Best Choices for EnhancingGroundnut Productivity in Nigeria

Michael B. VABI, Sanusi G. MOHAMMED, Candidus A. ECHEKWU, Aisha MUKHTAR, Ben AHMED, Hakeem A. AJEIGBE and Chris O. ECHE

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IN S T IT U T E F O R T H E SEM I-ARID TROPICS

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FEEDFUTURE X U SThe U.S. Goyerment’a Global Hunger & Food Security Initiative n C A - l _ iA j h l j i

Best Choices for Enhancing Groundnut Productivity in Nigeria

Michael B. VABI1, Sanusi G. MOHAMMED2, Candidus A. ECHEKWU3, Aisha A. MUKHTAR3, Ben AHMED3, Hakeem A. AJEIGBE1 and Chris O. ECHE4

1. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Kano (Nigeria)

2. Center for Dryland Agriculture (CDA), Bayero University of Kano (BUK); Kano (Nigeria)

3. Institute for Agricultural Research (LAR), Ahmadu Bello University (ABU); Zaria (Nigeria).

4. Federal University of Agriculture, Makurdi (FUAM)

Published by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patencheru, India.

Website: http//EXPLOREit.icrisat.org E-mail: icrisat@cgiar.org ISBN 978-93-86527-02-8

ICRISAT is a science-based agricultural, non-profit and apolitical international organization with headquarters at Patencheru, India. It is a member of the CGIAR - Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research. ICRISAT conducts agricultural research for development in the dry savannas of Nigeria in collaboration with several national and international partners.

Correct CitationVabi B.M., Mohammed S.G., Echekwu C.A., Mukhtar A.A., Ahmed B., Ajeigbe, H.A. and Eche C.O. (2019). Best Choices for Enhancing Groundnut Productivity in Nigeria. ICRISAT, Patencheru. 29 pp.ISBN 978-93-86527-02-8

All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means for commercial purposes (except as extension and dissemination support material), provided that its authors and publishing organization are acknowledged.

Cover Page: Groundnut Pods and Kernels

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements...................................................................... ii

Forward....................................................................................... iii

Section 1: Introduction..................................................................1

Section 2: Improved Groundnut Varietiesin Commercial Production in Nigeria...........................................3

Section 3: Recommended Groundnut Production Practices...... 7

Section 4: Aflatoxin Contamination andManagement Options in the Groundnut Value Chain............... 10

Section 5: Production, Distribution andMarketing of Quality Seeds of Groundnut................................15

Section 6: Consuming Healthier Groundnut and Groundnut-based Products........................................................22

7. Additional Sources of Information 24

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors of Best Choices for Enhancing Groundnut Production in Nigeria appreciate the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) for providing funds used in the implementation of two proj ect in Nigeria namely Increasing Groundnut Productivity o f Small-scale Farmers in Ghana, Mali and Nigeria and Tropical Legumes (PhaseIII).

The authors also recognize contributions from Dr. Babu Motagi, one time ICRISAT Groundnut Breeder based in Nigeria, Mr. Bala Lawal, Mr. Kunihya Ayuba, Engineer Adinoyi Aliyu and Mr. Hassan-Inuwa Abubakar, of ICRISAT Nigeria. Dr. Hippolyte Affognon, former Project Coordinator of the Groundnut Upscaling Project based in Bamako (Mali) played a major role while still in command. The continuous support of Project Desk Officers and selected Extension Agents of the ADPs of Kano, Kebbi, Katsina, Jigawa and Sokoto States was exceptional throughout project implementation.

Between the 2015 and 2018 cropping seasons, the authors worked closely with several farmers and farmer groups to demonstrate the performance of improved versus most popular local groundnut varieties and different options for managing aflatoxin contamination. Private seed companies, farmer groups and the National Agricultural Seeds Council (NASC) were actively engaged in building capacities for producing, distributing and marketing of quality groundnut seeds. These provided real opportunities for mutual sharing, learning and development of the best practices included in this document.

FORWARD

Groundnut is undoubtedly the most popular legume crop in the farming systems of many developing countries including Nigeria. Unlike other cereals and legumes, all parts o f the plant are valuable. The historic groundnut pyramids of Northern Nigeria and contributions of the crop to export revenue of Nigeria before the discovery of crude oil established an exceptional link between the crop and socio-cultural as well as economic growth of the country.

In the light o f this, the successful implementation of the USAID funded Groundnut Scaling and BMGF funded Tropical Legumes (Phase III) Projects restored confidence amongst groundnut farmers in Nigeria. Operating in the same administrative units (States) on different aspects o f groundnut, synergies between these projects provided opportunities of tactful integration at different points o f the groundnut value chain. These projects extensively raised awareness, developed attitudes, skills and knowledge, fostered institutional and value chain linkages, enhanced the availability o f quality seeds, provided mechanisms for market linkages and initiated processes required in the effective empowerment of women. The thematic studies carried out resulted in concrete opportunities for mutual sharing and learning, some of which have been used in the development o f the best practices put together in this extension support document.

Also, Best Choices fo r Enhancing Groundnut Productivity in Nigeria builds on efforts of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD) and the Extension Bulletins o f the National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services (NAERLS). The document covers the technical aspects o f groundnut production, challenges of

popular groundnut pests/diseases and aflatoxin contamination. The document is a timely advisory supplement for front line staff of private and public extension services in Nigeria.

I give a standing ovation to ICRISAT, the Project Desk Officers and Extension Agents o f the ADPs who contributed to the implementation of the two projects between 2015 and 2019. These ADPs are BSADP, JARDA, KARDA, KNARDA, KTARDA and SADP. The authors have aptly summarized their experiences into this advisory document. I strongly recommend Best Choices fo r Enhancing Groundnut Productivity in Nigeria to all groundnut value chain actors notably farmers, extension agents, private seed companies, seed certification officers, researchers, processors and regular consumers of groundnut and groundnut-based products. It is also a valuable document for future projects on groundnut in Nigeria.

