Beta Alanine Supplementation Improves Aerobic

Beta-AlanineSupplementationImproves Aerobic andAnaerobic Indices ofPerformanceJacob M. Wilson, MS, CSCS,1 Gabriel J. Wilson, MS, CSCS,2 Michael C. Zourdos, MS, CSCS,1

Abbie E. Smith, MS, CSCS, CISSN,3 and Jeffery R. Stout, PhD, CSCS3

1Department of Nutrition, Food and Exercise Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida; 2Division ofNutritional Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois; and 3Department of Health and Exercise Science, Universityof Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma

S U M M A R Y

BETA-ALANINE SUPPLEMENTA-

TION HAS BEEN FOUND TO

INCREASE INTRAMUSCULAR

CARNOSINE, STRENGTH, POWER,

VOLUME PER TRAINING SESSION

AND A HOST OF OTHER INDICES

OF AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC

CAPACITY. HOWEVER, THERE IS

A NEED TO SYNTHESIZE THIS

RESEARCH SO THAT THE ATHLETE

AND STRENGTH COACH ALIKE

CAN OPTIMALLY BENEFIT FROM

BETA-ALANINE SUPPLEMENTA-

TION. THE PURPOSE OF THIS RE-

VIEW IS TO PROVIDE AN ANALYSIS

OF STUDIES CONDUCTED ON

BETA-ALANINE. THE REVIEW WILL

COVER THE OPTIMAL DOSAGE OF

BETA-ALANINE; ITS USE IN RESIS-

TANCE TRAINING, INTERMITTENT,

AND ENDURANCE-BASED EXER-

CISES; AND WHEN COMBINED

WITH CREATINE IN TRAINED AND

UNTRAINED INDIVIDUALS.

The human body is endowedwith the capacity to adapt totraining such that it can

maintain low to moderately high con-tractions for extended periods. Forexample, the world record marathontime is 2:03:59 run by Haile Gebrse-lassie of Ethiopia. At the opposite endof the spectrum, strength and powerathletes can exert extreme torques andforces such that today a 1,000 lb backsquat is no longer unthinkable in theworld of powerlifting. In between theseextremes lie sports such as hockey,basketball, and speed skating, whichrequire brief intermittent bouts of high-intensity activity. Although the timeto fatigue differs among categories ofactivities, the end result of each aredeclines in force generating capacityand ultimately impairments in perfor-mance. While fatigue is characterizedby a decrease in energy stores (aden-osine triphosphate, phosphocreatine,and glycogenic substrates) and theintracellular accumulation of metabo-lites (adenosine diphosphate, inorganicphosphate, hydrogen ions [H+], andmagnesium), 2 primary mechanismsthought to underlie fatigue include theaccumulation of H+ ions and oxidativestress. An acute accumulation of H+

results in a decrease in intramuscularpH, which may contribute to fatigue in

some models of exercise. Chronically,intense training can stimulate oxidativestress, with both excess H+ and oxida-tive stress demonstrating to impairexcitation-contraction coupling (ECcoupling) processes, leading to repor-ted decrements in force.

An athletes’ ability to resist fatigue maydetermine the intensity and duration oftheir training and ultimately dictateperformance outcomes. Resistance tofatigue is thought to be limited, in part,by intramuscular concentrations ofcarnosine (29). Carnosine appears toenhance fatigue resistance by a con-glomeration of factors including anincreased physiological bufferingcapacity (22), decreased oxidative stress(18), and through the direct facilitationof EC coupling processes (2). Isolated

KEY WORDS :

beta-alanine; carnosine;contraction/physiology; musclestrength/physiology;muscle/skeletal physiology;beta-alanine administration anddosage pharmacokinetics; carnosinemetabolism; dietary supplement

Copyright � National Strength and Conditioning Association Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 71

skeletal muscle fiber studies suggestthat the EC coupling response and itsmaintenance over multiple bouts ofstimulation is optimized at a neutralpH (7.1) and degrades when tested atan acidic pH (e.g., 6.1) (22). Intramus-cular concentrations of lactate and H+

rise as individual’s reliance on glycol-ysis increases. Research, however, indi-cates that large amounts of lactate canaccumulate without impairing functionin the presence of carnosine, thussupporting its role as a physiologicalbuffer (24). In addition to its role asa buffer, carnosine has been demon-strated to lower oxidative damage tolipids and proteins, which theoreticallyshould delay fatigue induced lossesof contractile function (18). Finally,exposure of isolated muscle fibers tocarnosine may sensitize Ca++ releasechannels (ryanodine 1 receptors) tovarious stimuli such as caffeine andCa++ (2).

