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INDEX

abstentionism, 40-1 Ad-Hoc Commission

in EI Salvador, 58, 63, 255 in Honduras, 177, 178, 181

accountability, 156 Afghanistan, 216 agrarian reform, 107, 126-7, 174 agriculture, 105 agro-exports, 105 Aguilera, Gabriel, 151 AID,151-2, 172, 176, 177, 184-5,

190, 195,200 Aleman, Arnoldo, 67 Alvarez Martinez, Gustavo, 72-3 amnesty

in EI Salvador, 63-4, 204, 258 in Honduras, 71 in Guatemala, 83

antejuicios, 154, 160 APO (Alianza Politica de

Oposici6n), 141 ARENA, 4, 33, 48, 60, 164, 183,

185,258,274 Arias, Arnulfo, 78 Arias plan, 4 armed forces - see military Arzu, Alvaro, 37 Asamblea de Sociedad Civil (ASC),

125,260,261-3 'autogolpe', 19, 84, 121, 137, 138,

144-7,159,161,162,274

Baker, James, 227 Bataillon, Giles, 277 Blades, Ruben, 30, 39, 42 Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, 127 Bunau-VarilIa-Hay Accord, 77 Bush administration, 221, 227-30,

249

293

Cabrera Hidalgo, Alfonso, 151, 161 Calder6n Sol, administration of, 256 Callejas, Rafael Leonardo,

administration of, 5, 48, 175, 274

Canal zone (Panama), 77, 78, 81 Canal Treaty Negotiations, 77, 79,

220 Caribbean Basin Initiative, 235 Carter administration, 219 CEAR (Comisi6n Especial de Aten­

ci6n a los Refugiados), 120-1 Cerezo, Vinicio,

administration of, 47, 83, 106, 123,247

Cesar Law, 139 CERJ (Consejo Etnico Runujel

Junam), 200, 204 Chamorro, Carlos Fernando, 143 Chamorro, Violeta,

administration of, 5, 66, 139-44,252

Chapultepec Accords, 6, 58-9, 127, 182, 185-6,239-40,254

Chiapas migration to, 105 refugee settlement in, Ill, 112 uprising, 90, 122

Christian Democrats, 47 in EI Salvador, 47, 157 in Guatemala, 47, 144, 147, 151,161 in Honduras, 18 in Panama, 30, 37,47

Chujes, 127 CIA, 107,218,225 CIA V, 66, 240, 249-53 Cienguita, 114 CIREFCA, 128 civil patrols - see PACs

294 Central America: Fragile Transition

civil society, 8, 9, 108, 147, 156, 157,164,173,262,276-7

CIVS, 248, 249 Cold War, 215-6, 271 Colomoncagua, 113, 124, 125 Coordinadora Nacional de

Repoblacion, 119 Com is ion Nacional de

Reconciliacion (CNR), 85 CONDECA,56 Congress, 137-67,276

in EI Salvador, 152-3, 163-4 functioning of, 153-61 in Guatemala, 144-51, 159-60 in Nicaragua, 139-44 powers of, 152-55 reform of, 158-61, 163 relations with Executive, 137-67 US, 224-6

Contadora, 231-3, 241 contra, 65-6, 107, 225-6, 250-2 Constitutions EI Salvador, suspension of

guarantees, 183-4 reforms to, 185-6

Guatemala (1985),83, 193, 199 Panama (1972), 78 Nicaragua,

amendments to, 142-3 Guatemala, reform of -

see consulta popular Constitutional Court

in EI Salvador, 183 in Guatemala, 138, 146-9, 201

consulta popular, 21, 138, 147-51 COPAZ, 163, 164 COPMAGUA, 125 CORELESAL, 184-5 corruption, 31, 40, 42, 47, 49, 92,

145,178,204,274 COSEP,139 COSUFFAA, 71, 72 counter-insurgency, 105, 106, 107,

172, 183-5, 194-5 CN] (Consejo Nacional de la

]udicatura), 153, 164, 185-6

CPRs, 88, 108, 126 criminal procedures code, 191,200 Cristiani, Alfredo, 33 Cuban Revolution, 218

Dahl,276 Declaration of Cartagena, 110 De Leon Carpio, Ramiro,

administration of, 84, 87,106, 147-51, 162-3,274

Devine, Michael, 86 DialogoNacional,141-2 Diario Oficial, 159 DIC (Division de Investigaciones

Criminales), 75, 178, 181-2 'disappeared', 179-80, 198 Discua Elvir, Alonso, 73 DNI (Departamento Nacional de

Investigaciones, Honduras), 75, 181

DNI (Departamento Nacional de Inteligencia, EI Salvador), 58, 62,255

Duarte, Napoleon, 184

EI Chupadero, 111 Elections

'demonstration elections', 3 electoral process, 43-6 EI Salvador, results 1994 presidential, 22-4 EI Salvador, results 1994 congressional,25 Honduras, results 1993 presidential,26 Honduras, results 1993 congressional,26 Nicaragua, results 1994 Atlantic Coast, 28-9

