to Home (V2H)

operations are also possible.

•In V4G operation a battery charger is used for compensating current harmonics or reactive

power in connection with V2G or G2V applications.

8 [37] •The battery voltage of 144 V is boosted to 400 V by interleaved front-end converter.

It consists of 2 interleaved boost converters. The DC link voltage is regulated as per the

command speed and a maximum efficiency of 96.99% is obtained. The load dynamic responses and the fast DC

link voltage tracking are done using the proposed robust control.

9 [38] •Bidirectional converter with Modular Charge Equalizer Circuit (CEC) realized to improve the

system reliability and flexibility.

•Life cycle of the battery improves by constant charging/discharging method.

•The switching pattern proposed, reduces the switching stress.

10 [39] •The converter adopts sinusoidal charging method to eliminate the use of DC link electrolytic

capacitor.

•The proposed charger exhibits an efficiency of 95.7% in the charging mode and 95.4% in the

discharging mode.

11 [40] •Additional control technique included to increase the converter gain.

•Experimental set-up provides efficiency of 97.2% and 96.2% during charging and discharging

process, respectively.

12 [41] •An efficient DC link voltage controller is implemented for Light Electric Vehicle (LEV), which

keeps the voltage constant for PWM inverter. The bidirectional boost converter taps the regenerative braking

energy.

•PWM inverter works with vector control logic.

13 [42] •The proposed converter provides high step/step down gain for EVs with Hybrid Energy StorageSystem.

•It provides an efficiency of 94.45% in buck mode and 94.39% in boost mode.

14 [43] •Matrix converter eliminating the DC link capacitor is proposed for EVs. Modulation strategy

proposed eliminates undesirable harmonics in the grid system.

•Converter exhibits an efficiency of 89.6% and 89.3% for forward and reverse operations,

respectively.

26 Page 4 of 14 Sådhanå (2021) 46:26

charging unit will increase the overall weight and cost of

the drive train. Since the battery charging is done during the

idle time of the vehicle, power drive train used for

propulsion mode can be utilized for charging mode also;

hence this avoids the additional requirement of a charging

unit. This type of configuration where EV drive train

components used for propulsion mode are utilized for on-

board charging is known as integrated on-board chargers.

An integrated on-board charger was proposed in [46],

which requires only the propulsion mode components for

charging operation except a transfer switch. The four-wheel

drive consists of four inverters connected to the four AC

motors of the vehicle. During charging, the drive circuit is

equivalent to a cascade connection of a single-phase PWM

boost converter and two buck type choppers. Unity power

factor operation (UPF) is realized using a PWM boost

converter. The battery voltage and current regulation to the

desired value is done using the two buck converters. By

suitably controlling the switching operation of the chop-

pers, current ripple can be reduced by a considerable

amount.

Figure 3 shows an on-board charger in which the three-

phase inverter acts as a double buck and boost converter

during charging mode. The required buck and boost oper-

ation takes place through the motor windings [47, 48].

Figure 4 shows the circuit configuration where an on-

board inverter alone works in charging operation. For

proper charging of the storage device, external inductors

have to be connected [48, 49].

A battery charging circuit based on double buck and

boost converter is introduced [49], where the propulsion

inverter is made to work in boost and double buck mode

during charging operation. It works as a boost converter

whenever output voltage is greater than input voltage and it

works as a double buck converter whenever output voltage

is less than input voltage. Double buck converter operation

is like two buck converters working in synchronous mode

in order to make a UPF.

A bidirectional converter is proposed for industrial truck

application [50], which acts as a speed controller in

propulsion mode and as a battery charger in charge mode of

operation. The converters for pallet truck and fork lift truck

are realized and results analyzed. Current harmonics due to

the converters are reduced using PFC technique. Converter

efficiency is found to be 90%.

To improve the drive performance with reduced cost, on-

board chargers with a bidirectional converter was proposed

[51] in which the bidirectional converter acts as a rectifier

during charging mode and as an inverter during inverter

mode as shown in figure 5. To reduce the size and weight of

the on-board chargers, a combination topology is proposed

in which the motor windings act as a boost energy storage

inductor during rectifier mode and as a filter during inverter

mode.

A low-cost digital controlled charger is proposed for

plug-in EVs, which utilizes the available main traction and

auxiliary motors and associated power electronic drive of

HEV to form the charger circuit. The topology can be used

Table 2 continued

Sl.

no. Converter Features

15 [44] •The proposed modulation strategy for AC–DC matrix converter provides controllable power

factor in grid interface and voltage/current regulation for the battery storage device.

•Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is found to be 2.58% in charging mode and 3.44% in

discharging mode.

16 [45] •The proposed buck–boost converter can control active and reactive power in V2G and G2V

modes.

•Experimental results exhibit a THD of 7%.

Figure 3. Three-phase inverter acting as a double buck and boost

converter in charging mode [48].

Figure 4. IGBT inverter circuit is used as an integrated charger

[48].

Sådhanå (2021) 46:26 Page 5 of 14 26

for low-power applications with significant cost, weight and

volume reductions [52]. The topology is verified by mod-

eling and experimental results on a 14-kW prototype yield

an efficiency of 91.3%, THD = 8.96% and PF of 0.99.

An IBE is proposed [53] for high-voltage batteries of an

electric scooter. The power circuit of the drive train acts as

the battery charger. Here the motor drive acts as the three-

phase boost rectifier with the capability of PFC. Figure 6

shows the block diagram of the integrated charger where

the AC traction drive is converted to a PFC battery charger.

Input AC current is drawn at UPF with no harmonic dis-

tortion. The efficiency of the battery charger is found to be

86.87%.

An integrated charger based on a special interior per-

manent motor drive is proposed [54, 55], where the 3-phase

motor winding is split and reconfigured to a 3-phase

transformer and the traction inverter acts as a PWM recti-

fier during charging mode. The system efficiency is found

to be 92%.

An 8-switch inverter topology was proposed [56] to

integrate the PHEV with the utility grid. It works as a

single-phase bidirectional AC–DC converter during the

charging mode and as a DC–AC converter during the

propulsion mode. The performance analysis is done by

evaluating different modes of operation. In addition, a

bidirectional interleaved DC–DC converter and its con-

troller is presented for the battery that maintains the DC

link voltage with high efficiency. The THD of the converter

is found to be 2.72%. Figure 7 shows the circuit diagram of

the 8-switch inverter.

Several conventional methods of charging and control

using the motor inductance and inverter are analyzed in

Figure 5. Bidirectional converter as a battery charger [51].

Figure 6. Integrated charger with PFC for electric scooter [53].

26 Page 6 of 14 Sådhanå (2021) 46:26

[57]. Also, a new charging method using buck PFC is

proposed and the comparison of different topologies is

done. Using an IBE, by the interleaving control method

with two inverters and a boost PFC converter is considered

as the optimal battery charging method. The converter

exhibits a THD of 4% and a PF of 0.99.

Battery charging technique can be implemented using

two inverters, two three-phase motors and a bidirectional

converter for HEVs. During propulsion mode, motor 1

delivers regenerative energy to the battery and motor 2

starts up the engine or charges the high-voltage battery.

During charging, the two motors and the inverters together

operate as a boost converter. The boosted voltage is

reduced to the nominal battery voltage by the bidirectional

converter.

Another charging topology can be implemented using a

diode rectifier, an inverter, a three-phase motor and a

bidirectional converter [57]. The electric motor and the

inverter together operate as the boost converter during

charging mode. The boosted DC link voltage is reduced to

nominal value through the bidirectional DC–DC converter.

PFC is incorporated in the circuit with two inverters, two

three-phase motors and a bidirectional converter. The DC

link capacitor is not utilized for charging. For PFC, an

additional capacitor of a few microhenries is incorporated

in the circuit.

A reconfigurable battery charger with single-phase AC

supply is proposed [58] for EV applications, which can

perform for three modes of operation. In mode 1, the

traction batteries are charged from the grid. In mode 2,

traction batteries deliver the stored energy to the power

grid. In mode 3, the auxiliary battery is charged from the

traction battery. The bidirectional AC–DC converter used

in modes 1 and 2 will work as a full-bridge isolated DC–DC

converter in mode 3, avoiding the use of a separate con-

verter for charging mode. Mode 1 operates with a THD of

1.8% and a PF of 0.8. Mode 2 operates with a THD of 2.4%

and UPF.

A bridgeless SEPIC converter with PFC is proposed [59]

for on-board chargers that has a few advantages like

reduced number of components and reduction of conduc-

tion loss during AC–DC conversion, thereby increasing the

overall system efficiency. The converter employs current

and voltage loops to obtain near-UPF. The system provides

improved THD, less conduction loss and improved PF near

unity. For an input voltage of 230 V, PF obtained is 0.997.

A single-phase integrated on-board charger is proposed

for Plug-in Electric Vehicle (PEV) in which the switches of

the traction inverter are operated to form a closed circuit

with the diode bridge rectifier circuit. A near-UPF is

obtained with a THD of 3.96% and an efficiency of 93.1%

during charging mode [60].

