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Become more optimistic by imaging a bestpossible self: Effects of a two week intervention

ARTICLE in JOURNAL OF BEHAVIOR THERAPY AND EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHIATRY · MARCH 2011Impact Factor: 2.23 · DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.02.012 · Source: PubMed

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Yvo Meevissen

Maastricht University

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Madelon L Peters

Maastricht University

203 PUBLICATIONS 5,706 CITATIONS

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Hugo J E M Alberts

Maastricht University

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Available from: Hugo J E M AlbertsRetrieved on: 31 March 2016

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Become more optimistic by imagining a best possible self: Effectsof a two week intervention

Yvo M.C. Meevissen * , Madelon L. Peters, Hugo J.E.M. AlbertsClinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 18 October 2010Received in revised form11 February 2011Accepted 22 February 2011

Keywords:OptimismInterventionBest possible self Mood

a b s t r a c t

Background and objectives: Optimism is a personality trait which has repeatedly been shown to correlatewith, and predict psychological and physical well-being. The present study investigated whether opti-mism can be increased by imagining a best possible self (BPS). Effects were compared to a control groupin which participants imagined their daily activities (DA).Methods: In order to minimize inter-individual differences in content of imagery, participants constructedtheir BPS according to 3 domains, namely a personal, relational, and professional domain. All participantswere instructed to practice their imageryexercise for 5 min per day over a period of two weeks. Effects onoptimism and mood were measured after one session, after one week and after two weeks.Results: Results indicated that BPS imagery led to signi cantly larger increases in optimism as comparedto DA imagery, after one session and over a two week period. Effects on optimism remained aftercontrolling for possible mediation by the change in positive mood.Limitations: In order to test the effectiveness of our BPS imagery intervention we relied exclusively onself-report measures.Conclusion: The present study con rmed that imagining a BPS enhances levels of optimism, independentof the mood effect.

2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Over the last 30 years, research in the eld of optimism andpessimism has been expanding exponentially. Over this period,many cross-sectional and longitudinal studies have indicated thatoptimism correlates with and predicts psychological as well asphysical well-being, both in the presence and absence of stressors(Scheier & Carver, 1986 , 1992 ). Optimism has been shown tocorrelate with higher levels of self-esteem ( Lyubomirsky, Tkach, &Dimatteo, 200 6), positive mood ( Andersson, 1996; Ben-Zur, 2002;Räikkönen, Matthews, Flory, Owens, & Gump, 1999; Wenglert &Rosen, 1995 ), more resilience to stressful or negative events(Solberg, Segerstrom, & Septhon, 200 5), self-mastery ( Andersson,1996 ), active coping ( Andersson, 1996; Carver & Scheier, 1999 ),prevention and stagnation of illnesses ( Kivimäki et al., 2005;Matthews, Raikkonen, Sutton-Tyrell, & Kuller, 200 4), and recoveryfrom illnesses, injuries, various types of surgery, and major life-events ( Kivimäki et al., 2005; Mahler & Kulik, 2000; Peters et al.,2007; Scheier & Carver, 1986; Scheier et al., 1999 ). Although some

studies have revealed less desirable correlates, for example reducedhealth-protective behaviors ( Tennen & Af eck, 1987; Weinstein &Lyon, 199 9), more positive expectations and continued gamblingdespite negative gaming outcomes ( Gibson & Sanbonmatsu, 200 4),and lower immune responses under high challenge conditions(Segerstrom, 2005 , 200 6), the bene ts of optimism seem tooutweigh the potential downsides.

Optimism is generally considered to be a personality trait. Themost well-known conceptualization is provided by Scheier andCarver (1982) who de ned optimism as a general and globalpositive expectancy of the future. Peterson et al. (1982) de nedoptimism in terms of explanatory style. According to this concep-tualization optimists attribute negative events to external factors,and as being temporal/unstable and local, whereas pessimistsattribute negative events to internal factors, and consider these aslong-lasting/stable and global. For positive events, the reversepattern of attribution styles is found for optimists and pessimists.By employing an optimistic explanatory style, negative situationsbecome de ated and less signi cant in determining future cogni-tion and behavior whereas positive situations become in ated andmore signi cant in determining future cognition and behavior.Although many studies conducted so far, deliver convergingevidence of optimism being related to desirable psychological and

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 31 6 4933 6788.E-mail address: Yvo.Meevissen@maastrichtuniversity.nl (Y.M.C. Meevissen).