Mahmoud Ibrahim Daneji (Ph.D.)Managing Director and Professor o f Agricultural Extension Kano State Agricultural and Rural Development Authority (KNARDA): Kano State - Nigeria

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), also known as Peanut, is an annual crop commonly grown by smallholder fanners. The name Groundnut can be confusing as the plant is not typically a nut. The plant itself grows above the ground while the nuts (pods) develop and mature underground. It originated from Central America, and its cultivation spread to the rest of the world as an oil-seed crop. InNigeria, pyramid-like structures made of groundnut sacks were common features in several locations up to the 1970s. These locations included Kofar, Mazugal, Brigade, Bebeji, Malam Madori and Dawakin Kudu. The pyramid structures constituted tourist attractions in Northern Nigeria and symbol of the wealth of the country. These structures gradually disappeared when attention was shifted away from agriculture to crude oil after the 1970s. Recurrent rosette virus outbreaks of 1975,1983,1985 and 1988 also discouraged farmers from groundnut production.

However, Nigeria remains the third groundnut producing country in the world with annual production of 3.4MT coming after China (15,7 MT) and India (6.5MT). Across the world, the crop is widely cultivated and continues to be a major commercial crop in China, India, Africa and the United States of America (USA). While many varieties grown by small- scale farmers take between 120 to 150 days to mature, improved varieties take between 85-90 days. Production costs and profit margins can vary depending on knowledge, skills, farm management and disease/pest pressure and environmental factors notably rainfall and temperature. Overall, returns on investment (Rol) can be reasonable in cases where appropriate seeds and accompanying crop management practices are adopted (Annex 1).

Groundnut is produced in almost all the thirty-six (36) States of Nigeria. However, it is predominantly produced in nineteen (19) States namely: Adamawa, Bauchi, Benue, Bomo. Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Kogi, Kwara, Nassarawa, Niger, Plateau, Sokoto, Taraba, Yobe, Zamfara and The FCT (Abuja). The main agro-ecological zones for groundnut production in Nigeria are the Sahel, Sudan, Northern Guinea, most parts of the Southern Guinea and Derived Savannah (Figure 1).

1

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Agroecological ZonesSahel Savanna (8.627 M Ha)

Sudan Savanna (18.05 M Ha)

M id A ltitude (3.14 MHa)

Northern Gu inea S avanna (11.42 M ha)

Southern Gu inea Savanna (13 .28 Mha)

Derived S avanna (24.98 M Ha)

Hum id Forest (10 .93 M ha)200 100 200 Km

Figure 1: Main agro-ecological Zones of Nigeria

This document is a handy reference for Extension Agents, Private Seed Companies and Smallholder Farmers in their endeavors to contribute to rebuilding the groundnut pyramids of northern Nigeria. It complements efforts of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD) initiated in 2014 to revive the groundnut industry and rebuild the groundnut pyramids by enabling small-scale farmers to have more money and safe groundnut for consumption, domestic and international trade.

2

SECTION 2: IMPROVED GROUNDNUT VARIETIES IN COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION IN

NIGERIA

Plate l:Harvest of SAMNUT 24 from a Dry Season Groundnut Production Farm in Kebbi State, North-western Nigeria

Plate 2: An improved groundnut variety resistant to rosette virus (left) and local groundnut variety susceptible to rosette virus (right)

3

A total of thirty-two (32) improved groundnut varieties have been registered and released for commercial production in Nigeria since 1990. Depending on resistance to disease pressure, grain and haulm yield potentials as well as adaptation to the main agro-ecological zones of Nigeria (Figure 1), six of these varieties are popularly grown by smallholder farmers (Table 1).

Upon registration and release, the key features of improved groundnut varieties are: high grain yields- estimated at 2-2.5 tons/ha instead of less than 1 ton/ha; high haulm yields - estimated to be between 2.5-3tons/ha,early maturity estimated at between 80- 95 days, high oil contents estimated to be at least 45%, resistance to popular groundnut diseases notably early and late leaf spot diseases and the rosette virus, small to medium size pods, and tan in color. These features make them satisfy both consumer and market preferences.

Despite these potentials, several farmers cultivate a wide range of other varieties described as local. As shown in Annex 2, local groundnut varieties are identified by the names of individuals who originally cultivated the varieties such as Yar Ula, Yar Jigila, etc., color of the kernel - Jar-gyada, MaiAtamfa, Kampala, etc., kernel shape - Mota, Aska, etc., kernel size - Kwandala, Boleka, etc., growth behavior - Mai Jego,Yar Tsaye, etc., and the tribe and/or ethnic groups predominantly cultivating the variety - Bahama, Yar Gwari, etc. It should be noted that though Yar Dakar is considered a local groundnut variety, it is an improved groundnut variety officially endorsed in Nigeria from Senegal as SAMNUT 14. This implies that labels of registered and released crop varieties could eventually disappear through a wide range of socio-cultural transformations.

In 2018, three other groundnut varieties namely SAMNUT 27, SAMNUT 28 and SAMNUT 29 were registered and released by the national variety release committee. ICRISAT and the Institute for Agricultural Research (IAR) of the Ahmadu Bello University (ABU) are actively engaged to ensure that sufficient quantities of seeds of these improved varieties will soon be available for mass dissemination.

4

Table 1: Main Features of Improved Groundnut Varieties in Commercial Production in Nigeria

Plants and pods Presentation of kernel Major characteristics

Agro-ecological zones most suitable for cultivation

SAMNUT 21

SAMNUT22

SAMNUT 21

SAMNUT 22

m L W iw a

- Medium maturity: 115-120 days

- Pod yield estimated at 2.5tons/ha

- Oil contents estimated at 50%

- Kernel color: tan with white stripes

- Medium maturity 115-120 days

- Oil content estimated at 48%

- Kernel color: red

Southern,Northern Guinea and Derived Savannas

Northern Guinea Savannas

SAMNUT 23 SAMNUT 23

- Early maturity:90-100 days

- Pod yield estimated at 2-2.5tons/ ha

- Haulm yield estimated at 2tons/ha

- Oil content estimated at 56%

- Resistant to early and late leaf spot and rust

- Kernel color: deep red

NorthernSavannas

Guinea

5

Agro-ecological zones most suitable for

P la n ts a n d p o d s Presentation of kernel M ajor characteristics cultivation