Carnosine is synthesized by carnosinesynthase from the amino acids beta-alanine and histidine. Plasma andintramuscular concentrations of histi-dine are high relative to its Michaelis–Menten constant (Km) with carnosinesynthase (Km = 0.0168 mM), whereasbeta-alanine concentration is lowerand has a much higher Km forcarnosine synthase (Km = 1.0–2.3 mM)(14,23). This low Km demonstratesa smaller amount of beta-alanineavailability than needed for carnosinesynthesis. Moreover, it has been dem-onstrated that supplementing with anisomolar concentration of carnosine(i.e., equal amounts of histidine andbeta-alanine) is no more effective atincreasing carnosine levels than beta-alanine supplementation alone (9). Forthis reason, beta-alanine is thought tobe limiting to carnosine synthesis. Assuch, a number of recent studies haveinvestigated the effects of beta-alaninesupplementation on intramuscular car-nosine concentrations and changes inexercise performance (8–10). Intrigu-ingly, beta-alanine supplementationhas been found to increase intramus-cular carnosine levels (8–10), strength(11–13), power (30), volume per

training session (11–13), and a host ofother indices of aerobic and anaerobiccapacity (31). However, there is a needto synthesize this research so that theathlete and strength coach alike canoptimally benefit from beta-alaninesupplementation. The purpose of thisreview is to provide an analysis ofstudies conducted on beta-alanine. Thereview will cover the optimal dosage ofbeta-alanine and its use in resistancetraining, intermittent, and endurance-based exercises in trained and untrainedindividuals. An additional section isprovided to discuss the possible rolethat creatine may have in augmentingthe effects of beta-alanine.

OPTIMIZING THE DOSE ANDFREQUENCY OF BETA-ALANINE

Thus far, human research has beenlimited to a range of 1.6–6.4 gram dosesof beta-alanine daily for 28 days(9,10). Within this range, the aminoacid appears to increase intramuscularcarnosine concentrations in dose-dependent fashion. For example, 3.2and 6.4 grams of beta-alanine per dayincreased the carnosine content of thevastus lateralis by 42 and 61%, respec-tively (9,10). In the latter, it wasestimated that the total muscle buffer-ing capacity of carnosine would haveincreased from 9 to 14%. Whenfractionated into fiber types, carnosineincreased buffering capacity from 6.4and 11.2 to 10 and 18% in type I and IImuscle fibers, respectively. Changes inintramuscular carnosine are also timedependent, demonstrated by elevationsin carnosine concentrations of activemalesby58and80%at4and10weeksofbeta-alanine (3.2–6.4 g/kg/d) supple-mentation, respectively.

The daily dose of beta-alanine appearsto be limited by the flushing symptomsexperienced by its users. This wasillustrated by Harris et al. (9) whofound that a single 3.2 gram bolus ofbeta-alanine resulted in a flushing sen-sation characterized by a skin-deep,prickly, irritating reaction, which radi-ated from the ears, scalp, upper trunk,and finally, the base of the spine (i.e.,paresthesia). Although lower in sever-ity, these symptoms were still present

at half the dosage but were only mildand experienced by 25% of participantsat 0.8-g servings. The flushing effectfrom beta-alanine supplementation isbecause of the release of histidine,to form carnosine. This is a similarresponse to a release of histaminesduring an allergic reaction; althoughthe effect is not toxic and does notaffect everyone, it is uncomfortable. Forthis reason, scientists have adminis-tered beta-alanine in frequent (every 3hours) and small boluses (0.8 g) overthe duration of the day until the desireddose is reached (8–10). Three-hourspacing between dosing was chosenbecause beta-alanine returns to base-line levels after this time. More recently,a controlled release formula has beenadministered at 1.6 grams 4 times perday for 4 week to reduce flushingsymptoms. At this high dose, no symp-toms of paresthesia were reported (31).

In summary, within the range of doses(1.6–6.4 grams) tested thus far, beta-alanine appears to increase intramuscularcarnosine levels in a dose-dependentfashion and in a 28-day loading phase.However, because of flushing effects,a single serving is generally limited to0.8 grams, administered every 3 hoursuntil the desired dose is reached.

