Being Manly Men: Conveying Masculinity Through Eating Behaviour … · 2015-07-22 · Being Manly...
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Being Manly Men: Conveying Masculinity Through Eating Behaviour by Lisa Jodi Lipschitz A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements For the degree of Master of Arts Graduate Department of Psychology In the University of Toronto Copyright by Lisa Jodi Lipschitz 2009
Transcript of Being Manly Men: Conveying Masculinity Through Eating Behaviour … · 2015-07-22 · Being Manly...
BeingManlyMen:ConveyingMasculinity
ThroughEatingBehaviour
by
LisaJodiLipschitz
Athesissubmittedinconformitywiththerequirements
ForthedegreeofMasterofArts
GraduateDepartmentofPsychology
IntheUniversityofToronto
CopyrightbyLisaJodiLipschitz2009
BeingManlyMen:ConveyingMasculinityThroughEatingBehaviour
LisaJodiLipschitz
MastersofArts2009
DepartmentofPsychology
UniversityofToronto
2009
Abstract
Malesweregivenfalsefeedbackthattheyscoredlow,high,ornofeedback(controlgroup)
onmasculinityandgivena“masculine”food(meatpizza),a“feminine”food(vegetarian
pizza),orthechoicebetweenthetwotoeat.Aninteractionbetweenmasculinitycondition
andfoodconditionwasfoundwhenthe“feminine”foodconditionandtheControlgroup
wereremoved,suchthatlow‐masculineparticipantsgivenmeatpizzaateasmallamount,
asdidhigh‐masculineparticipantsgivenachoice.High‐masculineparticipantsgivenmeat
pizzaatealargeamountoffoodasdidlow‐masculineparticipantsgivenachoice.Incertain
situationsmaleswanttoappearmasculineandthereforeeatalargeramountoffood,or
wanttoappearattractiveonotherdimensionsandthereforeeatasmalleramountoffood.
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Acknowledgements
Iwouldliketoexpressmygratitudetoallthosewhosupportedmewhilecompletingthis
thesis.AspecialthankyoutoDr.C.P.Hermanforadvisingmethroughoutthisyear.Athank
youtomythesiscommittee,Dr.J.PolivyandDr.A.Chasteen.Athankyoutothosewho
contributedideas,Dr.P.Pliner,LauraGirz,AbbyRemick,TulliaLeone,andVeronique
Provencher.
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TableofContents
1. Introduction 1‐8
2. StudyOne 9‐11
3. StudyTwo 11‐28
4. GeneralDiscussion 28‐32
5. References 33‐34
6. Appendices 34‐41
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Tables
1.Participants’ Demographic Information
2.Participants’ Ratings of the Pizza
3.Means of the amount eaten, Standard Deviations, and Group Sizes of the Conditions
4.Means, Standard Deviations, and Group Sizes of the Significant Interaction Conditions
5.Data from the Questionnaires
6.Correlations of Amount Eaten and Questionnaires
7.Social Motives Questionnaire Results of Eating Lunch with a Person of the Same Sex
8.Social Motives Questionnaire Results of Eating Lunch with Someone of the Opposite Sex
9. Social Motives Questionnaire Results of How Much to Eat When Eating with Someone of the
Same Sex
10. Social Motives Questionnaire Results of How Much to Eat When Eating with Someone of the
Opposite Sex
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Figures
1. MeansofAmountEatenintheFoodandMasculinityCondition
2. Means of Amount Eaten in the Food and Masculinity Conditions of the Significant
Interaction
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Appendices
1.InterestScaleforUniversityStudents
2.MoodScale
3.ManipulationChecks
4.SocialMotivesScale
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Introduction
Obesityrates,whicharerisinginNorthAmerica,arehigheramongCanadianmalesthan
amongCanadianfemales(HumanResourcesandSkillsDevelopmentCanada,2005;Starkey,
2005).Whyaremalesinparticularpronetoobesity?Owingtothepaucityofstudies
highlightingmaleeatingbehaviour,furtherinvestigationofthecontributionofspecific
eatingpatternstomaleobesityratesshouldbewelcome.Certainhealthyfoods,suchas
fruitsandparticularly,vegetables,arestereotypeddistinctivelyasfemininefoods,whereas
certainunhealthyfoods,suchasredmeat,arestereotypedasmasculinefoods(Herman&
Polivy,inpress).Thesestereotypesarenotinconsequential:forexample,maleseatfewer
vegetablesthandofemales(StatisticsCanada,2006).Althoughthestereotypemayreflect
thebehaviourpattern(i.e.,vegetablesare“feminine”becausefemalesaremorelikelytoeat
them),itisequallypossiblethatthebehaviourreflectsthestereotype(i.e.,malesdonoteat
vegetablespreciselybecausetheyare“feminine”).Thepresentstudywilltestthelatter
possibilitybyenhancingorthreateningthemasculinityofmaleparticipantsandobserving
howamanipulationofmasculinityaffectsthequantityandtypeoffoodthattheyeat.Itis
hypothesizedthatmaleswillexpress(orrepair)theirmasculinitythroughtheireating
behaviourbychoosing“masculine”foods;inparticularmalesconcernedabouttheir
masculinitywillbemorelikelytochoosefoodsperceivedas“masculine.”Ultimately,a
clearerexplanationofwhymaleseatlesshealthfuldietsmaybeprovided.
Food‐consumptionstereotypesarebasedontheselectionandquantityoffood
consumed(Vartanian,Herman,&Polivy,2007).Forexample,thosewhoeathealthyfoods
areperceivedmorepositivelyandseenasmorephysicallyattractive,intelligent,calm,
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likeable,self‐controlled,andmoralthanarethosewhoeatunhealthyfoods.Aswell,those
whoeatlow‐fatfoodsareratedashealthier,smallerinbodysize,andmoreactivethanare
thosewhoeathigh‐fatfoods.Asforquantity,women(ormen)whoeatsmallermealsare
perceivedasthinnerandmorefeminine(orlessmasculine)thanarethosewhoeatlarger
meals.Inaddition,thosewhoeatexcessivelyareviewedasunattractive,heavy,andless
feminine(Vartanianetal.,2007).Theseconsumptionstereotypesmaybeinternalizedand
whenoneiseatingwithothersandwantstomakeaspecificimpression,onewillconsider
theseconsumptionstereotypesandeataccordingly.Numerousstudieshavefoundthat
beinginasocialsituationcaninfluencefoodintakeregardlessofone’shungerandsatiety
(Herman&Polivy,2005,2008).Forinstance,peoplealtertheireatingbehaviourin
accordancetospecificfood‐consumptionstereotypeswheninthepresenceofothersto
conveyadesiredimpression(seeHerman,Roth,&Polivy,2003,forareview).InNorth
Americansociety,thisdesiredpersonaisofanon‐overindulgent,thin,andphysically
attractiveperson,especiallyamongstfemales.Femaleseatlesswheninthepresenceof
sociallydesirablemales,soastocreateapositiveimpressionandmakethemselvesappear
sociallydesirable,morefeminineandlessmasculine.Likewise,maleseatlessinthe
presenceofsomeoneoftheoppositesextoconveyapositiveimage(Chaiken&Pliner,
1989),butresearchhasnotexactlyexploredthereasonswhy.Presumablytheimagethat
maleswanttoconveybyeatingsparinglyincludesattractiveness,intelligence,and
discipline,butnotfemininity.Therefore,itisnotentirelyclearwhatsortofpositiveimage
malesaretryingtoportraybyeatinglesswhensomeoneoftheoppositesexispresent.