SAMNUT24 SAMNUT24■ Early maturity: 80-90 days Sahel and Sudan

, . Savannas■ Pod yield estimated a t 2- 2.5tons/ ha

■ Haulm yield estimated at 2.5-3tons/ha

■ Oil content estimated at 48%

■ Moderately resistant to early and late leaf spot

■ Resistant to rosette disease

■ Escapes end of season drought due to extra

early maturity

SAMNUT25 SAMNUT25Early maturity: 90-95 days Sahel and Sudan

, , SavannasPod yield estimated at 2.5 -3tons/ha

Haulm yield estimated at 2.5 -3tons/ha

Oil content estimated at 46%

Moderately resistant to early and late leaf spot

Resistant to rosette disease

Escapes end of season drought due to exlra early maturity

Kernel color: tan

SAMNUT26 SAMNUT26 Early maturity: 90-95 days Sahel and SudanSavannas

Pod yield 2 -2.5 tons/ha

Haulm yield estimated at 2.5-3tons/ha

Oil content estimated at 49%

Moderately resistant to early and late leaf spot

Resistant to rosette disease

Escapes end of season drought due to extra early maturity

Kernel color: tan

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Section 3: Recommended Groundnut Production Practices

Plate 3: Green Field Days provide opportunities for farmers to assess the performance of different groundnut varieties and

showcase their individual performances

Plate 4:Leaf Spot Disease (Left) and packing out of weeds from farms by women (Right) at CDA/BUK

Better Choice to Make: Green and brown field days at appropriate stages of pod development are highly encouraged. They provide opportunities

for all value chain actors to closely feel and appreciate the performance and challenges of improved and local varieties of groundnut

They are also occasions for value chain actors to socialize and mutually learn from each other

7

Table 2: Recommended Groundnut Production PracticesRecommended Practice Rationale for Recommendation

a) Seeds and seed management1. Use improved groundnut varieties

Depending on agro-ecological zone, select and plant any ofthe SAMNUT series.

Better pod and haulm yields per surface area placed under cultivation, better resistance to popular diseases (See Figure 1 and Table 1).

2. Use well-filled seeds that are uniform in color, size and are not broken

This is a guarantee for better germination

3. Shell seeds just before planting When shelled and stored for long periods, groundnut seeds quickly lose the ability to germinate

4. Sort/clean seeds into homogenous groups and/or color before planting

Small, shriveled and wrinkled seeds germinate poorly and produced weak and unhealthy seedlings

5. Treat seeds with appropriate seed dressing chemical before planting (Dress Force, Apron Plus, etc.)

This protects the kernel from soil-borne pests and diseases and perhaps birds.

6. Plant/sow when rainfall becomes more regular (or soil has enough moisture)

This means rains have become M y established

7. Use a rate of between 35 - 40 kg per hectare of shelled seeds (or 70 -80 kg of unshelled seeds) and plant 2 seeds per hole

Plant spacing is one of the major factors affecting crop yield, especially groundnut

b) Agronomic Practices

1. Select and use farms that are sandy-loam or loamy- sandy from which previous crops were cereals (sorghum, maize, millet or rice)

Eventual pegs (pods) need a favorable environment for germination and pod development Harvesting is also easier as most pods come out easily.

2. Land preparation - properly clear and harrowselected site properly with onset o f rains

This facilitates aeration, the control of weeds and pests as well as water infiltration.

3. Land preparation - ridge farm at a minimum depth of 30cm and 75cm apart (smaller spacing are feasible)

This provides favorable conditions for seed germination and pod development

4. Use Farm Yard Manure (FYM) (if available); applying 2 tons per hectare

Use of organic manure improves soil nutrients, farm owner should expect many more weeds and termites

5. Mix SSP (100 kg/ha) andNPK 15.15.15 (50kg/ha) and broadcast either during planting or after first weeding

As SSP is not always available, applying 100 kg/ha of NPK 15.1.5.15. could also sufBce. Though not usually available, SSP is the most appropriate fertilizer for groundnut

6. Plant/sow at 10cm x 75cm with 2 seeds/hole Different spacing are also common, e.g. 20cm x 50cm 20cm x 75, either with or without ridge

8

Recomm ended Practice R ationale for Recommendation

7. Carry out first weeding at 2-3 weeks after planting/sowing. Experiences exist with the use of different pre-sowing, pre-emergence and post­emergence herbicides in managing weeks.

Depending on the situation, weeds could appear earlier than 2 weeks. Weeds compete with growing groundnut plants, interfere with harvests and can harbor pests and diseases.

8. Second weeding should be done between 6-8 weeks after planting/sowing. Experiences exist with the use o f different post-emergence herbicides in managing weeks.

Eearthening-up is advised at this stage. There is need for extra care at this stage as the SAMNUT varieties continuously develop pegs until harvest

9. Systematically remove physically weak stands, weeds and plants that are not the same like others

This action is very important if farm is for seed production

10. In case of abnormalities on any part o f the plant, spray with appropriate pesticide (Annex 2)and seriously consider leaving the using the firm to grow other crops for between two to three cropping seasons

Use agro-chemical only in case of observed attacks by pests and diseases such as Early Leaf Spot (ELS).Late Leaf Spot (LLS), Rust, Stem Rot, Rosette, aphids, Spider mite, White grub, termites, etc.

<0 Harvesting, Bagging and Storage

1. Harvest any time between 85-90 days after planting, or as soon as inside shells show dark veins

Improved groundnut varieties could start sprouting if not harvested at the right time even if they are still producing pegs and flowering

2. While harvesting, gradually pull stem and pods from the soil either manually (soft soils) or mechanically using a hoe or fork (hard dry soil) or even tractor

Overturn the whole plant with pods fkiing the sun This can be done with a groundnut digger or lifter

3. Shake each stem lifted to remove soils attached Pods with soil may contain hidden infections which could facilitate aflatoxin contamination

4. Avoid mechanical damage on pods during harvesting Damaged pods could facilitate infections leading to aflatoxin (see section on aflatoxin management)

5. Air dry pods in a safe place (the farm or at home) for a minimum o f 5 days after lifting or before stripping (removing from stems)

About half o f the pods at harvest a lot o f contain water. If not being used immediately, dry pods well to avoid deterioration and aflatoxin contamination