A bidirectional cuk-converter-based IBE is proposed

[61], which has the capability of PFC during plug-in

charging mode and acts as a buck/boost converter during

motoring and regenerative braking modes. The circuit is

made compact and cost effective by minimizing the number

of components. The proposed charging circuit allows a

wide range of operation and can be charged with a voltage

source ranging from 100 to 260 V. The system also pro-

vides an efficient control of regenerative braking energy.

High-speed battery chargers with available 3-phase

supply are proposed with Wide Band Gap (WGP) devices

like silicon carbide [62], which are capable of delivering a

high power of 20 kW. Since WGP devices are of much

higher power density than silicon devices, these fast

Figure 7. Eight-switch inverter working as an AC–DC converter during charging mode and DC–AC converter during motoring mode

[56].

Sådhanå (2021) 46:26 Page 7 of 14 26

chargers can be fitted on-board. Two half-bridge LLC

converters connected in series on the primary side and

connected in parallel on the secondary side together pro-

vide 20 kW. Experimental results show that the set-up has

attained an efficiency of 96%.

A compact bidirectional cuk-converter-based charger is

proposed for PEV, which operates with a sturdier Induction

Motor Drive [63]. The proposed charger operates as a

bidirectional DC–DC converter for PFC during charging

operation and as buck boost converter during driving and

regenerative braking mode.

A bidirectional integrated charger [64] with a front-end

polarity inversion module, current source converter, input

filter and a differentially connected dual-inverter drive is

realized, where the motor has open winding configuration

with phase windings differentially connected to two

inverters from the two DC sources. The major advantage of

dual-inverter drive is the high DC link voltage obtained

from the low-voltage DC sources. Simulation results show

the PF to be unity.

A single-phase integrated PFC charger is proposed [65],

which has only two switches in addition to diode bridge

rectifier circuit and propulsion inverter, for the charger

circuit. During charging, depending on the input and output

voltages, transition between buck and boost operation

occurs. Smooth transition is obtained using a single PI

controller, and by implementing a suitable control logic a

THD of 4.5% with a PF of 0.993 is obtained. The overall

efficiency of the converter is 94%.

An on-board off-board combination of charger is pro-

posed [66] for conveniently using the utility power with

proper galvanic isolation. A contactless energy transfer

system is implemented whose primary winding is con-

nected to supply through an active rectifier circuit (off-

board) and whose secondary winding (on-board) is inte-

grated with the traction inverter. The circuit diagram brings

limitation of structure complexity.

Different topologies of integrated on-board chargers are

reviewed and their features are summarized in [67]. Also a

new single-phase integrated charger based on AC motor is

proposed in which a quasi-Z-source network is realized for

regulating the output voltage. During charging mode the

two legs of the traction inverter are used for PFC, motor

windings act as a grid side filter inductor and third leg of

the inverter is connected to an inductor and capacitor,

which forms an Active Power Filter. THD of grid side

current is found to be 1.46% and the system works with

UPF.

A single-phase bidirectional integrated on-board charger

is utilized for a nine-phase inverter without any need of

additional components [68]. The charging mode efficiency

is around 90%. The converter provides V2G operation with

an efficiency of 92%. The system does not require any

hardware rearrangement while switching from driving

mode to charging mode.

Another traction inverter with integrated charger is pro-

posed for EV [69], which consists of a charging voltage

converter, an inverter, a switching device and a control unit.

The charging voltage converter consists of an inductor,

capacitor, fully controllable switch and two power diodes.

The inverter output terminals are connected to the three

power contacts. During motoring mode the power contacts

provide the motor windings to the inverter, while in

charging mode the three-phase AC source is connected to

the inverter terminals via power contacts. It provides

accelerated charging of the on-board vehicle battery pack at

the power level equivalent to that of the traction inverter.

A novel bridgeless cuk-converter-based charger is pro-

posed [70] for EV, which has improved power quality

features. The modified topology utilizes only a single

switch for both half cycles for PFC operation. However,

Constant Current (CC) and Constant Voltage (CV) charg-

ing is achieved using a flyback converter. Figure 8 shows

the circuit diagram of the modified bridgeless cuk-con-

verter-based EV charger, which has a front-end diode

bridge rectifier with Inductor–Capacitor (LC) filter, a cuk

converter and a flyback converter.

An IBE based on the split three-phase Induction Motor is

proposed where the propulsion inverter of the EV is utilized

as the rectifier and the motor windings are used as grid

filter, connected between the grid and the converter [71].

