Battle of Zama

202 BC

1. Introduction

2. Carthage versus Rome according to Polybius

Sabela, 1º Bachillerato, IES de Poio

3. Polybius, Cornelius Nepos, and Titus Livius on

the Battle of Zama. A short Comparison

Orestis, 1st Grade, Experimental Senior High School of Agioi

Anargyroi/Athens

4. References

1. INTRODUCTION

The greatest naval power of the Mediterranean in the third century BC was the

North African city of Carthage near modern day Tunis. The Carthaginians were

originally Phoenicians and Carthage was a colony founded by the Phoenician capital

city of Tyre in the ninth century BC. The Phoenicians, however, were conquered by

the Assyrians in the seventh century BC, and then conquered by the Persians.

Since Phoenicia no longer existed as an independent state, that meant that Carthage

was no longer a colony, but a fully functioning independent state. While the Romans

were steadily increasing their control over the Italian peninsula, the Carthaginians

were extending their empire over most of North Africa. By the time that Rome

controlled all of the Italian peninsula, Carthage already controlled the North African

coast from western Libya to the Strait of Gibraltar, and ruled over most of southern

Spain—and the island of Corsica and Sardinia in Europe as well. Carthage was a

formidable power; it controlled almost all the commercial trade in the

Mediterranean, had subjected vast numbers of people all whom sent soldiers and

supplies, and amassed tremendous wealth from gold and silver mines in Spain.

These two mighty empires came into contact in the middle of the third century BC

when Rome's power had reached the southern tip of Italy. The two peoples had been

in sporadic contact before, but neither side felt threatened by the other. The Romans

were perfectly aware of the Carthaginian heritage: they called them by their old

name, Phoenicians. In Latin, the word is Poeni, which gives us the name for the wars

between the two states, the Punic Wars. These conflicts, so disastrous for Carthage,

were inevitable. Between Carthage and Italy lay the huge island of Sicily; Carthage

controlled the western half of Sicily, but the southern tip of the Italian peninsula put

the Romans within throwing distance of the island. When the Sicilian city of

Messana revolted against the Carthaginians, the Romans intervened, and the first

Punic War erupted.

HANNIBAL

He was born in 247 a. C. in Carthage in North Africa. He was the son of the

Carthaginian general Hamilcar. Hannibal was a great general who overcame the

ability of many commanders of the time.

Hannibal, whilst even yet a child, swears eternal hatred to the Romans, image by

John Leech, from: The Comic History of Rome by Gilbert Abbott A Beckett.

Since he was young, his father had taught him to hate the Romans, a legacy that

continued until his death. He declared the war to the Romans even when he was

exiled from his country.

He was taken to Spain by his father when he was only 10 years old.

After his death, his brother Asdrubal transformed Hannibal to become a

Carthaginian army officer.

When Asdrubal was killed, the military gave him supreme command, and when he

received public approval, was appointed commander.

Hannibal Crossing the Alps; detail from a fresco ca 1510, Palazzo del Campidoglio

(Capitoline Museum), Rome

In the Second Punic War, he defeated the Romans in some battles to the conquest of

northern Italy, but he failed to conquer Rome. His country was short of resources

and wanted to sign an agreement to cancel the war for a while, but he refused to

accept all conditions, and Scipio led him to a battle in which Hannibal was defeated.

He was betrayed by the Carthaginians and

was forced to escape because he didn't

want to surrender to the Romans.

However, they found him and disposed to

surround his fort. A slave informed him

about this. Realizing that there was no

escape, he drunk the poison he used to

carry with him.

Hannibal, Vienna, Schönbrunn gardens

Thus died the great Carthaginian general in the age of 70. Respected even by his

enemies, as Cornelius Nepos, who devoted to him these words after his death:

“Sic vir fortissimus, multis variisque perfunctus laboribus, anno acquievit septuagesimo.”

Nepope. Hann. 13, 1

"Thus this bravest of men, after having gone through many and various labours,

found repose in the seventieth year of his age"

2. CARTHAGE VERSUS ROME ACCORDING TO POLYBIUS

The government of the republic of Carthage closely resembled those of Rome and

Sparta: there were kings in their government, together with a senate; people enjoy

the exercise of certain powers.

Dido building Carthage; or the Rise of the Carthaginian Empire, Joseph Mallord William

Turner (1815)

However, by the time the Hannibal war began, the government of Carthage was in a

complete different situation respect the Roman state. Having reached the highest

point of vigor and perfection much sooner than Rome, Carthage now declined from

it in the same proportion, whereas Rome had just raised their constitution to the

most flourishing and perfect state.