6. Strip and shake pods until they rattle to check appropriate moisture contents during/before stripping

Rattling indicates absence o f moisture

7. Further sort, pour into homogenous bags before storage (if possible weigh the bags)

If more than one variety is to be stored, label them accordingly before taking them into storage location. Groundnut can also be stored in cartons or silos

8. Store produce in clean bags in sufficiently ventilated places and regularly check to ensure that there are no rodents feeding on them

Place bags on wooden pallets in dry airy rooms

9

SECTION 4: AFLATOXIN CONTAMINATION AND MANAGEMENT OPTIONS IN THE

GROUNDNUT VALUE CHAIN

Figure 5: Groundnut pods showing likelihoods of aflatoxin contamination

Plate 6: Quality Seeds of SAMMUT 25 ready for Planting (Left) and Cleaning and Sorting of groundnut Seeds by Women (Right)

Best Choice to Make: The effects of the consumption of aflatoxin contaminated foods by humans though gradual, is cumulative:

aflatoxins cannot be eradicated through cooking and the body does not destroy or excrete aflatoxins

10

4.1. What are aflatoxins

Aflatoxins are poisonous substances produced by some fungi (molds) on crops, foods and feeds. They have worldwide occurrence, usually in tropical and sub-tropical areas lying between latitudes 35°North and 35° South. Fungi of the Aspergillus group are responsible for secreting these toxins, mainly Aspergillus flavus and Aflatoxin parasiticus. They live in soils and decayed materials. When their spores are released, they infect crops on farms, harvested and processed products. The crops frequently affected by aflatoxins are groundnut, maize, sorghum, millet, rice, sesame, wheat, cowpea, spices and cassava. Groundnut is known to be the most common host of aflatoxins.

Plate 7: Apart from Groundnut, aflatoxin producing fungi are also a challenge to many other agricultural sector commodities

(See Maize and Yams Chips above)

Aflatoxin contamination occurs in two different phases; the first phase occurs on the developing pods and the second phase after the crop matures. Many groundnut grains and seeds in Northwestern Nigeria are contaminated by aflatoxins with 25-83% of them exceeding permissible levels (Annex 4). Adherence to good agricultural management practices by collaborating farmers of the Groundnut Upscaling and TL-III projects are leading to lower levels of aflatoxin in both local and improved groundnut varieties. This implies that the challenge posed by aflatoxins can be adequately addressed by farmers and extension agents working together.

11

4.2. Consequences of aflatoxin contaminationThe consequences of aflatoxin contamination on human health, trade and nutrition can be significant. In general, aflatoxin contamination reduces the nutritional quality and market value of agricultural sector crops including groundnut. Prolonged consumption of aflatoxin infected foods lead to impaired immune function, stunted growth in children, disabilities and even death. Aflatoxin is also known to have adverse effects on reproductive health, liver cancer and hepatitis B and C. Most of the groundnut varieties and groundnut-derived products found on local markets in Nigeria contain varying amounts of aflatoxin - just like human beings in Sub-Saharan Africa who have different levels of the malaria parasite.

4.3. Factors influencing aflatoxin contamination before harvestHigh soil temperature and late season drought stress are the two most important factors that concurrently promote pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination of groundnut. The main factors influencing pre­harvest contamination of groundnut by aflatoxin producing fUngi are insect damage to pods and developing seeds. Similarly, stress to the plant caused by prolonged high temperatures and drought facilitate pre-harvest contamination. Prolonged and high temperatures as well as drought stress affect the physiology of plant rendering them susceptible to aflatoxin producing fungi. Drought stress reduces the natural defense mechanism of the plant against infection. Prolonged drought strains groundnut pods and kernel seed coat resulting in entry points for infection by aflatoxin producing fungi. Also, the likelihood of aflatoxin contamination is much higher during the main (wet) cropping season than in dry season.

Best Choice to Make: Pests notably termites can be adequately managed through the application o f appropriate agro-chemicals (Annex 3). Termites create openings on groundnut kernels before

harvest and during drying on farms thereby widening the possibility o f aflatoxin contamination

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Hints for managing aflatoxin contamination before harvest

i- Avoid farms with evidence of soil harbouring insects such as termites;I Use farms with at least two years fallow; reduces buildup of aflatoxin producing fungi; i- Avoid using farms from which cotton, tobacco and tomatoes have just been harvested -

these crops may harbor soil borne aflatoxin producing fungi; i- Use seeds of improved groundnut varieties;I Dress seeds with appropriate chemical before plantingi- Harrow and ridge properly beforesowing/planting;i- Maintain recommended plant spacing (see section on agronomic practices);■i- Apply farm yard manure/between 2.5 and 3 t/h^before planting if available; i- Apply lime or gypsum (at 400 kg ha_1or 35 days after planting), if available; i- Remove dead plants and unhealthy plants before harvest; i- Harvest the crop at right maturity;i- Early cessation of rains may necessitate irrigation, wherever possible;

4.4. Factors influencing aflatoxin contamination during harvestTimely harvesting of groundnuts is necessary to reduce aflatoxin contamination. Delays in harvesting of groundnuts lead to poor quality seeds/pods due to possibility of injuries. Mechanical damage to pods or kernels during digging and threshing of groundnuts, provide entry points for invasion by aflatoxin producing fungi. Insect injury to groundnut pods or kernels might also lead to aflatoxin contamination.

Best Choice to Make: An analysis o f samples o f groundnut kernels and groundnut processed products collected from the

2016 and 2017 cropping seasons show that aflatoxin contamination are higher in local groundnut varieties than in

the improved groundnut varieties being promoted by the TL-III and USAID groundnut technology scaling projects.

13

Hints for managing aflatoxin contamination during harvest

i- Check and harvest pods when mature (between 85-95 days for improved varieties) i- Avoid mechanical damage of pods during harvest; i- Place lifted plants upside down for between 5 to 7 days before stripping; i- Systemically remove mechanical and insect damaged pods while stripping pods; i- Separate the fully mature large pods (to be used for raw consumption) from the remaining

produce (used for oil extraction), i- Regularly check pods during drying to remove damaged pods; i- Avoid mixing dried pods with those just harvested from farm-fields; i- Remove immature pods attached to haulms/fodder, if they are to be fed to lactating cattle;

4.5. Factors influencing aflatoxin contamination during storageThe importance of sanitation in storage locations in mitigating the incidence of aflatoxin contamination is imperative. Leaking roofs, improper ventilation, high-moisture content at storage locations can lead to infections and/or growth of aflatoxin producing fungi. Also, other products stored in same locations with groundnut and improper drying favor contamination and the development of aflatoxin producing fungi. Proper sorting before storage can eliminate damaged pods and reduce the likelihood of contamination and the growth of aflatoxin producing fungi.