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Theliteratureisunclearastowhethermalesaltertheireatingbehaviour(e.g.,
consumefewervegetables)soastotrytoappearspecificallymoremasculine.Therehave
beenafewstudiesthathaveincludedmaleparticipantsinordertoexaminetheir
motivationforalteringtheireatingpatternsinthepresenceofothers.Mori,Chaikenand
Pliner(1987),intheirfirststudy,foundwhenmaleparticipantsatepeanutsandM&Ms
witheitheradesirableorundesirablefemaleormale,they(unlikethefemaleparticipants)
ateequalamountswithadesirableandundesirablepartner,suggestingthatamountoffood
eatenisnotanindicatorofmasculinityformen.Thefemaleparticipantsinthisstudyate
significantlylesswhentheirmalepartnerwasdesirable.Further,ChaikenandPliner
(1987)askeduniversitystudentstorateeitherafictitiousmaleorfemalewhoateeither
twosmallmealsortwolargemeals.Unlikethefictitiousfemales,thefictitiousmales’meal
sizehadnoimpactonthestudents’perceptionsoftheirfemininityormasculinity.However,
BockandKanarek(1995)foundthatasmealsizeincreased(i.e.,targetsweredepictedas
eatingtwosmall,twomedium,ortwolargemeals),bothfemaleandmaleeaterswererated
aslessfeminineandmoremasculine.PlinerandChaiken’s(1990)secondstudydidfind
thatitisimportantformalestoappearmasculinewheneatingwithsomeoneofthesameor
oppositesex,andeatingmoreisanindicatorofbeingmasculine.Asisapparent,the
numerousfindingsdoshowsomeindicationthatmalesmayaltertheirfoodconsumption
quantitytoportraymasculinity,buttheliteraturedoesnotprovideaclearconsensus.
Furthermore,Morietal.’s(1987)participantsweregiventhesameneutral(i.e.,neither
masculinenorfemininestereotyped)foodinthevariousgenderanddesirabilityconditions.
Acloserlookatdifferenttypesoffood,avariablethathasbeenlargelyneglectedin
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previousstudies,couldprovideinsightintohowmasculinityisexpressedwhenmaleseat.
Thepresentstudyplacedmalesinspecificexperimentalsituationstoexaminewhetheror
nottheywouldaltertheireatingbehaviour(quantity/foodtype)toappearmoremasculine.
OneexperimentinMorietal.(1987)providesanappropriatemodelforthe
proposedstudy.Inthisexperiment,theresearchersthreatenedorenhancedthefemininity
offemaleparticipantsandthengavethemtheopportunitytoeatpeanutsandM&Msinthe
presenceofasociallydesirablemalewhowaseitherawareornotawareoftheparticipants’
femininitystatus.Theideabehindthisprocedureisthatonemustcopewithathreatto
one’sidentity,andthemeansofdoingsomayinvolvetheuseofverbalexplanationsor
behaviouraltacticstominimizeorameliorateone’snewnegativeimage(Schlenker,1985as
citedinMorietal.,1987).Inthisparticularscenario,thefemaleswhosefemininityhadbeen
threatenedhadtheopportunitytouseabehaviouraltactic,impressionmanagement,to
minimizeoreliminatetheirnegativeimagebyeatinglessoftheavailablefood.Byeating
onlyasmallamountoftheavailablefood,thefemaleparticipantswouldappearmore
feminine.Thestudy’sresultsindicatedthatfemaleswhoatewithamalewhowasaware
thatthefemaleswere“low”infemininityatefewerpeanutsandM&Msthandidfemales
whosepartnerswereawarethattheywere“high”infemininity.Whentheirpartnerswere
unawareoftheparticipants’femininitystatus,participantswhoknewthemselvestobe
were“high”infemininityatelessthandidtheparticipantswhowere“low”infemininity.
Theparticipantswhosefemininitywas“high”(butwhosepartnerswereunaware)wanted
toexpressthishighfemininitystatustotheirpartnerandthereforeateless.Morietal.
(1987)foundthatfemaleswhosefemininityhadbeenthreatenedatelesswheninthe
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presenceofadesirablemaleinorderto“restore”theirfemininity.Maleparticipantswere
notincludedintheexperimentbecauseitwasassumed,onthebasisoftheliteraturethat
hasalreadybeenreviewed,thatmalesdidnotexpresstheirmasculinitythrougheating.
ThecurrentstudywasavariationonstudytwoofMorietal.(1987).Changes
includedhavingonlymaleparticipants;havingnoconfederatesinvolvedinthestudy;
includingacontrolconditioninwhichparticipantswerenotgivenanyinformationabout
theirmasculinity;servingfoodthatwaseither“masculine”or“feminine”;andaconditionin
whichparticipantshadachoicebetweendifferenttypesoffood.Thereasonsfornotusinga
confederateinthepresentstudyweretwo‐fold:1)iftheconfederateweretonoteatatall,
thentheconfederatewouldbeanon‐eatingobserver,therebyinhibitingtheeatingofthe
participant(Herman,etal.,2003)and2)iftheconfederateweretoeat,thenthe
confederatewouldineffectbecomeamodel,indicatingtotheparticipanthowmuchone
shouldeatinthisparticularsituation.Whenanexperimentalparticipant’seating
companioneatsalargeamountoffood,thentheparticipanttendstodosoaswell,andif
thecompanioneatsasmallamountoffood,theparticipanttendstodolikewise(Herman,et
al.,2003).Toavoidhavingaconfederateinfluencetheparticipants’eating,thestudywas
designedwithoutaconfederate.Rather,afemaleexperimenterprovided(false)feedbackto
theparticipantsregardingtheirmasculinity.Becausetheparticipantswereawarethatthe
experimenterknewtheirmasculinitystatus,weassumedthattheparticipantswouldalter
theireatingbehaviourtoconveyacertainimpressiontotheexperimenter.Thefemale
experimentertriedtomakeapositiveimpressiononthemaleparticipantsbydressingas
anundergraduatestudentandactinginafriendlymanner.Becausetheparticipantswere
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undergraduatestudents,wehopedthattheywouldattempttoimpresstheexperimenter.
Thefoodgiventotheparticipantswaspresentedinsuchawayinthatitwasobviousto
boththeparticipantandtheexperimenterhowmuchtheparticipantate.
InstudytwooftheMorietal.(1987)study,femalesweretoldtheythatwereeither
loworhighinfemininity(basedonabogusquestionnairethattheycompleted).The
presentstudyincludedanadditionalcontrolconditioninwhichparticipantswerenot
informedabouttheirmasculinitylevel.Thiscontrolconditionwasincludedinthepresent
studyinordertodeterminewhethertheparticipantswouldaltertheireatingwhenthey
wereinformedthattheyarelowinmasculinityorwhentheywereinformedthattheyare
highinmasculinityorboth.TheMorietal.(1987)studycouldnotdeterminewhichgroup
ofparticipants,theoneswhosefemininitywasthreatenedortheoneswhosefemininity
wasenhanced(orboth),alteredtheireatingbehaviourtoconveyaspecificimpression,
becausetherewasnocontrolconditionforcomparisonpurposes.Itshouldbefurthernoted
thatMorietal.(1987)didnottakethetypeoffoodintoconsideration;theyusedonly
peanutsandM&Msintheexperiment.However,weassumedthatthetypeoffoodplaysan
importantroleinconveyinganimpressionofmasculinity.Accordingly,differenttypesof
foodwereusedinthepresentstudysothat“feminine”and“masculine”foodswereboth
represented.Someofparticipantswillhadachoicebetweena“masculine”or“feminine”
food.
Apreliminarystudywasconductedtoconfirmthatcertainfoods,suchasvegetables,
arestereotypedasmore“feminine”andthatotherfoods,suchasredmeat,aremore
“masculine”.Thesecondstudywasanexperimentinwhichmaleparticipantswereassigned
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toexperimentalconditionsthatthreatened(orenhanced)theirmasculinity(analogoustoa
similarmanipulationimposedonfemalesbyMorietal.,1987,aspreviouslydiscussed).