BETA-ALANINE FOR RESISTANCETRAINING ATHLETES

Resistance training exercise is thedirect tool of the powerlifter, weight-lifter, and bodybuilder, as well as anindirect means of increasing perfor-mance in nearly every sport. Generally,repetitions for strength/power andhypertrophy are thought to lie withinthe 1–5 and 8–12 ranges, respectively(20). The former is primarily reliant onimmediate phosphagen (ATP-CP) en-ergy production for contraction,whereas the latter causes the individualto depend primarily on glycolyticenergy production. Although beta-alanine supplementation during 4–10weeks of resistance training has re-sulted in an increase in training volumeand strength, it appears to be opti-mized under moderately high repeti-tion ranges (8–12% or 70–85% 1repetition maximum), which use short

VOLUME 32 | NUMBER 1 | FEBRUARY 201072

Beta-Alanine Supplementation

rest periods (30–90 seconds) (11,12).To illustrate, 30 days of beta-alaninesupplementation (4.8 g/day) in experi-enced resistance-trained men placed ona moderately high–intensity trainingregimen, with short rest periods (1.5minutes), led to a 22% increase in totaltraining volume per workout. Further-more, Hoffman et al. (12) demonstratedsignificant increases in training volumefor 4 sets (6–8 repetitions [reps]) forbench press with individuals supple-menting with beta-alanine. In contrast,a more recent 10-week long studyusing a higher intensity level of training(e.g., 5 3 5 on squats and bench pressexercises) with longer rest periods(2–5 minutes) resulted in no significantchanges in any indices of strength orlean body mass (LBM) (15). Possibleexplanations for these results were thelonger rest periods (2–5 minutes) andlimited resistance training experience inthis group of athletes.

It has been suggested that greatertraining volume resulting from beta-alanine supplementation may augmentendocrine responses. However, nochanges in endocrine responses bothat rest and after resistance trainingexercise have been found for growthhormone, testosterone, blood lactate,cortisol, IGF-1, or sex hormone–binding globulin (11,13).

Thus far beta-alanine alone has had notled to significant changes in LBM(12,13,15). It is possible that this out-come may be attributed to an inadequatetraining stimulus or length of time overwhich studies have been conducted. Forexample, Hoffman et al. (13) found thatneither control or beta-alanine groupswere able to increase LBM after 4 weeksof training in experienced weightlifters.In such cases, a long duration periodizedstrength routine may be necessary toaccurately examine the effects of beta-alanine on LBM.

BETA-ALANINE FOR BRIEFINTERMITTENT/INTERVALTRAINING EXERCISE

Brief, intermittent, high-intensity exer-cise is generally characterized bymaximal work outputs within a 30-to 120-second time frame. This type of

exercise results in the accumulation oflarge amounts of lactate, H+, and othermetabolites and thus theoretically maybe positively influenced with beta-alanine supplementation. In a recentstudy, active males were asked to cycleat 110% of their mean power outputobtained during the final 60 seconds ofan incremental cycling test to exhaus-tion (10). Mean cycling time to exhaus-tion was 156 seconds pretest andincreased by 12 and 16% after 4 and10 weeks of supplementation. Intrigu-ingly, these changes paralleled theincrease seen in intramuscular carno-sine concentrations, which rose by 58to 80% at weeks 4 and 10, respectively.Likewise, trained sprint athletes sup-plementing with 4.8 grams of beta-alanine daily increased average torqueduring the final 2 sets of 5 maximal setsof 30 isokinetic contractions (5). How-ever, 400-m sprint time was not in-creased, suggesting that this event maynot be limited by H+ buffering capacityin highly trained sprinters. Moreover,recent literature suggests compoundedimprovements when combining beta-alanine supplementation and high-in-tensity interval training on enduranceperformance ( _VO2max), time to ex-haustion during a graded exercise test,and total work done at supramaximalworkloads (110%) (24). Furthermore,this training-supplementing strategymay foster an environment for greatertraining volume at moderate and highintensities, possibly leading to consid-erable physiological adaptations.