Location of Carthage and Carthaginian sphere of influence prior to the First Punic

War (264 BC)

The effect of this difference was that among the Carthaginians the people possessed

the greatest sway in all deliberations, but the senate among the Romans. And as, in

the one republic, all measures were determined by the multitude; and, in the other,

by the most eminent citizens; of so great force was this advantage in the conduct of

affairs, that the Romans, though brought by repeated losses into the greatest danger,

became, through the wisdom of their counsels, superior to the Carthaginians in the

war. The government of Rome is far preferable to that of Carthage. Because, while

the Carthaginians rely on the preservation of the troops, the Romans rely on their

own courage and the help of their allies. This indicates that the Romans, although

defeated at first, always able to renew the war, and the Carthaginian armies are not

easily repaired.

As far as the military science is concerned, the Carthaginians, in the management

and conduct of a naval war, are more skilful than the Romans. . But the Romans, on

the other hand, are far superior in all things that belong to the establishment and

discipline of armies. The Carthaginians employ foreign mercenaries; and that on the

contrary the Roman armies are composed of citizens, and of the people of the

country. Therefore, the Romans, fight for their country and their children and

remain consistent with their spirit, until they become superior to their enemies.

Carthaginian empire during the Punic wars

Even in actions on the sea, the Romans, though inferior to the Carthaginians, earn

success through the sheer bravery of their forces.

Punic war chariot, as printed in Theodore Ayrault Dodge's A HISTORY OF THE

ART OF WAR AMONG THE CARTHAGINIANS AND ROMANS DOWN TO THE

BATTLE OF PYDNA, 168 B. C., WITH A DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE SECOND

PUNIC WAR Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston & New York (1891).

While the Carthaginians entrust the preservation of their liberty to the care of venal

troops; the Romans place all their confidence in their own bravery, and in the

assistance of their allies. From hence it happens, that the Romans, though at first

defeated, are always able to renew the war; and that the Carthaginian armies never

are repaired without great difficulty

In things that regard the acquisition of wealth, the manners also, and the customs of

the Romans, are greatly preferable to those of the Carthaginians. Among the

Carthaginians, money is openly employed to obtain the dignities of the state: but all

such proceeding is a capital crime in Rome.

The Romans have among them certain institutions by which the young men are

greatly animated to perform acts of bravery. It is a proof of the attention that is

shown by the Roman government, to infuse such a spirit into the citizens as shall

lead them to encounter every kind of danger for the sake of obtaining reputation in

their country.

Carthage Electrum Coin 250 BCE, British Museum

Carthage punique et romaine, Collection particulière Bertrand Bouret

3. POLYBIUS, CORNELIUS NEPOS, AND TITUS LIVIUS ON

THE BATTLE OF ZAMA

POLYBIUS (ΠΟΛΤΒΙΟ), IΣΟΡΙΩΝ ΙΕ

1. CARTHAGINIANS FORCE HANNIBAL TO RETURN

Carthaginians press Hannibal to engage in a battle. Hannibal answered that he

himself would make his decision when he should fight but a few days later, he

moved his camp from Hadrumentum to Zama, about five days march to the west of

Carthage.

Hannibal, bust found in Capua

2. CARTHAGINIAN SPIES ARE CAPTURED

Hannibal sent 3 spies to the Roman encampment but they were captured. Scipio

allowed them to see whatever they wanted and then he escorted them back to

Hannibal’s camp.

3. HANNIBAL DECIDES TO NEGOCIATE WITH SCIPIO

When the spies returned, Hannibal was impressed by Scipio's magnanimity and

courage and he decided to talk to him. He sent a herald to Scipio to tell him that he

would like to discuss the situation with him. Scipio answered that he would send a

messenger to inform Hannibal about the time and place.

Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (235–183 BC), National Museum of Naples

4. MASSANISSA ARRIVES IN ORDER TO HELP SCIPIO

The following day, Massanissa (Μασανάσσης/Masinissa in Latin), a prince of the

Numidians, arrived with 6.000 infantry and 4.000 cavalry. Scipio moved his camp to

Naragara (Ναράγαρα), which enabled him to have easy access to water supplies. He

also sent an envoy to Hannibal to inform him about the time and the place of their

meeting. Hannibal moved his quarters closer to Scipio’s camp on a hill, somewhat

far away from the water.

5. HANNIBAL AND SCIPIO MEET

The following day both generals advanced from their camps attended by a few

horsemen. Then, they left their escorts and talked in private, each one accompanied

by one interpreter.