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Behavior Therapy andExperimental Psychiatry

j ou rna l homepage : www.e l sev i e r. com/ loca t e / j b t ep

0005-7916/$ e see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.02.012

J. Behav. Ther. & Exp. Psychiat. 42 (2011) 371 e 378

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//www.researchgate.net/publication/8328703_Optimistic_Attitudes_Protect_Against_Progression_of_Carotid_Atherosclerosis_in_Healthy_Middle-Aged_Women?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13078353_Optimism_and_Rehospitalization_After_Coronary_Artery_Bypass_Graft_Surgery?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13315865_Effects_of_optimism_pessimism_and_trait_anxiety_on_ambulatory_blood_pressure_and_mood_during_everyday_life?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222242580_The_benefits_of_optimism_A_meta-analytic_review_of_the_Life_Orientation_Test?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222242580_The_benefits_of_optimism_A_meta-analytic_review_of_the_Life_Orientation_Test?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222242580_The_benefits_of_optimism_A_meta-analytic_review_of_the_Life_Orientation_Test?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222242580_The_benefits_of_optimism_A_meta-analytic_review_of_the_Life_Orientation_Test?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223308167_Coping_affect_and_aging_The_roles_of_mastery_and_self-esteem?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.02.012http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.02.012http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.02.012http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jbtephttp://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00057916mailto:Yvo.Meevissen@maastrichtuniversity.nlhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-

8/18/2019 Become More Optimistic by Imagining a Best Possible Self_Effects

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physical factors, most of them utilize cross-sectional or longitudinalcorrelational designs. This makes it impossible to ascertainwhetheroptimism is actually a cause for these desirable factors, a resultfrom them or whether both are dependent on a third factor. Inorder to investigate and establish the causal relationships betweenoptimism and various bene cial outcomes, controlled experiments,in which optimism is directly manipulated, are needed. Thisnecessary development in research plus the positive contributionsoptimism may entail in the clinical setting, indicates the relevanceof developing and testing optimism increasing interventions.Previous optimism interventions have mainly focused on changingexplanatory style of past events and not directly on changing futureexpectancies ( Fresco, Moore, Walt, & Craighead, 2009; Riskind,Sarampote, & Mercier, 1996 ; Ruthig, Perry, Hall, & Hladkyj, 2004;Seligman, 1998 ). Only recently have researchers begun to searchfor an intervention tool that directly targets optimism-relatedcognitions ( Fosnaugh, Geers, & Wellman; 2009; Peters, Flink,Boersma, & Linton, 2010 ). Fosnaugh, Geers, and Wellman (2009)used two different manipulations, a direct method consisting of generating thoughts about the future and an indirect methodconsisting of a semantic priming task. Both manipulations ledto moderate increases in generalized optimism immediatelyafterward.

Peters et al. (2010) used the so called “ best possible self ” (BPS)manipulation, a positive future thinkingtechniquebasedon theworkof King (2001) . A BPS requires people to envision themselves in animaginary future in which everything has turned out in the mostoptimal way. Over the past years, writing about and imagining a BPShas repeatedly been demonstrated to increase people ’ s mood andwell-being ( King, 2001; Peters et al., 2010; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky,200 6). Peters et al. (2010) provided evidence that writing aboutandimagining a BPScan alsoincrease optimism in terms of expectingfavorable outcomes. This effect was independent from the effect onmood that was simultaneously increased by the manipulation.However, only the immediate post-manipulation effects werestudied, andit cannot be excludedthat theeffectswereonly transient

with littlein uence on related cognitions and behaviors. The currentstudytherefore investigatedwhetherdaily BPS exercisesare effectivein boosting optimism over a period of two weeks. Since numerousstudies have indicated that a positive future expectancy as well as anoptimistic explanatory style may be bene cial for one ’ s personalwell-being, the present study measured optimism both in terms of future expectancyand explanatory style. Although the BPStechniquemost directly targets positive future expectancies, consideringFredrickson ’ s (2001 ) broaden-and-build model, in time the BPSimagery exercise could generalize to optimistic explanatory style.

A secondary aim was to examine who may pro t most froma BPSintervention. In previous studies ( Harrist, Carlozzi, McGovern,& Harrist, 2007; Peters et al., 2010 ) effects of BPS imagery were notmoderated by dispositional optimism. These ndings are counter-

intuitive since it is reasonable to expect that people who are low inoptimism bene t more from an optimism induction as compared topeople high in optimism, mainly because of their larger potential togain in optimism. Therefore, the present study re-examined themoderation effect by dispositional optimism. In addition, weexamined whether intervention effects were moderated by moti-vation. A previous study by Sheldon and Lyubomirsky (2006) foundthat intrinsic motivation to comply with their daily visualizationexercises predicted participants ’ frequency of visualization andself-reported visualization performance, outcomes which are likelyto increase the intervention effect.