Threatened(Low‐Masculinity:Lo‐Masc)malesweretoldthatonan“interestscale”they
scoredlowinmasculinity,whereasintheHigh‐Masculinity(Hi‐Masc)conditionmaleswere
toldthattheyscoredhighinmasculinity.Inaddition,athird(Control)groupofmaleswas
givennoinformationabouthowtheyscoredonthebogusinterestscale.Themale
participantswerealsoassignedtooneofthreefoodconditionsinwhichthey(a)atea
“masculine”food,(b)atea“feminine”foodor(c)couldchoosebetweenthetwo.The
differentfoodtypesofferedtotheparticipantswereintendedtorepresent“masculine”and
“feminine”choicesandbeequallypalatable,asdeterminedbythepreviouslymentioned
pilotstudy.Thereasonforutilizingthefirsttwofood‐type(no‐choice)conditionswasto
motivatetheparticipantstoexpresstheirmasculinitythroughquantityoffoodconsumed.
Thethird(choice)conditionallowedthemtoexpresstheirmasculinitythroughselecting
eithera“masculine”or“feminine”food.
Itwashypothesizedthatthreatened(Lo‐Masc)maleswhohadthechoiceofeating
“masculine”foodor“feminine”foodwouldasserttheirmasculinitybychoosing“masculine”
food.Lo‐Mascmaleswhowerepresentedwithonlythe“masculine”foodcouldnotusetheir
choiceof“masculine”foodtoasserttheirmasculinity;therefore,theywouldhavetoeat
moreofthe“masculine”foodthanthoseLo‐Mascmaleswhocouldasserttheirmasculinity
bychoosinga“masculine”food.WeexpectedLo‐Mascmalesinthemasculine‐food
conditiontoeatmorethantheparticipantsinalltheotherconditions.Participantsinthe
feminine‐foodconditionshouldhavetroubleassertingtheirmasculinity.Itisnotclear
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whethereatingalotof“feminine”foodmakesoneappeartobemorefeminine(becausethe
foodis“feminine)ormoremasculine(becauseeatingalargeamountis“masculine”).We
tentativelyexpectedthattheLo‐Mascmalesinthefeminine‐foodconditionwouldavoidthe
“feminine”foodandeatsparingly.Hi‐MascandControlmaleswereexpectedto(a)notbeas
decisiveinchoosingthe“masculine”foodasLo‐Mascmaleswouldbeinthechoice
conditionand(b)eatless“masculine”foodthanLo‐Mascmaleswouldeatinthemasculine
condition.TherewasnoparticularpredictionforHigh‐MascandControlmalesandversus
Lo‐Mascmalesinthefeminine‐foodcondition,whichistheconditionthatisthemost
ambiguous.
Thisstudywasdesignedtoprovideanentryintounderstandingtheroleof
masculinityindrivingtheintakeof“masculine”foodandavoiding“feminine”food.This
investigation,itwashoped,wouldallowresearcherstoapproachananswertothequestion
ofwhethermalesportraytheirmasculinitythrougheating.Ifinfactmalesdoportray
themselvesasmasculinethroughtheireatingbehaviour,thenperhapswecouldprovida
partialexplanationofwhymaleseatlessfruitsandvegetablesthanfemalesdo.Researchers
willconsequentlybeinapositiontoexploremanipulationsorinterventionsthatwilldeter
malesfromeatingunhealthyfoodsandamounts,andencouragemalestomakehealthier
foodchoices.
StudyOne
Afirststudywasconductedtoconfirmwhichfoodsarestereotypedasfeminineand
whicharestereotypedasmasculine.Aswell,thesamefoodswereratedontaste.
Specifically,thestudywasconductedtoconfirmifvegetablesandfoodswithvegetablesare
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stereotypedasmore“feminine”andifcertainfoods,suchasredmeat,areratedas
“masculine”.“Masculine”and“feminine”foodsthatwereratedasequallygoodtastingwere
usedinthesecondstudy.
Method
Participants
Twenty‐fivemalesbetweentheagesof19yearsand30years,(M=24)volunteered
tofillinthesurvey.Seventy‐sixpercentoftheparticipantsindicatedthattheywereof
Caucasiandescent,20%indicatedthattheywereofAsiandescent,and4%indicatedthat
theywereofmixeddescent.
Materials
Anonlinesurveyconsistingoffivequestionswasdesignedbytheresearcherwith
inputfromtheeating‐researchlabattheUniversityofToronto.Thefirstthreequestions
inquiredabouttherespondent’sage,gender,andethnicity.Thesurveythenrandomlylisted
78differentfoods(e.g.,apple,meatpizza,tomatoes,vegetablesandwich,vegetarianpizza,
meatballsub)inrandomorderforeachparticipant.Participantswereaskedtorateona
Likertscalefrom1to7howtheywouldrateeachitemonfemininity/masculinity(1=
“extremelyfeminine”,4=“neutral”,and7=“extremelymasculine”).Theraterswerethen
giventhesamelistoffoodinadifferentorderandwereaskedtoratehowmuchtheyliked
eachfooditemonaLikertscalefrom1to7(1=“extremelydislike”,4=“neutral”,and7=
“extremelylike”).
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Procedure
Participantsweregivenanonlinelinktoaccessthesurvey.Participantswereableto
fillinthesurveyconfidentiallyonanycomputerwithinternetaccessatanypointintime.
Theparticipants’answerswerecollectedbytheresearcherthroughanonlinesurvey
programandthenenteredintoSPSSfordataanalysis.
Results
Meansweretabulatedforthemasculinity/femininityratingsofthefoodandhow
muchtheparticipantslikedeachfooditem.Theparticipantsratedvegetablesandwiches
(2.64onthe7‐pointscale)andvegetarianpizza(2.97onthe7‐pointscale)asfeminine,
whereasmeatsandwiches(5.58onthe7‐pointscale)andmeat‐loverspizza(6.12onthe7‐
pointscale)wereratedas“masculine.”Thelikingratingsshowedthatparticipantsdidnot
likevegetablesandwiches(3.68onthe7‐pointscale)butdidlikemeatsandwiches(5.48on
the7‐pointscale),vegetarianpizza(meanof4.32onthe7‐pointscale),andmeat‐lovers
pizza(5.00onthe7‐pointscale).
Apairedt‐testconfirmedthattherewasnodifferencebetweenhowtheparticipants
ratedlikingvegetarianpizzaandmeat‐loverspizza(t(24)=‐1.32,p<.2).
Discussion
Becausethevegetarianpizzaandmeatpizzawereequallylikedbutdramatically
differentwithrespecttogenderstereotype(vegetarianpizzabeing“feminine”andmeat
pizzabeing“masculine”),itwasdecidedtousethesetwoequallypreferredfoodsasthe
“feminine”and“masculine”foodsinsecondstudyinorderforpersonalpreferencenotbea
confoundingfactor.
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StudyTwo
Studytwoexaminedwhethermalesexpresstheirmasculinitythroughtheireating
behaviourbyeithereatinglargeamountsoffoodorchoosing“masculine”food.
Method
Participants
Onehundredandtwenty‐fourmalestudentswererecruitedfromtheundergraduate
psychologysubjectpoolattheUniversityofToronto.Theparticipantswererunbetween
thehoursof11:00amand7:00pm.Theparticipantsaveraged20yearsold(range17‐44).
Mostoftheparticipants(61.3%)livedwiththeirfamilyand62.3%wereintheirfirstyear
ofuniversity.Forty‐sixpercentoftheparticipantsindicatedthattheywereofCaucasian
descent,38.7%indicatedthattheywereofEastAsiandescent,8%indicatedthatwerean
ethnicitythatwasnotlisted,2.4%indicatedthattheywereSouthAsian,1.6%indicatedthat
theywereBlack,1.6%indicatedthattheywereHispanic,and1.6%indicatedthattheywere
MiddleEastern.Participantsparticipatedinthestudyinexchangeforresearch‐
participationcredittowardstheirIntroductiontoPsychologycourseorfor$10.00.
Participantswereabletotakepartinthestudyonlyiftheyweremaleandiftheydidnot
haveanydietaryrestrictionsduetoallergiesorreligion.Participantswerealsorequiredto
havebeenborninNorthAmerica,orhavemovedtoNorthAmericabeforetheageoften,
duetotheculturalcontextofthestudy.