Hints for managing aflatoxin contamination during storagei- Thoroughly clean storage facilities (containers and stores) before storage; i- Prevent insect damage to the pods during storage;i- Keep pod-filled bags on a wooden plank and store them in well ventilated, waterproof

bags;i- Disinfect storage location before storing packaged pods; i- Remove pods in poor conditions before bagging; i- Keep bags of pods in ventilated stores that do not have leakages; i- If necessary, dry the stripped/threshed pods once again to maintain seed moisture below

8%.

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SECTION 5: PRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION AND MARKETING OF QUALITY SEEDS OF GROUNDNUT

Plate 8: A happy couple (left) confirms better yield (Right) from a farm devoted to the production of certified seeds of groundnut

Plate 9: Joint USAID and TL-III field Plate 10: Veteran groundnut seed producer monitoring enhanced outcomes in Shagari LGA of Sokoto State

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5.1. Three major seed classes in NigeriaSeeds are generally the cheapest inputs in crop production and fundamental to increasing crop productivity. Response of seeds to fertilizer application and accompanying crop management practices equally depends on the quality of the planting material. It is common to find three classes of seeds: breeder, foundation and certified seeds (Figure 1).

Breeder Seeds: These are produced by plant breeders and seed technologists. The outcomes are usually 100% genetic purity due to strict field monitoring during production by the breeding team.

Foundadon Seeds: An immediate outcome of breeder seeds are Foundation Seeds. A key point in the production of Foundation Seeds is prior indication of the availability of appropriate technical knowledge/skills within the organizations desiring to produce this seed class. Private seed companies and research institutions are mandated to produce foundation seeds in Nigeria.

Unlike other crops, groundnut has a number of limitations a) it is a self-pollinating crop b) seed ratio is extremely low, c) germination viability rapidly drops six months after harvest (and further degrades i f already shelled. These features compel the National Agricultural Seeds Council (NASC) to tolerate a maximum of two stages in the production and distribution of Foundation Seeds.

Certified Seeds: Certified Seeds emanate directly from Foundation Seeds. They can be produced, distributed and marketed by farmer groups, representatives of farmer groups, commercial arms of ADPs or individuals.

Best Choice to Make: All seed classes are expected to be endorsed by Seed Certification Officers o f NASC; this exercise usually

ends up with appropriate field inspection reports

16

Maj

or f

eatu

res

Seed

cl

asse

s

Figure 1: Schematic linkages between different seed classes

Nucleus See d s ^ ^ ^

iGrown as plant to

progenies

100% genetic purity with strict field monitoring

by Breeders

Breeder Seeds

1Grown in isolation resulting in almost 99 -100% genetic

purity through regular field inspections

1

99 % genetic purity

Optimum genetic purity through regular field inspections

Produced under technical guidance

of the ADPs and Seed Companies

All classes of seeds are sanctioned by a quality control mechanism undertaken by NASC known as seed certification. This entails prior declaration and subsequent field inspection by designated staff of NASC. Field inspections usually occur during pre-planting stage, vegetative stage (from planting to pegging), reproductive stage (pegging to pod maturity) and during harvest. Harvests from farms not declared or subjected to appropriate field inspections are considered as farmer's own seeds which could also be used in farmer-to-farmer seed exchanges. However farmers should be vigilant not to be dupped by other farmers.

Plate 11: A Seed Certification Officer of NASC (Left), regular back-stopping and extension support (Right) are instrumental in enhancing seed quality and

adherence to recommended groundnut production practices

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5.2. Dry season groundnut productionSince 2012, several initiatives confirmed the feasibility of producing groundnut in the dry season. Operations for dry season groundnut production normally start from October and continue to February. Groundnut production in the dry season has been successful in areas where irrigation facilities are available throughout the season or where the soil has enough moisture. Before sowing seeds, farms should be irrigated to ensure that soil moisture is sufficient. This should be repeated on the third day and thereafter with an interval of between 7-10 days depending on the intensity of drought and winds. The critical periods for irrigating groundnut production farms are: flowering phase (21-60 days), peg formation stage (40-45 days), and maturity stage (60-95 days).

Overall, dry season groundnut production is new and very challenging. These challenges include slow growth leading to delayed maturity, possible increase in the cost of fuel, break-down of water pump, water sources drying up, inadequate extension support, possible increase in disease and pest pressure notably lice (aphids), theft, unexpected onset of rains and destruction of crops and farms by birds, roaming chickens, cattle, sheep and goats.

Best Choice to Make: Despite the challenges o f dry season groundnut production, it is a better option for securing quality

seeds with less likelihoods o f aflatoxins contamination and especially for meeting unexpected demand o f quality seeds

during the main cropping seasons.

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5.3. Groundnut Seed or Groundnut GrainDifferences between groundnut seeds and grains are not often evident to value chain actors. Table 3 provides some tips for differentiating groundnut seeds from groundnut grains.

Table 3: Differentiating Groundnut Seed from Groundnut GrainGroundnut Seed Groundnut Grain

Mostly used for planting Mostly used for consumption

Carrier of improved technologyand remains alive and healthy

Does not necessarily carry improved technologies and may not be alive

Has a much higher germination percentage May or may not germinate

Uniform in color and other physical traits Not necessarily uniform in colour and other physical traits

Must reproduce in subsequent cropping seasons

Does not necessarily reproduce in subsequent seasons

Normally treated with agro-chemical (toxic) either before planting or storage

Should not be treated with toxic chemicals

Usually traced to a source and/or, properly packaged and truthfully labelled before selling

Tracing the source may not be necessary, except in case of real trouble

Generally sold at a higher price Sold at a lower price

Basic tool for sustained food and nutrition security

Not applicable

Medium of rehabilitation of agriculture after natural disasters and/or insurgency

Mostly used as a package for direct consumption to affected people (displaced persons)

Free from sand, dry stems, roots and foreign materials

Not always free from foreign materials including pests and diseases

20

5.4. Distribution and marketing of quality seeds of groundnutThough unpredictable, the annual demand for certified groundnut seeds is usually greater than demand. In conformity with the 2015 Nigerian Seed Policy, certified seeds are produced, distributed and sold by farmer groups and private seed companies. In general, due to the high cost of inputs and difficulties to access them when required, farmers tend to grab and plant any seed they can access, including popular local varieties. The situation of groundnut is complicated by its bulkiness, high seed rate (requiring large amounts of seeds to plant per surface area) and low seed viability (inability to be stored for more than one cropping season without losing its germination power). As should be expected, this action could result in low yields and corresponding low returns on investments.

