WEEK 6:

Beginning and ending of a speechMethods of persuasion

THE BEGINNING AND ENDING OF A SPEECH

The Introduction• Get attention and interest• Reveal the topic• Establish credibility and goodwill• Preview the body of the speech

Methods of Gaining Attention

• Relate your topic to the audience• State the importance of your topic• Startle the audience• Arouse the curiosity of the audience• Question the audience• Begin with a quotation• Tell a story

CredibilityThe audience’s perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic.

Goodwill

The audience’s perception of whether the speaker has the best interests of the audience in mind.

Rhetorical Question

A question that the audience answers mentally rather than out loud.

Preview StatementA statement in the introduction of a speech that identifies the main points to be discussed in the body of the speech.

Tips for Preparing the Introduction

• Be concise: Usually no more than 10-20 percent of the total speech

• Look for possible introductory materials as you do your research

• Be creative in devising your introduction

• Finalize the exact wording of your introduction after you have finished preparing the body of the speech

• Work out the content and delivery of your introduction in detail

Tips for Preparing the Introduction

The Conclusion• Signal the end of the speech• Reinforce the central idea

Crescendo EndingA conclusion in which the speech builds to a zenith of power and intensity.

Dissolve EndingA conclusion that generates emotional appeal by fading step by step to a dramatic final statement.

Methods of Reinforcing the Central Idea

• Summarize your speech• End with a quotation• Make a dramatic statement

Tips for Preparing the Conclusion

• Look for possible concluding materials as you do your research

• Conclude with a bang, not a whimper• Be brief: Usually no more than 5-10

percent of the total speech• Work out the content and delivery of

your conclusion in detail

METHODS OF PERSUASION• Building credibility• Using evidence• Reasoning• Appealing to emotions

CredibilityThe audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic.

EthosThe name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility.

Factors of Credibility

• Competence• Character

Competence How an audience regards a

speaker’s intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of the subject.

CharacterHow an audience regards a speaker’s sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well-being of the audience.

Types of Credibility• Initial• Derived • Terminal

Initial CredibilityThe credibility of a speaker before she or he starts to speak.

Derived Credibility

The credibility of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech.

Terminal Credibility

The credibility of a speaker at the end of the speech.

Tips for Enhancing Credibility

• Explain your competence• Establish common ground with

your audience• Deliver your speeches fluently,

expressively, and with conviction

LogosThe name used by Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major elements of logos are evidence and reasoning.

EvidenceSupporting materials used to prove or disprove something.

Tips for Using Evidence

• Use specific evidence• Use novel evidence• Use evidence from credible sources• Make clear the point of your evidence

ReasoningThe process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence.

Four Types of Reasoning• Reasoning from specific instances• Reasoning from principle• Causal reasoning• Analogical reasoning

Reasoning from Specific Instances

Reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion.

Guidelines for Reasoning from Specific Instances

• Avoid hasty generalizations• If your evidence does not justify a

sweeping conclusion, qualify your argument

• Reinforce your argument with statistics or testimony

Reasoning from PrincipleReasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion.

Guidelines for Reasoning from Principle

• Make sure listeners will accept your general principle

• Provide evidence to support your minor premise

Causal ReasoningReasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects.

Guidelines for Causal Reasoning

• Avoid the fallacy of false cause• Do not assume that events have

only a single cause

Analogical ReasoningReasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second.

Guidelines for Analogical Reasoning

Above all, make sure the two cases being compared are essentially alike

FallacyAn error in reasoning.

Fallacies

• Hasty generalization• False cause• Invalid analogy • Red herring

Fallacies

• Ad hominem• Either-or• Bandwagon• Slippery slope

Hasty GeneralizationA fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence.

Hasty Generalization“Last year alone three members of our state legislature were convicted of corruption. We can conclude, then, that all of our state's politicians are corrupt.”

False Cause

A fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second.

False Cause

“I'm sure the stock market will rise this year. It usually goes up when the American League wins the World Series.”

Invalid AnalogyAn analogy in which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike.

Invalid Analogy“Of course Lisheng can prepare great Italian food; his Chinese cooking is fabulous.”

Red Herring

A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion.

Red Herring “Why should we worry about endangered animal species when thousands of people are killed in automobile accidents each year?”

Ad HominemA fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute.

Ad Hominem “The governor has a number of

interesting economic proposals, but let’s not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family.”

Either-OrA fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist.

Either-Or“The government must either raise taxes or reduce services for the poor.”

BandwagonA fallacy that assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable.

Bandwagon

“The President must be correct in his approach to domestic policy; after all, polls show that 60 percent of the people support him.”

Slippery SlopeA fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented.

Slippery Slope

“Passing federal laws to control the amount of violence on television is the first step in a process that will result in absolute government control of the media and total censorship over all forms of artistic expression.”

Emotional AppealsAppeals that are intended to make listeners feel sad, angry, guilty, afraid, happy, proud, sympathetic, reverent, or the like.

PathosThe name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal.

Tips for Generating Emotional Appeal

• Use emotional language• Develop vivid examples• Speak with sincerity and

conviction

Using Emotional Appeal Ethically

• Make sure emotional appeal is appropriate to the speech topic

• Do not substitute emotional appeal for evidence and reasoning

Homework:

- Post the detailed outline of your informative speech in Section 6 forum, Thread: Detailed outline for informative speeches.

Deadline: 24:00 Sunday 2/11/2014- Review for the midterm test.