Materials
Participantswereruninatestingroomwithatableandchair,andwerefirstasked
tosignaconsentformdescribingthedetailsoftheprocedureofthestudy.Abogusinterest
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scale(seeAppendixA)wascreatedforparticipantstofillouttodeterminetheir
preferences(allegedlymasculineandfeminine)foractivities.Participantsweretoldthat
thisscalewaspartofaresearchprojectinadifferentlab,sothattheywouldassumethat
theresultsofthescalewouldhavenothingtodowiththestudyinwhichtheywereactually
participating.Askingparticipantstofilloutthisscalegavetheexperimenterthe
opportunitytotellparticipants(atalaterpointintheproceedings)thattheyscoredhighor
lowinmasculinity.Ona7‐pointLikertscale,participantswereaskedtoratehowmuchthey
likedoing20particularactivities(1=“stronglydislike”;7=“stronglylike”).Examplesof
activitieswere:listeningtoCDs,traveling,reading,andwatchingtelevision,whichare
neitherstereotypicallymasculineorfeminine.Theactivitieswereneutral,therebyallowing
theexperimentertocontrolwhichparticipants“scored”loworhighinmasculinity.
Participantswereaskedtofilloutademographicinformationsheet,whichprovided
theresearcherswithinformationontheparticipants’gender,ethnicity,religion,religiosity,
yearinuniversity,andhousingsituation.Participantsfilledoutamoodscale(seeAppendix
B)inwhich34emotionwordswerelistedinLikertformat(1=“veryslightlyornotatall”;5
=“extremely”).Participantsassignedanumbertoeachemotionindicatinghowtheyfeltat
theparticularmoment.Examplesofemotionswere:relaxed,jittery,hungry,embarrassed,
full,andproud.Participantsweregivenmeatorvegetarianpizza(orachoice)toeat,insuch
awaythatitwasobvioustotheparticipantthattheexperimenterwouldknowhowmuch
theparticipanthadeaten.Allthepizzaservedwasorderedfromthesamecompanyandcut
upintorectangles.Eachparticipantwasserved12rectanglesofpizza,thatwere2inches
wideand5incheslong,inarectangularformationonatray.
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Participantswerethenaskedtofilloutafinalsetofquestionnairesthatincludethe
threemanipulationchecks(seeAppendixC),theSelf‐MonitoringScale(Snyder,1974),the
NeedtoBelongScale(Leary,Kelly,Cottrell,&Schreindorfer,2007),theRestraintScale
(Herman&Polivy,1980),theRosenbergSelf‐EsteemScale(Rosenberg,1989),theBrief
FearofNegativeEvaluationScale(Leary,1983),andasocialmotivesquestionnaire
regardingeating(basedonPliner&Chaiken,1990,seeAppendixD).TheSelf‐Monitoring
Scale,theNeedtoBelongScale,theBriefFearofNegativeEvaluationScale,andthe
RosenbergSelf‐EsteemScalewereincludedbecausecurrentresearchinasimilarlabis
lookingatthesevariables,anditmayprovetobeimportanttobeabletocompareresults
betweenthepresentstudyandstudiesconductedintheotherlab.Aswell,somepersonality
variablesmayaffecttheamounteaten.
ManipulationChecks.Thefirstmanipulationcheck(seeAppendixC)assessed
whethertheparticipantsthoughtthatthemeatpizzawasmasculineandthatthevegetarian
pizzawasfeminine,andhowmuchtheylikedthepizza.Thesecondmanipulationcheck
determinediftheparticipantsfoundtheexperimenterattractiveandiftheyweretryingto
impressher.Finally,thethirdmanipulationcheckassessedhowmasculineandfeminine
theparticipantsperceivedthemselvestobe.
Dietaryrestraint.TheRestraintScale(Herman&Polivy,1980)wasusedtoassess
dietaryrestraintandincludestenitemsassessingone’seatingbehaviourandweight
fluctuations.Itisalsoasksparticipantstoreporttheircurrentweightandheight.Those
whoareidentifiedasrestrainedandunrestrainedwerecomparedinordertodetermineif
theeatingbehaviourdiffersbetweenthosearerestrainedeatersandthosewhoarenot.
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Selfmonitoring.Toassessself‐monitoringtheSelf‐MonitoringScale(Snyder,1974)
wasused.Participantsmustindicateonthisscalehowtheyreacttodifferentsituationsby
indicatingeither“mostlytrue”or“notusuallytrue”.Itemsonthisscaleinclude:“Imay
deceivepeoplebybeingfriendlywhenIreallydislikethem”,“Ihaveconsideredbeingan
entertainer”,and“Iamnotparticularlygoodatmakingotherpeoplelikeme”.
Selfesteem.TheRosenbergSelf‐EsteemScale(Rosenberg,1989)measured
participants’levelofself‐esteemwitha10‐itemquestionnaire.Participantsmustrespond
from1(stronglyagree)to4(stronglydisagree)ontheitems.Itemsincluded:“IfeelthatI
haveanumberofgoodqualities”and“Icertainlyfeeluselessattimes.”
Fearofnegativeevaluation.TheBriefFearofNegativeEvaluationScale(Leary,
1983)assessedhowcharacteristicitwasoftheparticipantsindifferentscenariostoworry
abouthowothersviewthem.Participantsmustindicatefrom1(“notatallcharacteristicof
me”)to5(“extremelycharacteristicofme”)on12items.Examplesofitemsinclude:“Iam
afraidotherswillnotapproveofme”and“Iamusuallyworriedaboutwhatkindofimpression
Imake.”
Needtobelong.TheNeedtoBelongScale(Learyetal.,2007)wasusedtoassess
one’sneedtobelong.Thescaleincludestenitemsinwhichtheparticipantsmustindicate
theextentoftheiragreement,from1(stronglydisagree)to5(stronglyagree)witheach
item.Itemsonthisscaleinclude:“Ihaveastrongneedtobelong”and“Iseldomworryabout
whetherotherpeoplecareaboutme.”
Socialmotivesinregardstoeating.Asocialmotivesquestionnaire(basedonPliner&
Chaiken,1990,seeAppendixD)assessedhowimportantitwasforparticipantstoconveya
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certainimpressionwhenhavinglunchwithsomeonewhomtheyhavenotmetbeforeand
whoisofthesameoroppositesex.Itemsincludedinthisquestionnaireareattemptsto
appearattractive,polite,healthy,fit,feminine,andmasculine,andsoon.Participantsmust
indicateona7‐pointLikertscalefrom1(notatallimportant)through7(extremely
important)howimportantitisforthemtoconveyacertainimpression.Thesecondpartof
thesocialmotivesquestionnaireasksparticipantshowmuchtheywouldeatiftheywere
tryingtoconveyacertainimpressionwhenhavinglunchwithalikablepersonwhomthey
justmetwhoisofthesameoroppositesex.Ona7‐pointLikertscale,participantsmust
indicatefrom1(extremelysmallamount)through7(extremelylargeamount)howmuch
theywouldeat.Examplesofitemsincludehowmuchparticipantswouldeatiftheywere
tryingtoappearattractive,healthy,masculine,andfeminine.Theresultsofthisscalemay
revealmales’motivesforalteringtheireatingbehaviourinsocialsituations.
Procedure
Participantswereinstructednottoeatforthreehoursbeforearrivingatthelab.
Onceparticipantsarrivedatthelab,theywerewelcomedbytheexperimenterandshown
tothetestingroom.Thestudytookapproximatelyonehourforeachparticipantandrun
participantswererunindividually.Participantswereaskedtoreadandsigntheconsent
formiftheyagreedtoparticipate,whichallparticipantsagreedto.Participantsthenfilled
inthebogusinterestscale(seeAppendixA),whichtheywereinformedwasanassessment
oftheinterestsofuniversitystudents,allegedlybecausetheresultswouldbeusedin
anotherlab.Participantssubsequentlyfilledoutthedemographicinformationsheet.