In order to address this challenge, the Groundnut Upscaling and TL- III projects promoted community-based seed production (CBSP) to boost the availability of certified seeds. This option of seed supply proved to be useful in ensuring that quality seeds is available. This provided an opportunity for some private seed companies to link up and use CBSP as out-growers. Contract seed supply between CBSP and agro-service input providers, agro-processors is also a tool for motivating farmer groups to use appropriate fertilizers, pesticides and improved groundnut varieties. Extension agents can play a central role in identifying and supporting farmer groups to become veritable community-based seed business units in their

Best Choice to Make: Extension agents can play a central role in identifying and supporting farmer groups to emerge as veritable

community-based seed business units in their communities.

21

SECTION 6: CONSUMING HEALTHIER GROUNDNUT AND GROUNDNUT-BASED PRODUCTSThe consumption of groundnut and groundnut products varies greatly though they can be quite localized. Apart from soya beans and fish, groundnut constitutes a substantial portion of household protein intake in Nigeria and many other countries in Africa and Asia (Table 4).

Uses of groundnuts^•Groundnut oil has a high >Confectionary productsproportion of Oleic (50-56%) such as snack nuts, sauce,and Linoleic (18-30%) flour, mayonnaise and

peanut butter,

P la te 12: G ro u n d n u t U ses C u lled fro m en , w ik iped ia .o rg

(Mukhtar, 2009)

^•It is also rich in Ca, K, P, ^-Haulms are nutritiousMg and vitamin E. t— and widely used for

feeding livestock

Plate 12:A wide range of groundnut-based products commonly found in Nigeria

All parts of the groundnut plant are valuable and useful. The kernel can either be used as seeds or fed directly to domesticated birds (chickens). Before harvesting, the roots of groundnut fix atmospheric nitrogen and therefore has the potentials of reducing the extent of chemical fertilizers required to boost crop production. Groundnut haulms (also known as fodder) are regularly used to feed sheep, goats and cattle and as fuel for heating. Groundnut is also one of the most valuable feeds for compounding livestock and poultry feeds. In industry, groundnut has a variety of uses; groundnut oil contributes to making paint, varnish, lubricating oil, leather dressings, polish, insecticides, etc. Soap is also made from groundnut sludge and many cosmetics contain groundnut oil and or its derivatives. Similarly, groundnut shells are used in the manufacture of plastics, wallboards, abrasives, cellulose and glue.

22

Table 4: Nutrients values of different agricultural crops

Crop Energy (Kcal per kg) Fat (Grams per kg) Protein (Grams per kg)

Legumes

Groundnut 5,670 50 258

Soya-beans 4,160 200 365

Common Beans 4,330 8 226

Roots and TUbers

Cassava 1,490 2 12

Yam 1,180 2 15

Potatoes 1,100 2 18

Cereals

Rice 3,610 10 65

Maize 3,530 38 93

Animal Source

Eggs 1,580 112 120

Beef 1,610 79 195

Fish 2,550 74 470

Fruits and Vegetables

Orange 450 2 9

Carrots 350 0 7

Cassava leaves 230 3 30

Source: GIZ/WOFAN Nutrition Training Support Materials (2015)

Best Choice to Make: Spit out any groundnut or groundnut-based products with a strange taste while eating them; this could be an

indication o f aflatoxin contamination

23

7. Additional Sources of Information

Ajeigbe H.A, Waliyar F, Echekwu C A, Ayuba K, Motagi B.N, Eniayeju D and Inuwa A. (2014). A Farmer's Guide to Groundnut Production in Nigeria. Patancheru 502 324, Telangana, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics. 36 pp

Bediako, K.A., Ofori, K. Offei, S.K., Dzidzienyo, D. Asibuo, J.Y. Amoah, R.A. (2019). Aflatoxin contamination of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.): Predisposing factors and management interventions. Food Control 98. Pp 61- 67. Also available in Science Direct.

Echekwu, C.A., Motagi, B.N. Mohammed, S.G, Usman, A., Ajeigbe, H., Vabi M., Kurya B. and Shyambola A. (2018). Proposal for Consideration ofICGV-IS0799, ICGV-IS 09926andlCGV-IS 01276

for Registration and Release as new Groundnut Varieties in Nigeria.

Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD) 2017/2018 Farmer's Training Programme. Farmer's Guide to Groundnut Production.

Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD) (2015). National Seed Policy

NACGRB - National Centre for Genetic Resources and Biotechnology (2014). Catalogue o f Crop Varieties Released and Registered in Nigeria. Volume 8. Updated as of September 2014. Pp 19-21.

Vabi, M. B., Mohammed S.G. Echekwu C.A. and Ajeigbe, H.A.(2018). Know the Improved Groundnut Varieties being Promoted in Nigeria. Poster Developed and Distributed by the Projects.

Vabi, M.B., Ajeigbe, H.A., Diama, A. and Affognon, H. (2018). Cook’s Guide to Groundnut Delicacies: Favorite Recipes from Northern Nigeria. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi- Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). ISBN 978-93-86527-00-4

24

Vabi, M.B., Ogara, I., Toba, A.F., Oluwabaniwo, F., Alabi, O. Ajeigbe, A.H. Denloye, S. (2018). Aflatoxin in Nigerian Groundnut: Continuous Threat to Health, Agriculture, and Foreign Trade. 4pp. ICRISAT Policy Brief Number 35.