Electoral Tribunals, 43-5 in EI Salvador, 45 in Guatemala, 147, 150-1, 153 functions of, 43 in Honduras, 45

in Panama, 44, 45 satisfaction with, 43, 44

EMP (Estado Mayor Presidencial), 195, 197

Endara, Guillermo, 80 environmental degradation, 126 Episcopal Conference, 149 EPS (Ejercito Popular Sandinista) -

see Military, in Nicaragua Esquipulas Accords, 4,5,64,65,

90,116,118,216,222,242, 247,248,249

ERP (Expresi6n Renovadora del Pueblo),63

Espina, Gustavo, 146, 147 Esteli, occupation of, 68-9 European Commission, 238-9

cooperation with Central America, 237 - see also San lose process

European Community, 233-9 European Union, 17, 233-9

aid to Central America, 236-7 EZLN,112

FDN - see contra FDP - see Military, in Panama FMLN, 5, 19,58,60, 120, 185,

190,253-4 break-up of, 23, 157 and Congress, 159 demobilisation of, 61, 127, 254-5,258 incorporation into electoral system, 23, 255 offensive (1989), 228

FONAPAZ, 121 Foro Multisectorial, 138,

147 Franco,Leonardo,260 FSLN, 3, 220-1

division of, 27-8 and Congress, 139-40, 142-4

FUSEP (Fuerzas de Seguridad PUblica), 73, 180, 181-2

Index 295

Garcia, Lucas, 83, 106 General System of Preferences, 235 General Treaty of Friendship and

Cooperation, 77 Geneva Conventions, 106 Gonzalez Dub6n, Epaminondas, 201 Goulding, Marrack, 254 Gramajo, General, 83 Grenada, 215, 219 Grupo Conjunto, 192, 255-6, 273 guindas, 108

Helms, Iesse, 67, 140,230 humanitarian aid, 104 Hunapa, 88, 198 Huntington, 276

ICITAP, 189, 196 impunity,9, 169-70,201,257,258,

275 indigenous rights, 173,259,260,

263 accord in Guatemala, 202, 260, 274

information policy, 155, 159 Instancia de Consenso Nacional,

138, 146-7 INTA,121 Inter-American Court of Human

Rights (IACHR), 179 Inter-American Development Bank

(IDB), 175 IPMs, 19,50,91

in Honduras, 74 in Nicaragua, 70

Irangate, 226, 227 Ixcan, 106, 126, 127

Iudicial System, 169-212,273-4 access to, 176-7, 199-200 basic principles of, 170 in EI Salvador, 182-93, 256 in Guatemala, 193-202

296 Central America: Fragile Transition

and human rights, 171-2 in Honduras, 174-82 problems affecting, 170-2

Kanjobal, 114 Kissinger Commission Report, 172,

225

Lacayo, Antonio, 140 Law of Autonomy, 117 legislature - see Congress legitimacy, 156 literacy, 107 Livingston Codes, 194 'low intensity conflict', 3, 107

Mack Chang, Myrna, 197,201 Mackey Chavarria, Nelson, 180 mandato imperativo, 156 Manz, Beatriz, 108 MAS (Movimiento de Acci6n

Social), 33, 37, 144, 147 Mayans, 106, 108, Ill, 125 Mesa Grande, 113, 118 migrants, 104, 105, 109 migration, 105, 129 Military, 55-101, 273

in EI Salvador, 57-64 demobilisation of, 62 US involvement, 59 US aid to, 106

in Guatemala, 82-9 counter-insurgency campaign, 83 demobilisation, absence of, 84 economic interests of, 85-6 US aid to, 106

in Honduras, 34, 70-7 autonomy of, 71 US aid to, 72, 73-4 impunity of, 74-5 military service, 75, 76 and narcotrafico, 91-2

in Nicaragua, 64-70 demobilisation of, 66-7, 68, 251 1994 Military Code, 69-70, 143

in Panama, 77-82 and political parties, 18, 19,20, 55-6

MINUGUA, 123,248,259-63, 264-5,272

Miskito, 106-7, 109, 112, 116, 117-8, 124

MISURASATA, 107 'mixed regimes', 2, 9, 56 Molina Fonseca, Carlos, 189

NAFTA,17 'national security state', 1 non-governmental organisations

(NGOs), 104, 116, 122, 124-5, 128, 196, 197

Noriega, Manuel Antonio, 34, 79-80,225

Ombudsman for human rights in EI Salvador, 153, 188-9,257 in Guatemala, 130, 195,260,261,

263 in Honduras, 179-80

Orellana Mercado, Edmundo, 178, 182

Organisation of American States, 66,201,219,240,248,250-2

Ortega, Humberto, 67, 69, 140, 141, 142

Ortiz, Dianna, 86 ONUCA, 66, 239, 249-53, 262 ONUSAL, 19,58,61,188,191,

239,253-9,262,264-5,272 ONUVEN, 66, 250-3

PAC (Patrulla de Autodefensa Civil), 83, 84, 89, 108, 121, 130

PAN (Partido de Avanzada Nacional), 33, 37, 48

Panama, US invasion of, 5, 6, 80, 216

party systems - see political parties partidocracia, 156, 274 PDD,229-30 PDH - see Ombudsman for human

rights, in EI Salvador peace negotiations

in Guatemala, 82, 84-7,125, 145,202,240,247,260-3 in EI Salvador, 228-9, 254

see also Chapultepec Accords Permanent Commissions, 120-1, 125 PH (Policia de Hacienda),