BETA-ALANINESUPPLEMENTATION FORENDURANCE EXERCISE

Endurance exercise is limited by max-imal aerobic capacity ( _VO2max), econ-omy, and the percentage of an athlete’s_VO2max that can be maintained fora given race (3). The final factor islargely dependent on lactate threshold(LT). LT is thought to lead to a non-linear increase in ventilation (ventila-tory threshold [VT]) and the onset ofneuromuscular fatigue. Stout et al. (26–28) have investigated the effects ofbeta-alanine supplementation ona number of variables underlying

aerobic capacity and neuromuscularfatigue. These researchers found that28 days of beta-alanine supplementa-tion (3.2 g/d) in untrained malesresulted in a 16% increase in physicalworking capacity at neuromuscularfatigue in a continuous cycling bout.Similarly, untrained females increasedphysical working capacity at neuro-muscular fatigue by 13%, with con-comitant elevations in VT (14%) andcycling time to exhaustion (2.5%).These results suggest that beta-alaninesupplementation alone may allow en-durance athletes to perform at a higherpercentage of their maximal aerobiccapacity before experiencing fatigue.

THE ADDITION OF CREATINE TOBETA-ALANINE

Creatine supplementation has beendemonstrated to decrease blood lacticacid accumulation during high-inten-sity and submaximal exercises (1,21).The rationale is based on augmentedphosphocreatine (PCr) concentrationslowering the reliance on glycolysisduring intermittent exercise, therebylowering lactate accumulation. More-over, there is recent data using animalmodels suggesting that creatine mayincrease intramuscular carnosine levels,perhaps by acting as a free radicalscavenger and sparing carnosine fromthis process (4). Because the adminis-tration of creatine may facilitate themaintenance of muscle pH duringexercise, researchers have postulatedthat it may support beta-alaninesupplementation.

In this context, Zoeller et al. (31) foundthat beta-alanine and creatine alonewere able to increase 1–2 indices ofaerobic capacity, whereas the combi-nation of the 2 increased 5 of 8 indices.These included an increase in LT andVT (5.7–8%), power at LT and VT (9–10.5%), and _VO2peak at VT (7.8%).

The combined effects of beta-alanineand creatine have extended to theresistance training domain. Alone,beta-alanine has been able to increasetraining volume and strength, withoutany effects on LBM (11). It is intriguingto note that when combined with

Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 73

Table

Experimentalresu

ltswithbeta-alaninesu

pplementation

Authors

Participants

Dosage/duration

Bioch

emistry

Perform

ance

Bodyco

mposition

De

rave

et

al.

(5)

15

mal

en

atio

nal

leve

l4

00

-msp

rin

t–tr

ain

ed

ath

lete

s(a

ge

=2

4y)

4.8

gB

Ao

rP

dai

lyfo

r4

wk

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no

sin

ein

cre

ase

db

y4

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san

dg

astr

ocn

em

ius,

resp

ect

ive

ly

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ext

en

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eim

pro

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4–

6%

inn

inth

and

fift

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ou

to

f3

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alkn

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No

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ge

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nce

and

40

0-m

race

tim

e

NR

Hill e

tal

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0)

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ter

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incr

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by

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k,re

spe

ctiv

ely

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chan

ge

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ym

ass

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1)

33

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ase

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)th

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dif

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s

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.(1

2)

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s(a

ge

=2

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or

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r4

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No

dif

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nce

sin

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ne,

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ne,

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22

%in

cre

ase

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dy

mas

s

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26

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be

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and

9d

into

foo

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cam

p

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dif

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sin

pe

akp

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er,

me

anp

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or

tota

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on

Win

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st.

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dif

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nce

sin

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rb

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chtr

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inte

nsi

ty;

No

dif

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t



Table

(continued)

Authors

Participants

Dosage/duration

Bioch

emistry

Perform

ance

Bodyco

mposition

Ke

nd

rick

et

al.

(16

)1

4p

hys

ical

acti

vem

ale

Vie

tnam

ese

ph

ysic

ale

du

cati

on

stu

de

nts

(ag

e=

22

y)

6.4

go

fB

Ao

rP

dai

lyd

uri

ng

4w

ko

fis

oki

ne

tic

trai

nin

go

fth

eri

gh

tle

g;

wit

han

un

trai

ne

dco

ntr

ol

of

the

left

leg

52

%in

cre

ase

inm

usc

leca

rno

sin

efo

rtr

ain

ed

+su

pp

lem

en

ted

;2

8%

incr

eas

ein

un

trai

ne

dle

g+

sup

ple

me

nte

d.

Ho

we

ver,

dif

fere

nce

be

twe

en

leg

sn

ot

sig

nifi

can

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NR

NR

Ke

rnan

dR

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7)

22

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me

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lem

en

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all

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NR

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uro

mu

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lar

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din

cre

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dn

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ffici

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cy.