In sum, we hypothesized that a BPS imagery intervention wouldnot only increase immediate post-manipulation future expectan-cies, but after a two week repeated sessions intervention it would

also be able to enhance cognitions that are considered to be more

stable like general future expectancy and explanatory style.Furthermore, we expected the effect of optimism to be indepen-dent of any effects on mood that the intervention might addition-allyhave andto be more effective in lowdispositional optimists andin highly motivated participants.

2. Methods

2.1. Participants

In the present study we adopted a repeated measures split-plotdesign with an experimental condition and a control condition. Atotal of 54 native Dutch-speaking participants with ages rangingfrom 18 to 43 ( M ¼ 23.5, SD ¼ 6.39) were randomly divided overboth conditions ( n ¼ 28 in the experimental condition, n ¼ 26in thecontrol condition). Most participants were students from thefaculty of psychology and neuroscience and the faculty of medicine,health, and life science of Maastricht University. Since females areoverrepresented at these faculties the total pool consisted of 50female and 4 male participants. For the repeated sessions analyses,three female participants in the control group were excludedbecause they failed to complete the required mid-term or post-treatment questionnaires.

2.2. Intervention

Because various studies have indicated that imagery (or visu-alization) involves deeper cognitive processing as compared toverbalization or writing ( Holmes, Arntz, & Smucker, 2007; Holmes,Mathews, Mackintosh, & Dalgleish, 2008 ) we chose imagery asa method to implement the BPS exercise. Participants wereinformed that they would be participating in a study in order tomeasure “ the power of visualization ” . The experimental andcontrol condition had the same format and only differed in thecontent of imagery, i.e. BPS in the experimental condition and dailyactivities (DA) in the control condition (cf. Sheldon & Lyubomirsky,

200 6). All participants received an instruction manual. Building onthe study of King (2001 ), the instruction manual provided partici-pants in both conditions with the following information:

This manual helps you step by step to improve your visualiza-tion skills. All information you provide in this manual is con -dential. We therefore would like to emphasize that this manualat all times remains in your possession and will only be lookedinto and read by you.

After this introduction participants received the speci c instruc-tions appropriate for their respective condition (see Appendix A ). Inorder to control for possible manipulation awareness participants inboth conditions were told that the manipulation could induce posi-tive mood (cf. Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 200 6). In the BPS condition,

participants were asked to think of and write down all aspects thattheir future best possible self should encompass. In order to stan-dardize the imagery exercise as much as possible, while at the sametime warranting the freedom to imagine content which is mostrelevant to the participant, we provided three broad domains:a personal domain, a relational domain and a professional domain.These domains were selected based on the consideration that theseareas are most in uential and signi cant in determining people ’ swell-being (e.g. Argyle, 200 1). Moreover, participants were instruc-ted to formulate their BPS by starting each sentence with “ In thefuture I will ” , rst to encourage them to construct realistic andattainable goals and second to guarantee a focus on the positiverather than on the negative discrepancy of a current self not havingreached its desired state or full potential. In the control condition

participants were asked to think of and write down all the activities

Y.M.C. Meevissen et al. / J. Behav. Ther. & Exp. Psychiat. 42 (2011) 371 e 378372

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8/18/2019 Become More Optimistic by Imagining a Best Possible Self_Effects

4/9

that had taken place during the last 24 h and to re ect on theirthoughts and mood during those activities. Next, in both conditionsparticipants were requested to write a personal story in which theyputtogether their earlier statements in a detailedand coherent story.Finally, they performed a 5-min imagery exercise in which theyimagined their previously written BPS story (experimental condi-tion) or their daily activities during the past 24 h (control condition).Allparticipants were instructedto repeatthis 5-min imageryexerciseonce a day at home over the next two weeks.

2.3. Measures

2.3.1. OptimismDispositional optimism was measured using a Dutch translation

of Scheier and Carver ’ s (1985) Life Orientation Test (LOT), whichre ects the extent to which individuals generally expect favorableoutcomes. The LOT consists of 12 statements of which 4 are posi-tively stated, 4 are negatively stated, and 4 are ller items. All itemsare rated along a 5-point continuum (0: strongly disagree e 4:strongly agree). A total LOT score can be obtained by summation of the scoreson the 4 positively phrased items and the reversed scoresof the 4 negatively phrased items, higher scores re ecting higherlevelsof optimism. In the present sample, an internal consistency of .81 was obtained.