Participantswererandomlyassignedtooneofthreemasculinityconditions:1)low
16
masculinity(Lo‐Masc),2)highmasculinity(Hi‐Masc),or3)nofeedback(Control).After
participantscompletedthedemographicinformationsheet,thoseintheLo‐Masccondition
weretoldthattheyscoredlowinmasculinityontheinterestscale(seeAppendixA),
participantsintheHi‐Mascconditionweretoldtheyscoredhighinmasculinity,andthe
participantsintheControlconditionweregivennoinformationabouthowtheyscored.
Participantsthenfilledoutthefirstmoodscale.Becauseparticipantsassumedthat
theeffectofeatingonmoodwasbeingevaluated,participantswereaskedtofilloutamood
scale(seeAppendixB)beforeandaftertheyate.Theonlyitemsonthemoodscaleofactual
importancetotheexperimenterwerethehungerandfullnessratings.Participantswere
alsoassignedtoafood‐typecondition:1)masculinefood(meatpizza),2)femininefood
(vegetarianpizza),or3)choiceoffoodcondition(optiontoselectmeatorvegetarian
pizza).Thepizzawasservedinsuchawaythatitwasobvioustotheparticipantand
researcherhowmuchtheparticipantate,andtheparticipantswereinformedbythe
experimenterto“eatasmuchasyoulike.”Theexperimenterthenlefttheroom,closingthe
door,andtheparticipantopenedthedoorwhenhewasfinishedeating.Theeating
materialswerethenclearedbytheexperimenterandparticipantswereaskedtofilloutthe
secondmoodscale.Participantswerethengiventherestofthetestingmaterialstofillout
bythemselvesinthetestingroomwiththedoorshut.Participantswereaskedtoopenthe
doorwhentheyweredonefillinginthescales.Thescalesincludedthethreemanipulation
checks,theRestraintScale(HermanandPolivy,1980),theSelf‐MonitoringScale(Snyder,
1974),theRosenbergSelf‐EsteemScale(Rosenberg,1989),theBriefFearofNegative
17
EvaluationScale(Leary,1983),theNeedtoBelongScale(Learyetal.,2007),andtheeating
withsocialmotivesquestionnaires(basedonPliner&Chaiken,1990,seeAppendixD).
Lastly,participantswerethankedforparticipatinganddebriefedaboutthetrue
natureofthestudy,andwereaskedtosignare‐consentformindicatingtheyknewthetrue
natureofthestudyandthattheyconsentedtotheirdatabeingused.Alltheparticipants
signedthere‐consentform.Participantswereshownoutofthelab.
Results
Means,standarddeviations,andrangeswerecalculatedfortheparticipants’
demographicinformationandperceivedmasculinityandfemininityasshowninTable1.
Mean Standard Deviation Range N
Age 20 3.795 17 - 44 124
Religion 2.93 2.396 1 – 8 124
Religious Level 2.76 1.847 1 - 7 123
Year in University 1.76 1.220 1 - 7 122
Residence 1.90 1.255 1 - 4 124
Perceived Masculinity 5.35 .838 3 – 7 124
Perceived Femininity 2.81 1.286 1 - 6 124
18
Participants’eating’softhepizzaareshowninTable2.
Mean Standard Deviation Range N
Amount Eaten (grams) 428.411 160.6839 103.1 – 1033.1 124
Number of pieces eaten 5.10 2.058 1 - 12 124
Liked the pizza 4.79 1.302 2 - 7 124
Liking of meat pizza 5.14 1.422 2 - 7 123
Liking of vegetarian pizza 3.82 1.647 1 - 7 119
Rating of meat pizza on
masculinity/femininity
5.46 1.058 2 - 7 123
Rating of vegetarian pizza on
masculinity/femininity
3.45 1.072 1 – 7 119
Theoverallmeanoffoodintakewas428.41gramsofpizza,themeannumberofpieces
eatenwas5.10,andtheoverallmeanofparticipants’likingofthepizzawasa4.79(onthe
7‐pointscale).
Manipulationchecks.Participantsratedthemeat‐loverspizzaas“masculine”(mean
of5.43onthe7‐pointscale)andthevegetarianpizzaas“feminine”(meanof3.46onthe7‐
pointscale).Apairedt‐testconfirmedthattheseratingsaresignificantlydifferent(t(117)=
12.53,p<.001).Participantsdidsignificantlyratelikingmeatpizza(meanof5.10onthe7‐
pointscale)morethanvegetarianpizza(meanof3.80)(t(117)=6.78,p<.001).The
participantswhoatemeatpizzaandtheparticipantswhoatevegetarianpizza,equallyliked
thepizza(t(82)=1.31,p<.195).Onaveragetheparticipantssaidtheywantedtoimpress
19
theexperimenterasa4outof7andthatshewasa5.31(onthe7‐pointscale)on
attractiveness.
Themeanratingoftheparticipants’perceivedmasculinitylevelwas5.35(onthe7‐
pointscale)andthemeanratingoftheirperceivedfemininitylevelwas2.81(onthe7‐point
scale).Independentt‐testsconfirmedasignificantdifferencebetweenthoseintheLo‐Masc
conditionwhoratedthemselvesaslessmasculine(5.2onthe7‐pointscale)thandidthose
intheHi‐Masccondition(5.61onthe7‐pointscale)(t(80)=2.32,p<.02).Therewasno
significantdifferencebetweenthoseintheLo‐Masccondition(5.2onthe7‐pointscale)and
thoseintheControlgroupcondition(5.26onthe7‐pointscale)onperceivedmasculinity(t
(81)=.331,p>.74).TherewasasignificantdifferencebetweenthoseintheHi‐Masc
condition(5.61onthe7‐pointscale)andthoseintheControlcondition(5.26onthe7‐point
scale)onperceivedmasculinity(t(81)=2.15,p<.034).
Overallanalysis.Thedatawereanalyzedbytwo‐wayanalysisofvariance(ANOVAs)
usingmasculinitycondition(Lo‐Masc,Hi‐Masc,orControl)andfoodtypecondition
(femininefood,masculinefood,orchoiceoffood)astheindependentvariables.The
dependentvariablewastheamountofpizzaconsumedand,inthechoicecondition,the
pizzatypechosen,whicharedisplayedinTable3.
20
Meat Pizza Vegetarian Pizza Choice of Pizza Total
Low Masculinity 370.880
(155.4625)
n = 15
456.064
(212.0468)
n = 14
441.892
(112.5060)
n = 12
420.751
(167.5002)
n = 41
High Masculinity 451.487
(168.7267)
n = 15
505.857
(170.8984)
n = 14
354.458
(110.5492)
n = 12
441.654
(163.0239)
n = 41
Control Group 426.000
(178.9241)
n = 14
443.313
(135.2904)
n = 15
396.208
(155.8668)
n = 13
422.962
(154.5733)
n = 42
Total 415.898
(167.3270)
n = 44
467.828
(172.6308)
n = 43
397.484
(130.2881)
n = 37
428.411
(160.6839)
n = 124
Themajorityoftheparticipantsinthechoiceconditionchosethemeatpizza;thatis,33out
of37participantschosethemeatpizzawhentheyhadthechoice.AnANOVAshowedthat
therewasnosignificantmaineffectforfoodcondition(F(2,114)=2.164,p>.11),therewas
nosignificantmaineffectformasculinitycondition(F(2,114)=.119,p>.88),andtherewas
nofoodconditionxmasculineconditioninteraction(F(4,114)=1.143,p>.33)(seeFigure
1).Thehomogeneityofvarianceisnotsignificant(F(8,115)=.749,p>.64).
21
AdditionalANOVAswereconductedeliminatingsomeoftheconditions.AnANOVA
eliminatingthe“feminine”foodconditionandtheControlcondition,revealednosignificant
maineffectsbutasignificantcross‐overinteraction(F(1,50)=4.66,p<.036)(seeFigure2).
Thehomogeneityofvarianceisnotsignificant(F(3,50)=1.336,p<.273).Table4
showsthemeans,standarddeviations,andgroupsizesofthisdata.