The converter operates at UPF.

An improved power quality on-board charger [72] is

introduced where, in the charging mode, the motor winding

acts as an input filter and the three-phase Voltage Source

Converter acts as a bidirectional AC–DC converter. A

comparative study with the conventional buck converter

shows that the switching stress has reduced to half, ripple

current reduced to � times and the ripple voltage has

reduced to 1/8 times that of conventional buck converter.

The inductor and capacitor values were also proved to be

reduced.

A reconfigurable power converter with reduced number

of switches is proposed [73] for on-board chargers in low-

voltage EVs. The power converter uses a three-phase

inverter for propulsion mode, which can be reconfigured as

a boost rectifier cascaded with a DC–DC converter as

shown in figure 9. A unified control scheme is proposed that

combines the PFC as well as the optimal CC–CV charging

during the charging mode. A near-UPF is obtained using

this control. The total number of switches used for this

topology is reduced to 8, thereby reducing the size and

weight of the converter.

4.2 Control methods of bidirectional on-boardchargers

The power electronic components [74, 75] that form the

part of an EV drive train aid the vehicle to operate in all the

26 Page 8 of 14 Sådhanå (2021) 46:26

four quadrants [76], i.e., forward motoring, forward brak-

ing, reverse motoring and reverse braking. In the first and

third quadrants both speed and torque have the same sign

and therefore the power is positive, providing the motoring

mode. In second and fourth quadrants the power is nega-

tive, providing the braking mode [77].

In EVs, precise braking control is also important along

with the start. Braking is nothing but restricting the motion

of the vehicle as quickly as possible. Braking can be

mechanical braking or electric braking. In an EV, com-

posite braking is used; it combines electric braking and

mechanical braking. Vehicles are slowed down using

electric braking and then mechanical brakes are applied.

Electric braking is classified into plugging, dynamic

braking and regenerative braking. In plugging the electric

motor is reconnected to the supply so that it produces a

negative torque, which is opposite to the direction of

motion. The main disadvantage of this method is that the

kinetic energy of the motor moving parts is wasted and an

additional amount of energy from the supply is required to

develop the negative torque. In dynamic braking, the

vehicle is brought to braking mode by dissipating the

kinetic energy of the motor moving parts in the form of heat

energy through braking resistance. The main disadvantage

of this method is that the kinetic energy is wasted as heat.

In regenerative braking, which is the third type of electric

braking, the motor develops a negative torque, thereby

acting as a generator, and the generated energy is fed back

to the source. Regenerative braking can be effectively uti-

lized for energy regeneration if it is properly controlled

using power electronic circuits. It improves the overall

efficiency and can extend the driving range of EVs [78, 79].

Regenerative braking can be effectively controlled and

utilized with a hybrid energy storage system (HESS).

To provide the regenerative braking control a bidirec-

tional DC–DC converter is used in the drive train, which

steps up the battery voltage for high-efficiency operation

throughout the range of the vehicle. Also, the bidirectional

Figure 8. Modified bridgeless cuk-converter-fed EV charger [70].

Figure 9. Reconfigurable power converter with reduced number of switches [73].

Sådhanå (2021) 46:26 Page 9 of 14 26

DC–DC converter allows reversal of power flow and con-

trol of the braking current [80].

A novel line-commutated thyristor-based Voltage Source

Converter has been proposed [81], which has bidirectional

power flow capability. The switches are operated with

6-pulse phase control. As the output DC voltage is con-

trolled, amount and direction of power flow is automati-

cally controlled. The converter does not have commutation

overlaps but it faces the major problem of commutation

failure. The commutation failure relates to the input current

and a current phase control method is necessary to over-

come the commutation failure problem.

A fully soft switched bidirectional converter is developed

[82], which acts as a boost converter. It drives the motor

with high speed and torque during motoring mode and act

as a buck converter to tap the regenerative braking energy,

which charges the battery during braking mode. This con-

verter act as an interface circuit between DC bus and bat-

tery in HEV to control the charging and discharging

current.

An effective regenerative braking control strategy is

proposed for a light EV with a single-stage DC–AC con-

verter along with a three-phase inverter [83]. It has three

different switching strategies: single switch, two switches

and three switches. Variable braking control strategy is

implemented depending on the driving conditions. Differ-

ent driving parameters such as reliability, braking torque

and cruising distance can be improved effectively using this

variable braking strategy.