The subjective Probability task (SPT; MacLeod, 1996 ) was usedas a measure of more speci c positive and negative future expec-tancies. The SPT consists of 20 statements referring to negativeexpectancies (SPT-neg e.g. “ you will have health problems ” ) and 10statements referring to positive expectancies (SPT-pos e.g. “ peoplewill admire you ” ). Participants are asked to judge the likelihoodthat they will experience these speci c outcomes on a 7-pointscale (not at all likely to occur e extremely likely to occur). Higherscores on this scale represent a higher estimated likelihood of positive or negative future events. In the present study, Cronbach ’ salphas of .82 for the positively stated items and .91 for the nega-tively stated items were obtained. A previous study demonstrated

the SPT to be sensitive to a brief optimism manipulation ( Peterset al., 2010 ).

Optimistic explanatory style was measured using a Dutchversion of the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ) ( Seligman,Abramson, Semmel, & von Baeyer, 1979 ; Dutch version: Cohen,van den Bout, Kramer, & Vliet, 1986 ). The ASQ consists of 12hypothetical events, 6 good (e.g. You meet a friend who compli-ments you on your appearance) and 6 bad (You have been lookingfor a job unsuccessfully for some time). For each event, participantsare asked to write down the one major cause of each event,imagining this event would occur to them. The hypothetical causeis then rated on a 7-point scale for three causal dimensions: 1.internal versus external (Totally due to other people or circum-stance e Totally due to me), 2. stable versus unstable (Will never

again be present e Will always be present), and 3. global versuslocal (In uences just this particular situation e In uences all situ-ations in my life). A total ASQ score is obtained by averaging thescores over all three dimensions per event, and calculating a grandaverage of scores on the positively stated items and the reversescores on the negatively stated items. The ASQ takes on average15 min to complete. Higher scores on this scale represent a moreoptimistic attribution style. In the present study, a Cronbach ’ s alphaof .81 was obtained.

2.3.2. Affect In order to measure affect, a Dutch version of the shortened

Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS; Mackinnon et al., 1999 )was used. The shortened version of the PANAS consists of 5 items

describing positive affective states (PA) and 5 items describing

negative affective states (NA). Participants rate on a ve-pointscale to what extent they feel a particular affective state is present(Not at all e Extremely). In order to measure trait and state affectthree different versions of the PANAS were used. For baselinemeasurement a version inquiring about the frequency of affectivestates during the past year was used. At one and two weeks post-intervention a version inquiring about the frequency of affectivestates during the past week was used. To assess the immediateeffects of the intervention during the lab session a versioninquiring about the intensity of affective states at this moment wasused. Higher scores on the PA scale re ect higher levels of positivemood while higher scores on the NA scale re ect higher levels of negative mood. In the present study Cronbach ’ s alphas for thethree PANAS versions ranged from .71 to .77 for PA and .86 to .89for NA.

2.3.3. NeuroticismNeuroticism was measured by the Dutch version of the

Neuroticism scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ-N; Eysenck, Eysenck, & Barrett,1985; Eysenck & Eysenck,1994 ). TheEPQ-N scale used in the current study is the shortened versionconsisting of twelve items ( Birley et al., 2006 ) describing differentaffective states which are indicative of neuroticism. Participants arerequired to indicate whether a particular state applies to them (yes/no) with higher scores re ecting higher levels of neuroticism. Thepresent study revealed a Cronbach ’ s Alpha of .79.

2.3.4. Manipulation & control checksIn order to obtain more insight into the effectiveness of the

intervention and to control for inter-personal differences, partici-pants lled out questions on the dif culty of the imagery exerciseand the ease of implementing imagery exercises, both rated on a 5-point scale ranging from “ easy ” to “ dif cult ” . Moreover, wemeasured the frequency of applying the imagery exercise (numberof sessions per week), changes in imagery skill over the past twoweeks (5-point scale: “ improved a lot ” e “ deteriorated a lot ” ),

content of imagery and awareness of the purpose of the imageryexercise. Answers to the latter question were categorized asunaware, aware of positivity induction and aware of optimisminduction. Finally, we included the Self-Concordance Motivation(SCM) questionnaire ( Sheldon & Elliot, 1999 ) which was found tocorrelate with participants ’ frequency of practicing a daily imageryexercise and with self-reported imagery performance ( Sheldon &Lyubomirsky, 200 6). The SCM comprises one or several goalstatements which in the present study implied practicing imagery( “ I will engage in the imagery practice on a daily basis for thefollowing reasons ” ). This goal is evaluated on 4 different motiva-tional levels, ranging from extrinsic to intrinsic, and rated on a 9-point scale ranging from 1 “ not at all for this reason ” to 9“ completely for this reason ” . A total score is obtained by subtracting

the two extrinsic motivation scores from the two intrinsic moti-vation scores, higher scores re ecting more intrinsic motivation.