6. HANNIBAL'S SPEACH

Hannibal was the first to speak. In the beginning, he wished that both Rome and

Carthage had never coveted any possession outside Italy and Africa respectively but

their rival claims in Sicily and Spain made them enemies. The result of this war it

that the Romans had their own land endangered a year before and at that time the

Carthaginians were in danger. Then, he said that he wanted to make peace with the

Roman as he had learnt that Fortune is fickle. He also pretended that he worried

about Scipio because Fortune was favorable to him so far but he was willing to risk

his success in one battle. In the end, he suggested that Sicily, Sardinia, Iberia and the

islands between Italy and Africa should belong to Rome.

7. SCIPIO'S REPLY

Scipio replied to Hannibal that the Carthaginians were the aggressors at the two

wars and for this reason the Gods rewarded Rome with victory. He told Hannibal

that if he had retreated from Italy before the Romans had invaded Africa, his request

would probably be accepted. Scipio criticized the Carthaginians for having violated

the previous peace terms which were:

The Carthaginians would restore prisoners without ransom

The Carthaginians should surrender all their decked vessels

The Carthaginians would pay 5,000 talents

The Carthaginians would give hostages

So Scipio refused to withdraw the severest terms of the treaty. He insisted that the

Carthaginians should surrender unconditionally or fight against them.

8. NEGOTIATIONS FAIL

Scipio and Hannibal didn’t reach a deal. Next morning both generals drew out their

armies and engaged. The Carthaginians were fighting in order to protect their

country and the Romans were fighting for universal domination.

9. DEPLOYMENT OF THE ROMAN ARMY

Scipio placed the hastati (ἁστάτοι) at the first line with gaps between the maniples.

Behind them, he deployed the principes which were not arranged to cover the gaps

between the maniples of the hastati as the custom was. He placed them immediately

behind the hastati at some distance because of the enemy’s elephants. In the rear he

placed the triarii. On his right wing he deployed Massanissa and the Numidians and

on his left wing the Italian cavalry under the command of Gaius Laelius. The gaps

between the front maniples were filled with velites, who were ordered to begin the

battle. If the velites were unable to stand the charge of the elephants, they would

retreat to the rear of the whole army by the gaps between the maniples which were

straight through the ranks. If they got entangled with the elephants, they would step

aside into the later spaces between the maniples.

10. SCIPIO'S SPEACH BEFORE THE BATTLE

Scipio reminded to his soldiers their former victories and that if they were victorious

in this battle, they would conquer not only Libya but the entire world. In case that

the battle was lost, he said that those who would fall fighting, would have the record

of having died for their country but those who would run away, would be objects of

contempt and scorn as there was no place in Libya which could secure their safety.

In the end, he advised his soldiers to charge with the steady resolve to conquer or

die.

11. DEPLOYMENT OF THE CARTHAGINIAN ARMY

Hannibal placed his elephants that were more than 80 in the van of the whole army.

In the first line he deployed his 12.000 mercenaries which were Ligurians, Celts,

Balearicians and Mauretanians. In the second line he deployed the Carthaginians

and the native Libyans and on the rear the men that he had brought from Italy. On

his left wing, he deployed his Numidian cavalry and on his right wing the

Carthaginian cavalry.

Ligurians in blue colour

The Balearics

12. HANNIBAL'S SPEACH BEFORE THE BATTLE

Hannibal ordered each officer to address his own men. Hannibal reminded the

Carthaginians what the consequences of a defeat would be. Then, he told to the

Italian army not to forget the victories that they had the last 17 years in Italy. In the

end, he said that the former Roman armies that they had faced were more numerous

and that they had memories of past defeats in contrast to Scipio’s army that was

smaller and was composed of the sons of those that had been defeated in Italy.

13. HANNIBAL'S NUMIDIAN CAVARLY VS MASSINISA, ELEPHANTS VS

VELITES

The two opposing forces of Numidian cavalry started the battle by engaging in

skirmishing attacks upon each other. Hannibal ordered the men on the elephants to

charge the enemy but due to the noise that the horns and the trumpets made some of

them attacked the Numidian contingents of the Carthaginian army instead of the

Roman ones. Massanissa took advantage of this and managed to rout the Numidian

cavalry that supported the Carthaginians. The rest of the Carthaginians charged the

velites in the space between the maniples of the line. They inflicted much damage to

the Romans but they also suffered severely. The elephants became frightened and

some of them ran down the vacant spaces. The Romans let these elephants pass

harmlessly along. Other elephants raw away to the right under a shower of darts

from the cavalry until they were driven off the field.

Battle of Zama, C. Cort, 1567

14. ROMAN CAVALRY VS CARTHAGINIAN CAVALRY

After the elephants were driven off the field, Laelius attacked the Carthaginian

cavalry which soon began to retreat. In this way, the Romans had won the cavalry

engagement on both flanks.