Vabi, M.B., Ojo P., Zidafamor, E., Ajeigbe, H.A., Ubanduma, H.(2018). Community-based Seed Production in Nigeria (2018). ICRISATPolicy BriefNumber 34.

Vabi, M.B, Eche C.O., Mukhtar, A A, Kuniya A, Aalabi, O, Adobe K, Ekefan E J, Haruna, S,G, Motagi B.N and Ajeigbe HA. (2016). Understanding and Managing Aflatoxin Contamination in the Groundnut Value Chain in Nigeria. Awareness Raising Support Material.

Vabi, M.B. Sadiq, A.S., Mustapha, A. Suleiman, A. Affognon, H. Ajeigbe, H.A. and Kasim A.A. (2019). Patterns and drivers of the adoption of improved groundnut varieties in Northwestern Nigeria. African Journal of Agriculture. ISBN 2375-1134 Volume 6(1). International Scholars Journals. Intemationalsclorsjoumals.org. Pp 001-016

Vabi, M.B. Ajeigbe, H.A. Kasim A.A., Sadiq, A.S., and Bala L.(2019). Adoption of improved groundnut varieties in Kebbi and Sokoto States of Northwestern Nigeria. Net Journal of Agricultural Science. ISBN 2315-9766. Volume 7 (2). Pp 56-58.

Vabi, M. B., Eche, C.O., Kunihya, A., Motagi, B.N., Mukhtar, A. A., Haruna, S. G., Mohammed, S.G., Ajeigbe, H.A. (2018). Towards a successful management of aflatoxin contamination in legume and cereal farming systems in Northern Nigeria: Case Study o f the Groundnut Value Chain. African Journal of Agriculture and Food Security ISSN 2375. pp 268 - 276

Vabi, B.M., Mohammed, S.G., Echekwu, C.A., Ahmed B., and Ajeigbe, H.A. (2019). Scaling Out of Improved Groundnut Varieties from Project Local Government Areas to Non-Project Local Government Areas of Pilot State in Northwestern Nigeria. Awareness Raising Support Material.

25

Annex 1: Per Hectare Costs and Expected Returns of Producing Groundnut in Selected States ofNorthwestern Nigeria (Naira)

Description of Inputs /farmJigaw a State K atsina State K ano State K ebbi State Sokoto State O verall for the States

operations M eanCost

% MeanCost

% M eanCost

% M eanCost

% M eanCost

% Totals %—

1. Land rental (rate /ha)1 9,000 5.72 8,500 6.31 9,600 6.43 7,000 5.37 8,100 6.99 42,200 6.14 8,440 ±9812. Seeds (70 kg/ha)2 24,600 15.61 19,200 14.25 20,000 13.41 20,833 15.9

911,960 10.3

396,593 14.0

619,318.6±

4,6043. Fertilizers (NPK and SSP) ( 1 bags o f

NPK to 3 bags o f SSP per ha)3

22,500 14.50 30,000 22.27 22,900 15.35 23,000 17.65

23,000 19.86

121,400 17.66

24,280 ±3,204

4. Pesticides (all categories)3 8,850 5.61 3,200 2.37 2,750 1.84 3,742 2.88 4,920 4.25 23,462 3.41 4,692.4 ± 2,461

5. Labor for different farm operations(a)4

74,100 47.08 58,750 43.6 83,800 56.17 43,149 33.11

53,460 46.16

313,259 45.59

66,651.8±16,695

Total cost of farm operations 139,050 NA 119,650 NA 139,050 NA 97,724 NA 101,440 NA 596,914 NA 119,383 ± 19,778

Imputed cost o f farmer’s tim ^

Desired profit margin per

18,000 11.43 15,000 11.14 10,000 6.70 32,500 24.94

14,300 12.34

89,800 13.07

17,960 ±8,616

kilogram o f seeds produced by community-based seed producers

92.83 0.06 108.77 0.08 113.51 0.07 84.26 0.06 75.58 0.07 474.95 0.06 94.99 ±16.04

Total costs pe r hectare 157,144 100 134,732 100 149,195 100 130,310 100 115,816 100 687,197 100 137,439 ± 16,219

Average yield per hectare (kg) 1,000 NA 954 NA 800 NA 960 NA 750 NA NA NA 892.8 ±110

U nit price per kg o f seeds produced (N)

157.14 NA 141.23 NA 186.49 NA 135.74 NA 154.42 NA NA NA 155 ±19.7

Agreed m arket price per kg(¥f) 250.00 NA 250.00 NA 300.00 NA 220.00 NA 230.00 NA 1250 NA 250 ±30.8

Expected to tal revenue per hectare (N)

250,000 NA 239,600 NA 240,000 NA 211,200 NA 172,500 NA 113,300 NA 222,660 ±31,553

Gross Profit M argin (N) 92,856(37%)

NA 103,268(43%)

NA 94,805(40%)

NA 80,890(38%)

NA 56,684(32%)

NA 428,503 NA 85,700 ± 18,082

'imputed cost as most land belong to farmers, foundation seeds provided, 3Open market cost, "Mostly done by women and children in all the States

a) Farm operations requiring the use of labor include: land clearing, ploughing/ridging, shelling, planting, weeding, fertilizer application, spraying for pesticides, stripping, harvesting, drying and transportation of inputs/pods and haulms from farm-fields to homes

Annex 2: Local groundnut varieties in project implementation States

Description of varieties according to:S/N Growth

Tribe/ethnic Kernel Color of Name of Shape of Behavior ofOrigin/Location group Size kernel Individual kernel the plant

1 Kwankwaso Bahausa Bolaka Jar Gyada Yar Gaga Juya Aska Mai Jego2 YarGari Yar Gwari Kwandala Mai Bargo Yar Kwala Mota Mai Yado3 Yar Rano Bagobira Sola Kampala Yar Sotal Mai Zube4 Yar Dakar Gwarama MaiAtamfa MaiWada Tattabara5 Yar Lafiya Mai Zabuwa Yar Ula Yar Malaka6 Yar Madani Farar Gyada Yar Sangerawa Yar Tsaye7 Yar Madali Yar Ladan Yar Kwance8 Yar Maradi Yar Baushe Mai Mota9 Yar Gidima Yar Jigila10 YarMidili11 YarNeja12 YarTambuwal13 YarZamfara14 Yar Jamaiya15 Yar Mali16 YarMalikawa17 Yar Kosoma18 Yar Jam’iya