2.4. Procedure

Three days before the rst lab session, participants received thePANAS, LOT, ASQ, and EPQ-N by e-mail.These questionnaires had tobe lled out and returned before the rst lab session. The labsessions took place at the university in a dedicated room forbehavioral experiments. Aftergiving instructions, the experimenterleft the lab in order to let the participant work on the tasks withoutbeing distracted or disturbed. Contact could be established throughan intercom. First, the SPT and PANAS were completed. After a 15-min delay in which participants carried out a behavioral task

(results not reported), the experimenter returned and presented

Y.M.C. Meevissen et al. / J. Behav. Ther. & Exp. Psychiat. 42 (2011) 371 e 378 373

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8/18/2019 Become More Optimistic by Imagining a Best Possible Self_Effects

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the participant with either the BPS or the DA imagery manual. Fromhereon, all instructions were audio taped and presented throughheadphones to guarantee standardization and facilitate concen-tration during imagery by preventing disturbances by environ-mental noise.

First, all participants received a 5 min imagery training duringwhich they imagined a lemon using all their senses (cf. Holmes,Coughtrey, & Connor, 200 8). This training familiarized partici-pants with imagery and clari ed the importance of focusing on thesubjective feelings and emotions this evoked. Next, all participantsprepared their daily imagery exercise by following the instructionsin their manual. After 20 min of writing about their BPS or DA theyperformed the 5-min imagery exercise. Upon completion, partici-pants lled out the state PANAS and the SPT once moreto assess theimmediate effects of the writing and imagery exercise. In order tominimize repetition effects, two versions of the PANAS and the SPTwere constructed by means of item randomization and presentedcounterbalanced to control for possible version effects. At the endof the rst lab session participants were instructed to practice theimagery exercise at home once a day for 5 min over a period of twoweeks. Finally, the SCM was administered.

After one and two weeks participants again lled out the LOT,SPT, and PANAS. Because of its length, the ASQ was only re-administered after two weeks. All questionnaires were sent by e-mail, except for the nal SPT and PANAS which, for consistencyreasons, were administered during the post-treatment lab session.In this session, participants also lled out the manipulation andcontrol check questionnaire, were debriefed and received a giftcerti cate of 25 Euro.

2.5. Data analyses

The immediate effects of the imagery during the rst lab sessionwere examined using analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) withcondition as the between-subject factor and post-manipulationperceived probability of positive events (SPT-pos), perceived

probability of negative events (SPT-neg), positive affect (PA) andnegative affect (NA) as the dependent variables, and their respec-tive pre-intervention scores as the covariate.

Because we expected that the BPS intervention would speci -cally affect our measures of optimism (LOT, SPT-pos, SPT-neg andASQ) andpositiveaffect, butnot negative affectand neuroticism, we

rst performed two omnibus (multivariate) tests. The rst multi-variate analysis of variance (MANOVA) tested differences betweenconditions on the change scores (post-treatment score minusbaseline score) in LOT, SPT-pos, SPT-neg, ASQ and PA; the secondMANOVA tested differences between conditions on the changescoresin NA andEPQ-N. Next,2 (condition) 2 (time) ANCOVAs forrepeated measures wereused to test between condition differencesafter one and two weeks of intervention for each outcome sepa-

rately using the respective pre-intervention score as the covariate.Since explanatory style (ASQ) was only measured twice (pre-inter-vention and post-treatment), univariate ANCOVA was used for thisvariable. The main analyses were followed up by post hoc repeatedmeasures ANOVAs within conditions to further explore the direc-tion and timing of the intervention effects.

To assess whether the changes in optimism could have beenmediated by the effect of the intervention on positive affect, werepeated the 2 2 ANCOVA for repeated measures on changes indispositional optimism (LOT) with condition as independent vari-able, and baseline optimism and change in positive affect as cova-riates. Mediation by positive affect is indicated by a condition effectbecoming non-signi cant.

In order to test whether the effects of the intervention were

moderated by dispositional optimismwe dichotomized participants

by a median split on their pre-intervention optimism scores. Nextthe dichotomized optimism score was added as an additionalbetween-subject factor to the ANCOVAs. Moderation is indicated bya signi cant condition pre-intervention optimism interactionterm ( Baron & Kenny, 198 6). The same procedure was used toinvestigate whether intrinsic motivation (SCM) moderated theintervention effect.

All analyses were performed using PASW Statistics 18.0 forWindows.