15. BOTH INFANTRIES ADVANCE

While Laelius and Massanissa were chasing the Carthaginian cavalry, both infantries

advanced apart from Hannibal's "army of Italy". The Romans charged the enemy.

16. HASTATI VS CARTHAGINIAN MERCENARIES

Both combatants used swords, not spears. In the beginning, the mercenaries

managed to wound a considerable number of Romans but soon, due to the

steadiness of the ranks and the excellence of the arms, the Romans began to gain

ground. The second line of Hannibal's army, the Carthaginians, refused to help

them. As a result, the mercenaries believed that they were abandoned by the

Carthaginians and turned against them. The Carthaginians were forced to fight

against the Romans and against their mercenaries at the same time. They managed

to kill many Romans and many of their own men as well. The maniples of the hastati

were in confusion and the principes were committed to help. However, most of the

Carthaginians were already killed by the hastati and their own mercenaries and

were not willing to fight against the principes. They tried to retreat but Hannibal did

not allow them to enter the ranks of his army and forced them to take refuge on the

wings or make for the open country.

17. SCIPIO REDEPLOYS HIS ARMY

The space between the two armies was full of wounded men and dead corpses. For

this reason, it was difficult for the Romans to chase the Carthaginians. Scipio carried

the wounded to the rear, he recalled the hastati from the pursuit and he ordered the

principes and the triarii to deploy into line with the hastati on either flank.

18. HANNIBAL'S ARMY OF ITALY VS HASTATI+PRINCIPES+TRIARII

Once the principes and the triarii got into line with the hastati, both lines charged.

Both armies were equal in numbers, courage and arms. None of them was giving out

a step and for a long time, the battle was undecided.

19. THE ROMAN CAVALRY RETURNS

In the nick of time, the Roman cavalry returned and charged Hannibal's rear. Most

of the Carthaginians were killed in their ranks. Very few of those who attempted to

escape made it, because the Roman cavalry was close and the ground was quite

level. 20.000 Carthaginians died but only 1500 Romans. About 20.000 Carthaginians

were taken as prisoners. After the battle was over, Scipio plundered the

Carthaginian camp and then he returned to his own.

20. HANNIBAL ESCAPES TO HADRUMENTUM

Hannibal escaped with a few horsemen to Hadrumentum. He had done everything

he could but it was not enough to defeat Scipio.

21. CARTHAGINIAN ENVOYS BEG SCIPIO FOR PEACE

After the battle, the Carthaginians decided to send envoys to negotiate with Scipio.

Scipio said that they deserved no mercy because they were the aggressors and

because they had violated the first peace terms by attacking Saguntum and the

newly agreed terms as well. Later, however, Scipio decided to make a new peace

treaty with the Carthaginians and he mentioned the concessions to be made to them

and the penalties to which they were to submit.

Carthago

22. THE TERMS

The Carthaginians would retain their towns in Libya that were possessed

before the last war against Rome with their cattle, slaves and other stock.

The Carthaginians would have their own laws and customs and they

wouldn't have Roman garrisons in their cities.

The Carthaginians would pay an indemnity to the Romans for all wrongs

committed during the truce.

The Romans would restore all captives and runaway slaves

The Carthaginians would hand over all of their ships apart from 10 triremes

The Carthaginians would not be allowed to possess elephants

The Carthaginians were not allowed to go to war with people outside Libya at

all

The Carthaginians were allowed to go to war with people inside Libya but

only with consent of Rome

The Carthaginians would restore to Massanissa all houses, territory and cities

that belonged to him or to his ancestors

1The Carthaginians would supply the Roman army with provisions and

salary for 3 months

The Carthaginians would pay 10.000 talents of silver in 50 years

The Carthaginians would pay 200 Euboic talents every year

The Carthaginians would give 100 hostages which would by selected by

Scipio and that would not be younger than 14 or older than 30 years.

23. HANNIBAL PERSUADES THE CARTHAGINIANS TO ACCEPT THE

TERMS

The envoys returned to Carthage to announce these terms to their countrymen. At

the Carthaginian senate, Hannibal said that they had no other option but to accept

the terms. His advice was regarded sensible by the rest of the senators and they

decided to accept the terms. Then the senate sent envoys to notify their consent.

CORNELIUS NEPOS

LIBER DE EXCELLENTIBUS DUCIBUS EXTERARUM

GENTIUM

(ca 100 - 25 BC)

Cornelius Nepos was a biographer, who usually praises the personalities he chooses

to write about. He was a friend of Catulus, of Cicero and of Titus Pomponius

Atticus.