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4)

46

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(ag

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ith

6w

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NR

Sig

nifi

can

tin

cre

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in_ V

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dT

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No

chan

ge

in%

bo

dy

fat;

Sig

nifi

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(25

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%d

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ed

tim

eto

exh

aust

ion

.N

od

iffe

ren

cein

max

imal

oxy

ge

nco

nsu

mp

tio

n

No

sig

nifi

can

tch

ang

es

inb

od

ym

ass

(co

nti

nu

ed

)


creatine, this supplement has resultedin greater increases in strength, trainingvolume, and LBM, compared withboth a creatine only and placeboconditions (11).

In summary, it appears that theaddition of creatine to beta-alanine, inboth aerobic and resistance exercisetrainings, may provide greater benefitsthan with separate supplementation ofeach. More research is needed to showwhether these effects are synergistic orsimply additive.

BETA-ALANINESUPPLEMENTATION—MODERATORVARIABLES (AGE, SEX, ANDTRAINING EXPERIENCE)

The majority of studies using beta-alanine supplementation have beenconducted in young (age = 20–29years) males. We were only able tolocate one study in young untrainedwomen. Similar to young men, womenwho supplemented with beta-alanineimproved their gains in LT, VT,neuromuscular fatigue, and time toexhaustion (27).

Age, however, does appear to moder-ate the effects of beta-alanine. Whilemen and women have demonstrated12–15% increases in work capacity atneuromuscular fatigue (26,27), elderlymen and women demonstrate nearlydouble the increase (28%) (28). Accord-ing to Stout et al. (28), this may reflectlower starting levels of intramuscularcarnosine (45% lower) relative toyoung individuals.

A final variable is training experience.Sprinters and bodybuilders have dem-onstrated higher carnosine concentra-tions than endurance athletes anduntrained individuals (19,30), yet re-search has established that 4–10 weeksof resistance and/or interval training isnot effective for augmenting carnosinelevels (15,16). Although training alonehas failed to induce significant in-creases in carnosine levels, combiningbeta-alanine supplementation withtraining has stimulated a 2-fold in-crease in carnosine levels, comparedwith beta-alanine supplementationalone (6,8). Notably, the change in

Table

(continued)

Authors

Participants

Dosage/duration

Bioch

emistry

Perform

ance

Bodyco

mposition

Sto

ut

et

al.

(27

)2

6m

ale

and

fem

ale

eld

erl

yp

eo

ple

(ag

e=

72

y)2

.4g

of

BA

dai

lyfo

r9

0d

.P

erf

orm

ed

dis

con

tin

uo

us

cycl

ee

rgo

me

ter

test

pre

and

po

stsu

pp

lem

en

tati

on

NR

28

.6%

imp

rove

me

nt

inp

hys

ical

wo

rkin

gca

pac

ity

atth

efa

tig

ue

thre

sho

ld

NR

Zo

elle

re

tal

.(3

0)

55

un

trai

ne

dm

en

(ag

e=

25

y)1

0.5

g/d

Cr,

3.2

g/d

BA

,b

oth

Cr+

BA

,o

rp

lace

bo

NR

Cr

imp

rove

d2

of

8m

eas

ure

so

fca

rdio

vasc

ula

rfi

tne

ss;

BA

on

ly1

.C

r+

BA

imp

rove

d5

of

8;

spe

cifi

cally

,vd

oto

2m

axat

LTan

dV

Tb

y5

.7–

8%

,re

spe

ctiv

ely

;p

ow

er

atLT

and

VT

by

9–

10

.5%

,re

spe

ctiv

ely

._ V

O2p

eak

atV

Tb

y7

.8%

.N

oe

ffe

cto

n_ V

O2p

eak

ato

rb

elo

wLT

or

TT

E

NR

Stat

isti

csre

po

rte

dar

em

ean

san

dp

erc

en

tch

ang

es.

Dif

fere

nce

sar

ere

po

rte

dw

ith

ing

rou

p.