3. Results

3.1. Baseline descriptives

An independent samples t -test on baseline scores betweenconditions revealed no signi cant differences between conditionson any of the measures, indicating that randomization wassuccessful and motivation to carry out the daily imagery exercisewas equal in both conditions. An independent samples t -testrevealed no signi cant differences between the two versions of thePANAS and SPT (both administered during the rst lab session).

Table 1 shows the mean scores and correlations of baselinescores on the LOT, SPT positive outcome (SPT-pos), SPT negativeoutcome (SPT-neg), trait PANAS positive affect (PA), trait PANASnegative affect (NA), and ASQ. Most correlations were in theexpected direction. In line with previous ndings ( Gordon, 2008;Reilley, Geers, Lindsay, Deronde, & Dember, 200 5), the ASQ didnot signi cantly correlate with the LOT or the SPT, indicating thatexplanatory style pertaining to past events may be unrelated toexpectancies of future events. Moreover, whereas the LOT and SPT-pos correlated negatively with negative affect, ASQ showed a posi-tive correlation.

3.2. Intervention ef fects

Single-session effects replicated previous

ndings by Peterset al. (2010) namely signi cant condition effects for SPT-pos ( F [1,51] ¼ 14.96, p < .01, h r 2 ¼ .23), SPT-neg ( F [1, 51] ¼ 10.92, p < .01,h r

2 ¼ .18) and PA ( F [1, 51] ¼ 16.10, p < .01, h r 2 ¼ .24) re ectinglarger increases on SPT-pos and PA and larger decreases on SPT-negafter writing and visualizing a BPS as compared to writing andvisualizing DA ( Table 2 ).

The omnibus MANOVA on the post-treatment change scores inLOT, SPT-pos, SPT-neg, PA, and ASQ as multivariate dependent vari-ables indicated a signi cant condition effect ( F [5,46] ¼ 5.72, p < .01,h r

2 ¼ .286).As expected, therewas no signi cant condition effect forthe MANOVA on post-treatment change scores in NA and EPQ-N ( F [2,49] ¼ .55, p ¼ .580, h r 2 ¼ .022). The ANCOVAs on the baselinecorrected mid-term and post-treatment scores for the individualdependent variables yielded signi cant conditioneffects forthe LOT(F [1,50] ¼ 5.86, p ¼ .019, h r 2 ¼ .109),SPT-neg ( F [1,50] ¼ 6.46, p ¼ .014,

Table 1Descriptive data and intercorrelations between questionnaires at baseline.

Descriptives Correlations

Scales Mean (SD) Range 1 2 3 4 5

1. LOT 21.63 (5.09) 6 e 312. SPT-pos 4.89 (.67) 2.9 e 6.4 .555 b

3. SPT-neg 2.98 (.82) 1.4 e 4.9 .302 a .1933. PANAS-PA 3.41 (.64) 2.2 e 5.0 .237 .536 b .1714. PANAS-NA 2.11 (.81) 1.0 e 3.8 .365 b .313 a .295 a .0165. ASQ 4.44 (.40) 3.7 e 5.3 .033 .236 .088 .024 .320 a

6. SCM 6.22 (4.77) 8.0 to 16.0a represents a signi cance level of p < .05.b

represents a signi cance level of p<

.01.

Y.M.C. Meevissen et al. / J. Behav. Ther. & Exp. Psychiat. 42 (2011) 371 e 378374

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23684279_Looking_at_or_Through_Rose-Tinted_Glasses_Imagery_Perspective_and_Positive_Mood?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23684279_Looking_at_or_Through_Rose-Tinted_Glasses_Imagery_Perspective_and_Positive_Mood?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5http://-/?-https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281274059_The_Moderator-Mediator_Variable_Distinction_in_Social_Psychology_Research_Conceptual_Strategic_and_Statistical_Considerations?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5http://-/?-http://-/?-https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223447886_Attributional_style_and_athletic_performance_Strategic_optimism_and_defensive_pessimism?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225437112_Convergence_and_predictive_validity_in_measures_of_optimism_and_pessimism_Sequential_studies?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5http://-/?-https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233074189_Manipulating_optimism_Can_imagining_a_best_possible_self_be_used_to_increase_positive_future_expectancies?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233074189_Manipulating_optimism_Can_imagining_a_best_possible_self_be_used_to_increase_positive_future_expectancies?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281274059_The_Moderator-Mediator_Variable_Distinction_in_Social_Psychology_Research_Conceptual_Strategic_and_Statistical_Considerations?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233074189_Manipulating_optimism_Can_imagining_a_best_possible_self_be_used_to_increase_positive_future_expectancies?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233074189_Manipulating_optimism_Can_imagining_a_best_possible_self_be_used_to_increase_positive_future_expectancies?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225437112_Convergence_and_predictive_validity_in_measures_of_optimism_and_pessimism_Sequential_studies?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223447886_Attributional_style_and_athletic_performance_Strategic_optimism_and_defensive_pessimism?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23684279_Looking_at_or_Through_Rose-Tinted_Glasses_Imagery_Perspective_and_Positive_Mood?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23684279_Looking_at_or_Through_Rose-Tinted_Glasses_Imagery_Perspective_and_Positive_Mood?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-