Another regenerative braking methodology was proposed

[84] for the DC drive system, which consists of a series

active power rectifier and a four-quadrant chopper con-

nected to the DC motor. The system delivers sinusoidal

input current, thereby providing UPF. It has the capability

of bidirectional power flow, reduced dc link voltage ripple

in any operating condition, faster control response and

disturbance compensation capability.

Digital simulation of a small EV is presented [85], where

the traction chain consists of a battery, bidirectional DC–

DC converter and DC motor. The simulation results show

that the speed regulator gives good performance on the

speed tracking, accuracy and the rejection of disturbance

load.

An instantaneous switching mode bidirectional Boost/

SEPIC converter was proposed [86] for incorporation in an

EV drive train as shown in figure 10 to switch instanta-

neously from motoring mode to regenerative braking mode

and vice versa. Maximum power is extracted even with low

speed and energy regenerated is used to charge the ultra-

capacitor. The converter works as a boost converter during

motoring operation and as a SEPIC converter during

braking.

Fuzzy logic control of a bidirectional buck boost con-

verter is introduced [87] for a Brushless DC (BLDC) drive

where all the four-quadrant operations are possible. During

motoring mode, the battery provides maximum power to

the BLDC motor through a DC–DC converter. During

braking mode, the energy is fed back from the motor to the

battery through the same DC–DC converter.

An Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy System is developed [88],

which is an efficient control method for EV drive trains.

The driving range is extended to about 50% by utilizing the

regenerative braking energy to charge the energy storage

system.

Another effective method of regenerative braking energy

harvesting strategy is proposed [89] in HESS. HESS

improves the charging and discharging performance of the

energy sources. Using a proper switching template for the

inverter, the kinetic energy of EV is harvested by the

supercapacitor during braking. The proposed control strat-

egy with PWM technique helps to maintain a constant

torque operation.

An integrated power converter is proposed [90] for

Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) drive, which has inte-

grated motoring, regenerative braking and charging capa-

bility. The integrated topology consists of buck front-end

DC–DC converter, a Modified Asymmetrical Half-Bridge

Converter, battery source, SRM and the single-phase AC

grid connector. In the regenerative braking mode, the motor

will be controlled as a generator by removing the excitation

signals of the active switches. The motor current will flow

through the upper diode and the battery source and all the

braking energy will be fed back to the source. Since the

braking energy flows in the decreasing inductance region,

negative braking torque will be generated; the regenerative

braking mode is obtained by this and thereby motor speed

reduces.

An innovative single-stage integrated on-board charger is

proposed [91] for on-board chargers, which reduces size,

weight and number of components of power electronics

circuits used in EVs. The proposed converter operates in

boost and buck operation in motoring and braking modes.

The boost operation during regenerating braking mode

helps to capture the energy even at low speeds. The boost

and buck operations during regenerative braking mode are

similar to the reverse motoring operation in the propulsion

mode.

A constant braking current control strategy is introduced

for EV [92], which basically performs the control of

armature current. A duty ratio control law is performed for

the braking current control and in order to make the current

constant, the duty ratio should be gradually climbing.

Simulation is done on a MATLAB/Simulink platform and

the results validate the theoretical analysis. The speed is

found to decrease continuously during the braking process

and the terminal voltage of the supercapacitor increases

continuously, which shows that energy regeneration hap-

pens during the braking process.

An efficient and novel method to distribute the braking

force is proposed [93] and a performance map of the motor

and its controller is found to define a boundary for blending

regenerative braking and friction braking energy, thereby

26 Page 10 of 14 Sådhanå (2021) 46:26

maximizing the regenerative braking energy. The perfor-

mance and robustness of the proposed system is verified

through a Hardware-in-Loop set-up for a predetermined

driving cycle of Urban Dynamometer driving schedule. The

results show that the energy harvesting in braking process

has increased significantly compared with variable or

constant boundary methods using weight factor for brake

distribution. The results also show that harvested energy

increases as the vehicle weight increases since heavier

vehicles require higher braking torque.

In this section, various control strategies for effective

regenerative braking control in an EV are analyzed and

their features and advantages are summarized.

5. Conclusion

This paper reviews about the different configurations of

integrated on-board chargers for EVs. The battery perfor-

mance of the vehicle not only depends on the type of bat-

tery and its infrastructure but also depends on the charger

topologies. The chargers are of two types: on-board

chargers and off-board chargers. Different topologies of on-

board chargers are compared and discussed here and the

overall size, cost and weight of the chargers can be reduced

using integrated on-board chargers. By incorporating

regenerating braking control in the chargers the braking

energy can be properly utilized to store the energy storage

system thereby increasing the driving range of the vehicle.

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