BA

=b

eta

-ala

nin

e;B

W=

bo

dy

we

igh

t;C

r=

cre

atin

e;C

rM=

cre

atin

em

on

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ydra

te;H

IIT=

hig

h-i

nte

nsi

tyin

terv

altr

ain

ing

;IG

F=

insu

lin-l

ike

gro

wth

fact

or;

LBM

=le

anb

od

ym

ass;

LT=

lact

ate

thre

sho

ld;

NR

=n

ot

rep

ort

ed

;P

=p

lace

bo

;R

M=

rep

eti

tio

nm

axim

um

;T

TE

=ti

me

toe

xhau

stio

n;

VT

=ve

nti

lato

ryth

resh

old

.



intramuscular carnosine levels withbeta-alanine supplementation appearsto be similar between trained and rela-tively untrained individuals (5,10,15),illustrating the practicality in bothpopulations. However, it is difficult toquantify differences in the effectivenessof beta-alanine between trained anduntrained individuals because no directcomparisons have been made.

Moreover, outcome measures havediffered between trained and untrainedsubjects across the current body of liter-ature. What is known is that supplemen-tation has been demonstrated efficaciousregardless of training status (Table).

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

The goal of supplementation withbeta-alanine is to increase musclecarnosine levels and ultimately aug-ment performance. Carnosine isthought to be a powerful hydrogenion buffer, thereby delaying the onsetof fatigue. Twelve studies reported inthis review investigated the effects ofbeta-alanine on muscle carnosine andvarious parameters of performance(Table). Supplementation ranging from3 to 6.5 g of beta-alanine daily, dividedinto 0.8–1.6 g doses, for 4–10 weeks hasirrefutably augmented carnosine levelsby 30–80% (8–10,15).

For athletes, we recommend a doseof 6.4 g daily, divided into four 1.6-gdoses throughout day. Dosing shouldbe spaced in a minimum of 3-hourintervals so as to avoid negativeflushing effects. It may also be wise topyramid the dosage, starting fromlower (3.2 g/d) during the first week,to moderate (4.8 g/d) during thesecond week, to higher (6.4 g/d) theremainder of the supplemental period(9). For the athlete looking to enhanceperformance during an event, it shouldbe realized that intramuscular carno-sine concentrations increase over time(e.g., from 4 to 10 weeks). Thus, werecommend a minimum of 4 weeksand optimally triple this time beforea competition (10). More so, it hasrecently been shown that carnosinelevels remain elevated for up to 9weeks devoid of supplementation (7).

Beta-alanine supplementation appearsto be optimized when lactate pro-duction is greatest. Therefore, resis-tance training athletes will most likelyexperience the greatest increases involume and strength in a moderatelyhigh–intensity (8–12 reps or 60–85%repetition maximum) (11–13) as op-posed to very high–intensity (1–5 repsor 85–100% 1 repetition maximum)(15) training regimen. Similarly, in-termittent or interval training athleteswill experience greater gains whenperforming over 30–90 seconds (e.g.,hockey shift) than when performing the100-m dash. We predict that enduranceathletes will benefit greatly when per-forming closer to their LT. It is alsoimportant to note that these effects maybe magnified with increasing age (28).Finally, beta-alanine combined withcreatine may augment performance toa greater extent than when adminis-tered separately (11,26,31), most likelyas a result of a decreased accumulationof H+ ions during submaximal andmaximal intensity exercises.

For scientists, we suggest that theresearch continues to diversify its sub-ject population and perform longerexperiments to ascertain if beta-alaninewith or without endurance and/orresistance training results in changesin body composition, strength, andfunctionality across age spans overa period of months to years. Further-more, a sound research design imple-menting a double-blind, placebo-controlled, repeated measures designcomparing between-group differenceswill be most valuable to the researchcommunity.

JacobM.Wilson

is a PhD candidateand conductsresearch in theDepartment ofNutrition, Food,and Exercise Scien-ces at Florida StateUniversity and is

president of abcbodybuilding.com.

Gabriel J.

Wilson is adoctoral student inthe Division ofNutritional Scien-ces at the Univer-sity of Illinois and

is vice president of abcbodybuilding.com.

Michael C.

Zourdos is adoctoral studentand conductsresearch in theDepartment ofNutrition, Food,and Exercise

Sciences at Florida State University.

Abbie E. Smith

is a doctoralcandidate in theMetabolic andBody CompositionLaboratory at theUniversity ofOklahoma in theDepartment ofHealth andExercise Science.

Jeffery R. Stout

is currently anassociate professorand director of theMetabolic andBody CompositionLaboratories inthe Departmentof Health and

Exercise Science at the University ofOklahoma.

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