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h r2 ¼ .119), and PA( F [1,50] ¼ 10.38, p < .01, h r 2 ¼ .178). The condition

effect for the SPT-pos ( F [1,50] ¼ 3.79, p ¼ .057, h r2 ¼ .073) and the

ASQ(F [1,52] ¼ 3.16, p ¼ .082, h r 2 ¼ .061) onlyshoweda trend towardsigni cance. As expected, no condition effects were found for eitherNA (F [1,50] ¼ .84, p ¼ .773, h r

2 ¼ .002) or EPQ-N ( F [1,50] < .001, p ¼ .997, h r

2 ¼ .073).Post hoc analyses within conditions indicated that participants

in the BPS condition showed signi cant increases from baseline tomid-term and post-treatment in their scores on the LOT, SPT-posand ASQ, and decreases in their scores on the SPT-neg and NA. PAand EPQ-N remained unchanged. Participants in the controlcondition did not show signi cant changes in LOT, SPT-pos, SPT-negor ASQ and EPQ-N, but unexpectedly DA imagery led to signi cantdecreases in both NA and PA. To explore the timing of the BPSintervention effect, two contrasts (mid-term versus baseline andpost-treatment versus baseline) were speci ed. The effects of theintervention on the SPT-neg, SPT-pos and NA were already signif-icant after one week of BPS imagery, whereas for the LOT there wasa non-signi cant trend ( p ¼ .058) after one week. The effects areillustrated in Figs. 1e 4.

3.3. Mediation of the effects on dispositional optimism by changesin positive affect

To examine whether the increases in LOT after interventionwere mediated by increases in positive affect, we repeated theANCOVA for repeated measures analyses on LOT scores adding thedifference score on positive affect as a covariate to the model.The effect of condition remained signi cant and with hardly anydecrease in effect size ( F [1,50] ¼ 5.53, p ¼ .023, h r 2 ¼ .105) indi-cating that the intervention effect on dispositional optimism wasnot mediated by changes in positive affect.

3.4. Moderation of the intervention effects by trait optimism andintrinsic motivation

To test whether the effects of the intervention were moderatedby baseline dispositional optimism we categorized participants as

either high ( n ¼ 26) or low ( n ¼ 25) on optimism based on a mediansplit in their pre-intervention baseline scores. The same ANCOVAsas before were performed, but this time with optimism as anadditional between-subject factor.Noneof the 2-week interventioneffects were moderated by baseline optimism. We also testedwhether levels of intrinsic motivation (SCM) moderated the inter-vention effect. This appeared not to be the case. Moreover, intrinsicmotivation did not predict frequency of imagery practice norsubjective imagery performance.

3.5. Post-intervention checks

A t -test measuring differences between conditions revealed thatparticipants in the experimental condition reported signi cantlyless dif culty in performing the imagery exercise ( M ¼ 2.46,SD ¼ 1.04) as compared to the control condition ( M ¼ 3.13,SD ¼ 1.12) ( t [50] ¼ 2.21, p ¼ .031) and higher frequencies of practicing imagery indicated by the amount of sessions per week(M ¼ 5.75, SD ¼ .84 in the experimental condition and M ¼ 5.00,SD ¼ 1.14 in the control condition, t [50] ¼ 2.72, p < .01). Becausethe difference in imagery performance and frequency of imagerybetween conditions may have affected the outcome, we carried outa post hoc moderation analyses for the differences in LOT, SPT, ASQ,and PANAS scores between conditions with either imageryperformance or frequency of practicing as the potential moderator.Neither imagery performance nor frequency of imagery appearedto have confounded the results.

4. Discussion

The present study tested the effectiveness of a best possible self (BPS) imagery intervention for increasing levels of optimism.Extending previous ndings that writing about and imagininga BPSleads to an immediate increase in positivefuture expectanciesand decrease in negative future expectancies ( Peters et al., 2010 )the present study showed that daily imagery of BPS for two weeks

20,5

21,0

21,5

22,0

22,5

23,0

23,5

24,0

Baseline 1 week 2 weeks

Control

BPS

Fig. 1. Dispositional optimism as measured by the LOT at baseline, at mid-term (after 1

week), and post-intervention (after 2 weeks) per condition.