22
Meat Pizza Choice of Pizza Total
Low Masculinity 370.880 (155.4625)
n = 15
441.892 (112.5060)
n = 12
402.441 (140.2212)
n = 27
High Masculinity 451.487 (168.7267)
n = 15
354.458 (110.5492)
n = 12
408.363 (151.3729)
n = 27
Total 411.183 (164.5949)
n = 30
398.175 (117.8675)
n = 24
405.402 (144.5515)
n = 54
Thesameanalyseswererundroppingthoseparticipantswhoweresuspiciousof
theirmasculinityresultsandtheresultswereeffectivelythesame,sofortheanalysesall
theparticipants’resultswereincluded.Therewerenosignificantethnicitydifferences
betweenthedifferentgroups(F(4,115)=1.17,p>.32),evenwhentheControlgroup
conditionandthefemininefoodconditionwereremoved(F(1,50)=1.39,p>.24).Therewas
nosignificantdifferenceintheamounteatendependingontheparticipants’ethnicity(F=
(5.48)1.172,p>.33).
Questionnaires.Scoresonthemoodscaleindicatedthatparticipantswerehungry
beforetheyatethepizza(meanof3.65ona5‐pointscale)andwerenothungrywhenthey
finishedeating(meanof1.11ona5‐pointscale).Apairedsamplest‐testconfirmedthat
thesemeansaresignificantlydifferent(t(123)=26.54,p<.001).Resultsfromthemood
scalesalsoindicatedthattheparticipantswerenotfullbeforetheyate(meanof1.2ona5‐
pointscale)butwerefullaftertheyatethepizza(meanof4.13ona5‐pointscale).Apaired
23
samplest‐testconfirmedthesemeansweresignificantlydifferent(t(123)=36.46,p<
.001).
Themeanscoresonthetraitscaleswere:forrestraint,10.48;forself‐monitoring,
14.19:forself‐esteem,22.06:forneed‐to‐belong,31.74:andforfearofnegativeevaluation,
34.94.Table5displaystheparticipants’means,standarddeviations,andrangesofthe
questionnaires.
Mean Standard Deviation Range N
Dietary restraint 10.48 5.288 2 – 23 124
Self-monitoring 14.19 3.820 6 - 23 123
Self-esteem 22.06 4.813 9 – 30 124
Need-to-belong 31.74 6.746 16 - 50 124
Fear of negative evaluation 34.94 10.174 14 - 58 124
CorrelationswerecalculatedandshowninTable6.Therearenosignificant
correlationsbetweenscoresonthetraitsquestionnairesandtheamounteaten.
R p
Restraint -.099 .274
Self-Monitoring -.006 .949
Self-esteem .120 .184
Need-to-belong -.076 .399
Fear of negative evaluation -.134 .138
24
Meanscoresonthesocialmotivesquestionnaireregardinghavinglunchwith
someoneofthesamesexindicatedthatitwouldbe5.14(onthe7‐pointscale)importantto
makeagoodimpression,5.35tobepolite,3.10toappearattractive,1.48toappear
feminine,4.40toappearmasculine,4.57toappearhealthy,and3.94toappearsuperiorand
areshowninTable7.
Mean Standard Deviation Range N
Impression 5.14 1.290 1 - 7 124
Polite 5.35 1.409 1- 7 124
Attractive 3.10 1.708 1 – 7 124
Interested 5.07 1.211 1 – 7 124
Involved 5.56 1.212 2 - 7 124
Feminine 1.48 .897 1 – 4 124
Masculine 4.40 1.869 1 – 7 124
Healthy/Fit 4.57 1.827 1 - 7 124
Superior 3.94 1.847 1 - 7 124
Similar 3.91 1.830 1 - 7 124
Meanscoresonthesocialmotivesquestionnaireregardinghavinglunchwith
someoneoftheoppositesexindicatedthatitwouldbe6.15(onthe7‐pointscale)
importanttomakeagoodimpression,6.20tobepolite,5.92toappearattractive,2.07to
appearfeminine,4.91toappearmasculine,5.58toappearhealthy,and2.90toappear
superiorandareshowninTable8.
25
Mean Standard Deviation Range N
Impression 6.15 1.099 1 - 7 123
Polite 6.20 .958 3 - 7 123
Attractive 5.92 1.053 2 – 7 123
Interested 6.10 .824 3 – 7 123
Involved 6.29 .894 2 - 7 123
Feminine 2.07 1.256 1 - 5 123
Masculine 4.91 1.531 1 – 7 123
Healthy/Fit 5.58 1.293 1 – 7 123
Superior 2.90 1.734 1 - 7 123
Similar 3.80 1.646 1 - 7 122
Pairedsamplest‐testsconfirmedasignificantdifferencebetweenwantingtomakea
goodimpression(t(122)=9.03,p<.001),appearingpolite(t(122)=7.37,p<.001),
appearingattractive(t(122)=17.26,p<.001),appearinginterested(t(122)=9.43,p<.001),
appearingfeminine(t(122)=6.76,p<.001),appearingmasculine(t(122)=2.98,p<.003),
andappearinghealthy(t(122)=‐6.76,p<.001)wheneatingwithsomeoneofthesamesex
versuseatingwithsomeoneoftheoppositesex.
Regardinghowmuchtheparticipantswouldeatwhentheywereeatingwith
someoneofthesamesexmeanscoresindicatedthatiftheywantedtomakeagood
impressiontheywouldeat4.81(onthe7‐pointscale),4.23toappearpolite,4.17toappear
26
attractive,2.27toappearfeminine,5.89toappearmasculine,4.53toappearhealthy,and
5.83toappearsuperiorandareshowninTable9.
Mean Standard Deviation Range N
Amount 1 4.81 1.049 1 – 7 124
Amount 2 4.23 .961 1 - 6 124
Amount 3 4.17 1.114 1 - 7 123
Amount 4 3.94 1.026 1 - 6 124
Amount 5 3.73 1.143 1 – 6 124
Amount 6 2.27 1.202 1- 6 123
Amount 7 5.89 1.080 1 - 7 123
Amount 8 4.53 1.051 1 – 7 123
Amount 9 5.83 1.259 1 – 7 123
Amount 10 4.55 .863 1 - 7 122
Participants’meanscoresforhowmuchtheywouldeatwheneatingwithsomeone
oftheoppositesexwere4.23(onthe7‐pointscale)tomakeagoodimpression,3.98tobe
polite,4.00toappearattractive,2.36toappearfeminine,5.49toappearmasculine,4.35to
appearhealthy,and5.07toappearsuperiorandareshowninTable10.
27
Mean Standard Deviation Range N
Amount 1 4.23 .953 2 – 7 124
Amount 2 3.98 .924 2- 7 124
Amount 3 4.00 1.119 1 - 7 123
Amount 4 3.56 1.062 1 – 7 124
Amount 5 3.30 1.119 1 – 7 124
Amount 6 2.36 1.171 1 – 7 124
Amount 7 5.49 .984 1 - 7 124
Amount 8 4.35 1.004 1 - 7 124
Amount 9 5.07 1.510 1 - 7 124
Amount 10 3.54 .943 1 - 7 123
Discussion
Whenmenaregiventhechoicebetweenmeat‐loverspizzaandvegetarianpizzathey
tendtochosethemeat‐loverspizza.Althoughthepilotstudyfoundthatmaleuniversity
studentsequallypreferredmeatpizzaandvegetarianpizza,themalesinthesecondstudy
almostunanimouslychosethemeatpizza.Themalesinthisstudyratedlikingmeatpizza
morethanlikingvegetarianpizza,expectwhentheyactuallyatethepizza.Thisunexpected
biasmeantthattherewaslittleopportunityforLo‐Mascmalestochoosethemeatpizza
morethanHi‐Mascmaleschoseit.