EI Salvador, 58, 189 Pinto, M6nica, 130 PLC (Partido Liberal

Constitucional), 124 PNC (Policia Nacional Civil), 60,

92,190,205,254-6 'political cannibalism', 39, 49 political elites, 33-5 political parties, 15-54, 275

'catch-all' parties, 32-3 and the Catholic Church, 32 change and continuity of, 35-8, 157 and Congress, 156-7 and corruption, 40, 42 crisis of, 38-42, 49, 275 de-ideologisation of, 38, 49 in Guatemala, 20, 37, 47 external influences on, 31-3 in Honduras, 18,23,27,37 infighting, 39 in Nicaragua, 27, 30 origins of, 46-8 mimicry of, 39, 49 in Panama, 30, 34-5, 37

Potoy, Guillermo, 140 PRD (Partido Revolucionario

Democnitico), 19,20,30,77, 81

presidential ism, 155

Index 297

vs. parliamentarianism, 160-1 Presidential Commission for the

Modernisation of the State, 175 presidential veto, 140 PS (Policia Sandinista), 65, 67, 68 PTJ (Policia Tecnica Judicial), 81 PUD (Partido de Unificaci6n

Democnitica),46 Public Ministry

in EI Salvador, 187-9 in Guatemala, 146, 150,200,202 in Honduras, 177-9

Quezada Toruiio, Monsignor, 85, 262

RAAN, 28, 122-3 RAAS, 29, 122-3 Ramirez, Sergio, 27, 31 Ramos Soto, Oswaldo, 175 Reagan administration, 215-6,

221-2,224-5 recompa, 68, 251 recontra, 68-9, 251 referendum, Guatemala - see

consulta popular Reina, Carlos Roberto,

administration of, 75, 177 remittances, 129 representation, 155-7 Rios Montt, 37, 39,195 Refugees, 103-34

camps, 111, 112,114 categorisation of, 109 in Belize, 113 in Costa Rica, 112 in EI Salvador, 105-6 in Guatemala, 88, 106, 259 in Honduras, 112-3, 114 in Mexico, 110-1, 122, 129 in Nicaragua, 106-7, 113, 114 in Panama, 113 policies towards, 110-5 reintegration of, 122-6,261

298 Central America: Fragile Transition

return of, 115-22, 261 Remon, Jose Antonio, 78 ruleoflaw, 169-211,202,271,275

programmes (ROL), 173

San Jose process, 232, 234-6, 241 Santiago Atitlan, massacre, 86 Sapoa,66 School of the Americas, 78 Schumpeter, 276 Segundo Montes, 125 separation of powers, 171, 182-3

197-9 Serrano Elias, Jorge, 37, 39, 42, 83,

121,144-7,247 see also 'autogolpe'

SIPROCI, 87,198 sm (Special Investigation Unit),

182, 184, 190 Social Investment Fund, 154 Somoza, overthrow of, 219 Spadafora, Hugo, 80 structural adjustment, 16,32, 173,

252,276 Suazo Cordova, Roberto, 175 Sumo, 107, 118 Supreme Court

in El Salvador, 164, 182-3, 185, 187, 192,256 in Honduras, 174, 175-6, 180 in Guatemala, 145, 146, 148-50, 153, 195 in Nicaragua, 143

Taft Agreement, 77 Tasba Pri, 107 transition accords, Nicaragua, 66,

67, 139 torrijismo, 34-5 trials, 172, 177, 191, 199-200,201

sumario, 177 plenario, 177

Truth Commissions, 275 in El Salvador, 58, 63,186-7,

255 in Guatemala, 85, 87, 201-2, 204,261-2 in Honduras, 76, 179-80

UEA (Unidad Ejecutiva Anti­narcotrafico), 190

United Nations, 239-40, 247-67, 272 'active verification', 257 Convention on Refugees, 109, 110

UNHCR, 104, 109, 111, 112, 115, 116, 118, 123, 128

University of Florida, 176 United States, 215-7, 223-31, 271

anti-intervention lobby, 224, 227

UNO (Union Nacional Opositora), 27, 122-3, 127 divisions within, 139-43 centre group', 140

UNTAC, 248 URNG, 20, 85,121,247,261,264 USAID - see AID

Venezuela, 250 Victores, Mejia, 83, 193 Victoria 20 de enero, 121, 123, 126 'Vietnam Syndrome', 223 Vilas, Carlos, 275 Villalobos, Joaquin, 23, 63 Valladares report (see Truth

Commissions, Honduras)

Waldo Salgado, Kirio, 274

YATAMA,122-3 Yulo Peace Agreement, 122

zancudismo, 2, 45