27

Annex 3: Fertilizers and agro-chemicals recommended for groundnut production

S/n Trade Name Method of application

Indications Dosage

1 NPK (15-15-15) or NPK 10:20:10

Broadcast or spot placement

Additional nutrient source for the plant

50 kg per hectare

2 Single Super Phosphate (SSP) Broadcast or placement

Additional nutrient source for the plant

100 kg per hectare

3 Apron star Apron plus Seed dress Seed plus

Seed dressing Treatment of seed before planting

As directed by the manufacture specified on the label

4 Fungicide (mancozeb) Spraying Treatment of seedlings As directed by the manufacturer

5 Glyphosate (round up) Spraying Management of weeds before ridging or ploughing

As directed by the manufacture specified on the label

6 Butachlor (butaforce), pendementhlin (pendilin)

Spraying Suppress the emergence of weeds

As directed by the manufacture

7 Chlorphrifos (termikill, tenniforce, etc.)

Spraying Controls termite attack/outbreak

As directed by the manufacture specified on the label

8 Cypermethrin (Cyperforce, Best cypermethrin) Cypermethrin+Dimetrate, Lambdacyhalothriine e.g. Attack or Karate)

Spraying Control infestations by insects

As directed by the manufacture specified on the label

9 Aluminum Phostophide (Phostoxin)

Wrap in a muslin cloth

Management of insects during storage

As directed by the manufacture specified on the label

10 Abamectin 1.8% (Punch) Spraying Management of spider mite

As directed by the manufacture

11 Imidacclorid (Imiforce, Mandolmicot

Spraying Management of aphids As directed by the manufacturer

12 AmpligoTihan Spraying Management of larvaeand insects

As directed by the manufacturer

28

Annex 4: Permissible levels of aflatoxins in human foods

Commodities Aflatoxin B, (A fB,) Total AflatoxinEU Nigeria US EU Nigeria US Codex

AlimentariusAll foods Na Na Na Na Na 2 0 Na

Maize Grains Na 2 Na Na 4 Na Na

Flour Na 2 Na Na Na Na Na

Grits Na 2 Na Na Na Na Na

Sorghum Na Na Na Na 10 Na Na

Rice Na Na. Na Na Na Na Na

All cereals and products derived from cereals including processed cereal products except those specified below

2 Na Na 4 Na Na Na

Maize and rice to be subjected to sorting or other physical treatments before human consumption or use as ingredients in foodstuff

5 Na Na 10 Na Na Na

Processed cereal-based foods and baby foods for infants and young children

0 .1 0 Na Na Na Na Na Na

Dietary foods for medical purposes intended for infants

0 .1 0 Na Na Na Na Na Na

Groundnuts (kernels and in-shell) Na Na Na Na 2 0 Na Na

Groundnut cake (Kulikuli) Na 2 Na Na 4 Na Na

Groundnuts and other oilseeds to be subjected to sorting or other physical treatments before human consumption or used as ingredients in foodstuffs except those for crushing for vegetable oil extraction

8 Na Na 15 Na Na Na

Groundnut, oil seeds and processed products intended for direct human consumption or use as ingredient in foodstuff except crude vegetable oil destined for refining and vegetable

2 Na Na 4 Na Na Na

29

About ICRISAT

The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) is a non-profit, non-political organization that conducts agricultural research for development in the drylands of Asia and Sub- Saharan Africa (SSA) on five highly nutritious drought-tolerant crops: chickpea, pigeon pea, pearl millet, sorghum and groundnut. Covering 6.5 million square kilometers of land in 55 countries, the dryland tropics has over 2 billion people, and 644 million of these people are the poorest of the poor. ICRISAT and its partners help empower these resource-limited people to overcome poverty, hunger malnutrition and manage their environments through better agriculture.

The Vision of ICRISAT isA prosperous, food secure and resilient dryland tropics

The Mission of ICRISAT is

The headquarters of ICRISAT is in Hyderabad, Telangana State of India, with two Regional Offices in Nairobi (Kenya) and Bamako (Mali), and Country Offices in Niger, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Ethiopia and Mozambique. In Nigeria, ICRISAT is located within the premises of the Kano Station of the Institute for Agricultural Research (IAR) of the Ahmadu Bello University (ABU) - Zaria.

JicRum IN T E R N A T IO N A L CROPS RESEARCH IN S T IT U T E FO R T H E S E M I-A R ID T R O P IC S

ICRISAT is a member of the CGIAR System Organization

We believe all people have a right to nutritious food and a better livelihood.ICRISAT-lndiaICRISAT works In agricultural

research for development across the drylands of Africa and Asia, making farming profitable for smallholder farmers while reducing malnutrition and environmental

We work across the entire value chain from developing new varieties to agribusiness and linking farmers to markets.

ICRISAT-Nlger Niamey, Niger

Patancheru, Telangana, India lcrisatsc@cglar.org

ICRISAT-Nigeria Kano, Nigeria lcrisat-kano@cglar.org

ICRISAT-Kenya (Regional hub ESA) Nairobi, Kenya lcrisat-nalrobl@cglar.org

ICRISAT-Ethiopia Addis Ababa, Ethiopia icrisat-

ICRISAT-lndia Liaison Office New Delhi, India

ICRISAT-Mali (Regional hub WCA) Bamako, Mali

ICRISAT-Malawi Lilongwe, Malawi icrisat-malawi@cgiar.oFgICRISAT-Mozambique Maputo, Mozambique icrisatmoz@panintra.comICRISAT-Zimbabwe Bulawayo, Zimbabwe icrisatzw@cgiar.org

ICRISAT appreciates the support of CGIAR investors to help overcome poverty, malnutrition and environmental degradation in the harshest dryland regions of the world. See httD:/Ai/ww.icrisat.ora/icrisat^onors.htm for full list of donors.

About ICRISAT: www.icrisat.org ICRISAT's scientific information: EXPLORErf.icrisat.org

n l in E n ? /company/ f f /PHOTOS/ ■/ICRISAT ,v /ICRISAT ,/ICRISATco U U ICRISAT ICRISATIMAGES • /ICRISATSMCO