Aninteractionbetweenmasculinityconditionandfoodconditionwasfoundwhen
thefemininefoodconditionandtheControlgroupwereremoved,withLo‐Masc
28
participantsgivenmeatpizzaeatingasmallamount,asdidHi‐Mascsgivenachoice.Hi‐
Mascsgivenmeatpizzaatealargeamountoffood,asdidLo‐Mascsgivenachoice(see
Figure2).Astheresultswerenotwhatwaspreviouslypredicted,weproposethatLo‐Mascs
inthemeatconditioncannotrestoretheirthreatenedmasculinitybyfreelychoosing
masculinefoodandsotheytryappeardesirableonothertraits,suchasdisciplined,
intelligent,andpolite.Hi‐Mascsinthemeatconditionarepossiblycontentwiththeir
masculinityandthereforeeatalot,inconformingwiththeirmasculinitylevel.Lo‐Mascs
givenachoicechooseamasculinefoodandwanttoemphasizetheirmasculinityand
thereforeeatalargeamount.Hi‐Mascsgivenachoicechooseamasculinefood,butalso
wanttoalsoappeardesirableonothertraits,suchaspolitenessandintelligent,and
thereforeeatonlyasmallamount.Dependingonthespecificcircumstances(threatened
masculinity,availabilityofchoice)maleseatalottoconveymasculinityoreatasmall
amounttoappearattractiveonotherdimensions.
GeneralDiscussion
Whenpeopleeatandwanttoconveyaspecificimpressiontoothers,theywillalter
theireatingtoportraythemselvesaccordingly.Forexample,inthepresenceofadesirable
male,femaleswilleatlesstoconveyfemininity.Whatimpressiondomaleswanttoportray
whileeatinginthepresenceofafemale?Thepresentstudyfoundthatmaleschosemeat
pizzaovervegetarianpizza,eventhoughaprevioussimilarsampleofmalesratedthe
differentpizzasasequallygoodtasting.Perhapsthisactofchoosinga“masculine”food
portraysmasculinity.Whenmaleshavetheoptionandwanttodoso,theyexpresstheir
masculinitythroughtheireatingbehaviourbychoosingmeatovervegetablesandeatinga
29
lotofthemeat.Aftertheinteractionwasfound,itisproposedthatincertainsituations
malesdonotwanttoappear“pig‐like”andwouldratherappearmoral,intelligent,polite,
andsophisticatedanddosobyeatingasmalleramountof“masculine”food.Whenmales
arethreatenedandgivenameatpizzatoeat,theytendtoeatlessofthemeatpizzainorder
topresentthemselvesashavinggoodqualitiessuchasbeingintelligent,polite,andmoral.
Whenthethreatenedmalesaregiventhechoiceofmeatorvegetarianpizzatheychosethe
meatpizzatoasserttheirmasculinityandfurtherasserttheirmasculinitybyeatingalotof
thepizza.Whenmalesaretoldtheyarehighinmasculinitytheyarehappythatthefemale
servingthemknowstheyaremasculineandthereforeeatalotofmeatpizzatoconfirm
theirmasculinityanddonotworryaboutpresentingthemselvesasintelligent,moral,and
polite.Themaleswhosemasculinityhasbeenenhancedandhavethechoiceofeatinga
“masculine”or“feminine”food,knowingthefemaleservingthemknowstheyare
masculine,theyasserttheirmasculinitybychoosingamasculinefood,andtheneatlessof
thepizzainordertoappearintelligent,polite,andmoral,aswellasmasculine.
Thesocialmotivesquestionnairesindicatedthatmalesconsiderthatmakingagood
impressionisimportantwheneatingwithsomeoneofthesamesex,asisappearingpolite,
interested,masculine,andhealthy.Malesalsoreportthatwheneatingwithsomeoneofthe
oppositesexmakingagoodimpressionisimportant,aswellasappearingpolite,attractive,
interested,masculine,andhealthy.Furtheranalysisshowedthatparticipantsreportedthat
itwasmoreimportanttomakeagoodimpression,appearpolite,attractive,interested,
feminine,masculine,andhealthywheneatingwithsomeoneoftheoppositesexthanwhen
eatingwithsomeoneofthesamesex.Overall,whenoneiseatingwithsomeoneofthe
30
oppositesexitisimportanttomakeagoodimpression,consistingofappearingpolite,
attractive,interested,masculine,andhealthy.
Malesindicatedthatwheneatingwithsomeoneofthesamesextheywouldeata
mediumamountoffoodtoappearpolite,attractive,interested,andhealthy.Theywouldeat
aslightlylargeramountoffoodtoappearmasculineandamuchsmalleramountoffoodif
theywantedtoappearfeminine.Thesamemalesreportthatwhentheyeatwithsomeone
oftheoppositesexinordertoappearpolite,attractive,interested,andhealthytheywould
eatamediumamountoffood.Theseparticipantswouldeatalargeramounttoappear
masculineandamuchsmalleramountiftheywantedtoappearfeminine.
Overall,malestendtochoosemeatovervegetablesandeatavariedamount
dependingonwhattypeofimpressiontheywouldliketomake.Ifmaleswanttoappear
masculinetheywilleatmoreofa“masculine”foodconsistingofmeatandiftheywantto
appearpolite,attractive,healthy,intelligent,andmoraltheywilleatlessofthe“masculine”
food.Inconclusion,itisimportantformalestoappearmoreattractivewheneatingwith
someoneoftheoppositesexasopposedtowheneatingwithsomeoneofthesamesex.
Alternativeexplanations
Vegetablecue.Inthechoiceconditionparticipantsweretoldthattheyhadachoiceof
pizzaandtheycouldhaveeithermeat‐loverspizzaorvegetarianpizza.Inthisconditionthe
maleschosethemeatpizzabutatedifferentamountscomparedtothemalesinthemeat
pizzaonlycondition.Themalesinthechoiceconditionatethemeatpizzajustlikethose
participantsinthemeatpizzaonlyconditionbuttheyalsoencounteredavegetablecue
whentheexperimentermentionedthattheyhadthechoicebetweenmeatorvegetarian
31
pizza.Vegetablesarehealthyandtheschemaofbeinghealthymayhaveenteredthe
participants’minds,makingthemconsciousofthefactthattheyhavechosenthe
unhealthierchoice.Thiscuealonemayhavealteredhowmuchthemalesdecidedtoingest.
TheHi‐Mascmalesinthemeatpizzaconditionatemorethandidthemalesinthechoice
condition.Themalesinthechoiceconditionmayhavebeenconsciousofhavingmadean
unhealthychoiceandthereforeatelessofthepizza.Themerementioningofthevegetarian
pizzamayhaveservedasaremindertobehealthyandthathealthierfoodchoicesdoexist.
Studieshavefoundthatthepresenceofacuecanaffectlaterjudgmentsandbehaviour
(Ferguson,Bargh,&Nayak,2005).
Choice.Themerefactthatintheoneconditiontheparticipantshadachoicebetween
twotypesofpizzacouldhavealteredhowmuchtheparticipantsate.Havingthechoice,one
nowhastousecognitiveresourcesandthoughtsmaybealtered(Arana&Leon,2009),thus
possiblyaffectinghowmuchoneconsumes.
Limitations
Alimitationofthestudyisthatthemalesinthesecondstudyratedlikingmeatpizza
overvegetarianpizza,unlikethemalesinthepilotstudy.Whenthemalesactuallyatethe
pizza,theyequallypreferredthemeatandvegetarianpizza.Ifmalesratedthemeatpizzaas
bettertastingthenitisapossibilitythatinthechoiceconditionmalespickedthemeatpizza
overthevegetarianpizzabecausetheylikedmeatpizzamore.
Asecondlimitationisthattheparticipantsmayhavepreconceivednotions
regardingtheirmasculinityandmaynothavebelievedorcaredaboutwhatthe
experimentertoldthemregardingtheirmasculinitylevel.Theseparticipantsmayhave
32
actedinaccordancetotheirownnotionofhowmasculinetheyare.Itwasfoundthatthe
malesintheHigh‐Mascconditionratedthemselveshigheronmasculinitythanthemalesin
theLow‐MascconditionandtheControlcondition.Themalesratedthemselvesasequally
masculineintheLow‐MascconditionandtheControlcondition;thustheymaynothave
believedtheexperimenterwhentheyweretoldtheyscoredlowonmasculinity.