2,0

2,5

3,0

3,5

4,0

4,5

5,0

5,5

Baseline 1 week 2 weeksControl

BPS

Fig. 2. Rated likelihood of positive future events (Pos Exp.) and negative future events(Neg Exp.) as measured by the SPT at baseline, at mid-term (after 1 week), and post-

intervention (after 2 weeks) per condition.

Table 2Mean and SD scores on questionnaires before and after a single imagery session by exercise condition.

Best possible self Daily activities

Pre-intervention mean (SD) Post-intervention mean (SD) Pre-intervention mean (SD) Post-interventi on mean (SD)

SPT-pos 4.84 (.73) 5.28 (.68) 4.95 (.62) 4.89 (.80)SPT-neg 2.79 (.72) 2.18 (.59) 3.19 (.72) 2.90 (.96)PANAS-PA 2.86 (.48) 3.35 (.66) 2.62 (.75) 2.55 (.75)PANAS-NA 1.17 (.22) 1.14 (.50) 1.34 (.65) 1.23 (.48)

Y.M.C. Meevissen et al. / J. Behav. Ther. & Exp. Psychiat. 42 (2011) 371 e 378 375

http://-/?-http://-/?-https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233074189_Manipulating_optimism_Can_imagining_a_best_possible_self_be_used_to_increase_positive_future_expectancies?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233074189_Manipulating_optimism_Can_imagining_a_best_possible_self_be_used_to_increase_positive_future_expectancies?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-26f53c7c-d653-4c41-a790-a6032cc45854&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzUwOTM1ODA0O0FTOjMzNTg3NDUxMzQ4OTkyMEAxNDU3MDkwMTMyNjI5http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-

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can lead to sustained increases in optimism. Moreover, the effect onoptimism remained after controlling for changes in positive affect.

The results further demonstrated that initial levels of dispositionaloptimism did not moderate the intervention effects. People whowere already highin optimism pro tedfrom the intervention to thesame extend as participants low in optimism.

We chose daily imagery of a positive future scenario to boostlevels of optimism. According to the expectancy e value model,progress toward a goal increases the con dence of a good outcome(Carver & Scheier, 1999 ). Mental simulation of a positive scenariohas been proposed to have the same effect as actual behavior andtherefore may similarly lead to increased levels of con dence forsuccess. Previously, visualization exercises have effectively beenused to increase levels of self-esteem ( Korrelboom, de Jong,Huijbrechts, & Daansen, 200 9). Interestingly, even though the BPSintervention primarily targeted positive expectancies, the effectsseemed to generalize to optimistic explanatory style. Although thecondition effect in the ANCOVA failed to reach signi cance, ASQ scores signi cantly increased after two weeks of BPS imagery butnot after DA imagery. Moreover, whereas we found that in accor-dance with previous studies (e.g. Gordon, 2008; Peterson & Vaidya,2001 ) LOT and ASQ scores did not signi cantly correlate on baseline,after two weeksof BPS imagery e but not afterdaily activity imagerye the correlation between the two measures became signi cant andquite substantial (Pearson ’ s r ¼ .55). We propose that optimism maybe part of a self-preserving and self-enhancing iterative mechanismsimilar to the broaden-and-build model described by Fredrickson(2001 ). An increase in positive expectancies may subsequently

lead to reciprocal alterations and reinforcements of other positivecognitions and resources and thereby these resources may in timebecome more interrelated.

In the present study, dispositional optimism did not moderatethe intervention effects. Nevertheless, one may question whetherpeople already high in optimism pro t as much from an additionalincrease in optimism in terms of physical and mental healthbene ts compared to participants starting out with a low level of optimism. In addition, the level of a priori motivation to carry outthe imagery exercises and the frequency of imagery neithermoderated the intervention effects. The latter nding may suggestthat it is not necessary to practice imagery every single day,although it should be noted that the self-reported frequency wasquite high (on average more than 5 times a week). In accordancewith the proposed iterative mechanism, it may be that enhancedawareness of positive expectations and application of thesecognitions in daily life is equally or maybe even more important inmaintaining or enhancing dispositional optimism. In addition, itshould be pointed out that the BPS imagery exercise was consid-ered less dif cult and was carried out more often as compared tothe DA imagery exercise. This nding indicates the potential of a BPS imagery exercise as a feasible application in daily life.

Some limitations of the study should be mentioned. First, ourparti