FutureStudies
Theparticipantsinthisstudyweremaleuniversitystudents.Itwouldbeinteresting
torunthestudywithdifferentsubjectpools,examplefemales,oldermales,orteenage
males.Moreover,itwouldbeinterestingifthestudywererunwithamaleexperimenterin
ordertodeterminehowthegenderoftheexperimenteraffectedeating.
Furtherstudiescouldtesttoseeifhavinga“healthy”cuepresentwhenbeingoffered
foodaffectshowmuchoneeats.Aswell,onemightwellinvestigateifthemerechoice
betweentwoormorefoodsaltershowmuchoneconsumes.
One’sculturemayplayaroleinhowoneviewsdifferenttypesoffoodandhow
muchoneconsumes.Futurestudiesshouldexaminehowcultureplaysaroleinhowone
viewsfoodandhowmuchoneconsumesincertainsituations.Eatingacertainamountof
foodtoconveyaspecificimpressionmaybedifferentfordifferentculture
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MIE/2006002/findings.htm
Vartanian, L. R., Herman, C. P., & Polivy, J. (2007). Consumption stereotypes and impression
management: How you are what you eat. Appetite, 48, 265-277.
Appendix A
InterestScaleforUniversityStudentsForDr.Bailis’slab(collection2008–2009)Pleaseratehowyoufeelabouteachitemusingthefollowingscale.1 2 3 4567StronglyDislike SlightlyNeitherdislikeSlightlyLikeStronglyDislike Dislike norlikeLikeLike
1.________ListeningtoCDs
2.________Watchingmovies
3.________Traveling
4.________Sendingpostcards
5.________Collectingcoins
6.________Reading
7.________Collectingposters
8.________Drinkingcoffee
9.________Skiing
10._______Goingforbikerides
11._______Writingreminders
12._______Goingonfacebook
13._______E‐mailingfriends
14._______Sendingtextmessages
15._______Ridingpublictransportation
16._______Readingmagazines
17._______Smoking
18._______Swimming
19._______WatchingTV
20._______Camping
35
36
Appendix B
MoodScale
Thisscaleconsistsofwordsthatdescribedifferentfeelingsandemotions.Readeachitemandthenmarktheappropriateanswerinthespacenexttothatword.Indicatetowhatextentyoufeelthiswayrightnow,thatis,atthepresentmoment.Usethefollowingscaletorecordyouanswers.12345veryslightlyoralittlemoderatelyquiteabitextremelynotatall
_____relaxed
_____distressed
_____droopy
_____excited
_____annoyed
_____serene
_____upset
_____bored
_____calm
_____satisfied
_____guilty
_____hungry
_____atease
_____enthusiastic
_____proud
_____embarrassed
_____interested
_____irritable
_____tired
_____strong
_____sluggish
_____ashamed
_____atrest
_____inspired
_____full
_____nervous
_____self‐conscious
_____determined
_____pleased
_____jittery
_____irritated
_____drowsy
_____active
_____afraid
37
Appendix C
ManipulationCheck1
Towhatextentdidyouplantotrytomakeagoodimpressiontotheexperimenter?(pleasecircle)
12345 6 7notatall alot
Ifyouweregoingtotrytomakeagoodimpressionontheexperimenter,whatkindsofthingswereyouplanningtodotomakeagoodimpression?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Whatkindsofthingswereyougoingtoavoiddoing?
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Hownervouswereyouaboutyourinteractionwiththeexperimenterinthestudy?(pleasecircle)
12345 6 7notnervous extremelyatallnervous Howattractivedidyouthinktheexperimenterwas?
12345 6 7notatall alot
38ManipulationCheck2Howmuchdidyoulikethepizzaavailableintheexperiment?(pleasecircle)
12345 6 7Didnotlike Likedatall verymuchHowwouldyouratethepizza?
12345 6 7Extremely Neither Extremelyfeminine masculineHowmuchdoyoulike____________pizza?(thepizzatypethatwasnoteatenintheexperimentfortheparticularsubject)
12345 6 7Didnotlike Likedatall verymuchHowwouldyourate____________pizza?(thetypenoteatenintheexperimentfortheparticularsubject)
12345 6 7Extremely Neither Extremelyfeminine masculineHowmuchpizzadidyoueat?________________________________________________Doyouhaveanyfoodallergiesthatwouldhavepreventedyoufromeatingthepizzaavailableintheexperiment?(circleone)
YES NO
Doyouhaveanyreligiousdietaryrestrictionsthatwouldhavepreventedyoufromeatingthepizzaavailableintheexperiment?(circleone)
YES NO
Whenwasthelasttimethatyouate?___________a.m./p.m.(pleasecircle)
39Pleaselistwhatyouatethelasttimeyouatebeforecomingtothisexperiment.___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
ManipulationCheck3PerceiveYourselfTraitsPleaserateyourselfonthe7‐pointscale.“How_______________areyou?”1 2 34 5 6 7not completelyatall
1. ________laid‐back
2. ________courageous
3. ________feminine
4. ________shy
5. ________stubborn
6. ________spontaneous
7. ________masculine
8. ________cautious
9. ________outgoing
10. ________considerate
40
AppendixDSocialMotivesScaleAssumethatyouarehavinglunchwithalikeablepersonofthesamesex/oppositesexwhomyouhavejustmet.Baseyouranswerstothefollowingquestionsonthesituationdescribedabove.Usingthescalebelowratehowimportanteachmotivesaretoyouwhenmeetinganewperson.Writethenumberonthelinenexttoeachitem.
12345 6 7Not atall Extremelyimportant important1._____Howimportantwoulditbeforyoutomakeagoodimpression?2._____Howimportantwoulditbeforyoutobepolite?3._____Howimportantwoulditbeforyoutoappearattractive?4._____Howimportantwoulditbeforyoutoappearinterestedinwhatyourcompanionis
saying?5._____Howimportantwoulditbeforyoutobecomeinvolvedinconversationwithyour
companion?6._____Howimportantwoulditbeforyoutoappearfeminine?7._____Howimportantwoulditbeforyoutoappearmasculine?8._____Howimportantwoulditbeforyoutoappearhealthy/fit?9._____Howimportantwoulditbeforyoutofeelsuperiorto/competewithyourcompanion?10._____Howimportantwoulditbeforyoutobesimilarto/behavelikeyourcompanion?
41Againwewouldlikeyoutoassumethatyouarehavinglunchwithalikablepersonofthesamesex/oppositesexwhomyouhavejustmet.Onthepreviousscaleyouindicatedhowimportantvariousfactorswouldbetoyouinthissituation.Now,onthefollowingitemswewantyoutoASSUMEthateachofthesefactorsisimportanttoyou,andthenindicateHOWMUCHYOUWOULDEATIFTHISWERETRUE.Usingthescalebelowindicatehowmuchyouwouldeat.Writethenumberonthelinenexttoeachitem.
12345 6 7Extremely Extremelysmallamount largeamount1._____Assumingyouwanttomakeagoodimpressionhowmuchwouldyoueat?2._____Assumingyouwanttobepolitehowmuchwouldyoueat?3._____Assumingyouwanttoappearattractivehowmuchwouldyoueat?4._____Assumingyouwanttoappearinterestedinwhatyourcompanionhastosayhowmuch
wouldyoueat?5._____Assumingyouwanttobecomeinvolvedinconversationwithyourcompanionhow
muchwouldyoueat?6._____Assumingyouwanttoappearfemininehowmuchwouldyoueat?7._____Assumingyouwanttoappearmasculinehowmuchwouldyoueat?8._____Assumingyouwanttoappearhealthy/fithowmuchwouldyoueat?9._____Assumingyouwanttofeelsuperiorto/competewithyourcompanionhowmuchwould
youeat?10._____Assumingyouwanttobesimilar/behavelikeyourcompanionhowmuchwouldyou
eat?