One section of his voluminous work De excellentibus ducibus exterarum gentium,

commonly known as Vitae excellentium imperatorum, and the biographies of Cato and

Atticus from another (De Latinis historicis) have been preserved. The rest of his work

is lost, apart from fragments.

His account on the battle of Zama in Hannibal’s Life runs as follows:

1. HANNIBAL RETURNS FROM ITALY TO DEFEND CARTHAGE

Hannibal was recalled to Carthage, without having suffered even a single defeat, to

defend his country. He fought a war against the son of Publius Scipio. Publius Scipio

had been routed by Hannibal three times: on the Rhone, on the Po and on Trebia.

2. HANNIBAL TRIES TO NEGOTIATE WITH SCIPIO

As the resources of Carthage were exhausted, Hannibal decided to make a treaty

with Scipio so that they war could stop for a while. Later, he would fight again

against him with a stronger army. Hannibal and Scipio met but they did not reach

any agreement.

3. HANNIBAL IS DEFETED AT ZAMA

A few days later, they fought at Zama and Hannibal was defeated. Two days after

the battle, Hannibal arrived at Hadrumentum.

4. HANNIBAL ESCAPES FROM THE NUMIDIANS AND ASSEMBLES A NEW

FORCE

While he was retreating, some Numidians (NUMIDAE) that had fled with him after

the battle tried to kill him but Hannibal managed to defeat them and escape. In

Hadrumentum he gathered the survivors and he also recruited more men.

TITUS LIVIUS

AB URBE CONDITA, LIBER XXX

Titus Livius was born in Patavium in 64 B.C. (or in 59 B.C.). He was educated in

philosophy and rhetoric. He devoted a large of his life to his writings as he was able

to do this because of his financial freedom. His most famous work Ab Urbe Condita

he explains the complete history of Rome, from its foundation to the death of

Augustus. His history emphasizes the great triumphs of Rome. He used a variety of

sources but his aim was to write an entertaining, dramatic account of Roman history.

He used Polybius extensively for details of Roman dealings in the east, but often

adapted this source and made his own additions. During Tiberius' reign, in order to

avoid conviction, he committed suicide by self-starvation. After his death, many of

his books were burned by the aediles.

1. HANNIBAL AT HADRUMENTUM

Hannibal was called away by the Carthaginians to defend his country. He arrived at

Hadrumentum, where he spent a few days so that his soldiers could recover from

sea sickness.

2. HANNIBAL AT ZAMA

After a forced march he arrived at Zama, just five days distance from the city of

Cartage.

3. SCIPIO CAPTURES CARTHAGINIAN SPIES

The first thing that Hannibal did was to send spies. The Carthaginian spies that had

been sent to the Roman camp were captured but Scipio allowed them to see

anything that they wanted. Then, he sent them back to Hannibal. Hannibal was not

pleased with the reports of his scouts.

4. HANNIBAL DECIDES TO NEGOTIATE WITH SCIPIO. SCIPIO AGREES

Masinissa, a Numidian prince, arrived the same day with 6.000 infantry and 4.000

cavalry. But apart from this, Hannibal was also dismayed by the enemy's confidence.

Although Hannibal knew that he committed hostilities first and he was the one that

broke the truce of the first Punic War, he believed that he could obtain better terms if

he negotiated while his army was still intact. For this reason, he sent a messenger to

Scipio requesting a meeting. Scipio accepted his offer and they agreed to meet at a

spot halfway between the camps so that none could fall into an ambush.

5. HANNIBAL'S PROPOSAL

When the two generals met, they were just looking at each other in the beginning.

Hannibal spoke first. He said to Scipio that he admits that he is a great general but

he reminds him that he was also once in his position. At this time the Roman army

was near Carthage but few months ago the Carthaginian army was close to Rome.

He advised Scipio not to risk his reputation in a single battle but to make a peace

treaty. Hannibal suggested that Sardinia, Spain and every island between Italy and

Africa should belong to Rome but Africa should belong to Carthage. He ensured that

all of the Carthaginians will agree with this peace treaty.

6. SCIPIO'S ANSWER

Scipio replied to Hannibal that the Carthaginians did not deserve to have the same

terms as before because they were the aggressors. He also said that he was mindful

of human weakness and that he was not acting arrogantly. He would have acted

arrogantly, if Hannibal voluntarily had withdrawn from Italy and wanted to

negotiate. In the end, Scipio said that if Hannibal added a compensation for the ships

loaded with supplies that were taken and for the violence he did to his envoys he

will bring his suggestion before the senate.

Scipio meets Hannibal at Zama, Charlotte Mary Yonge, 1880

7. THE TWO GENERALS ENCOURAGE THEIR ARMIES

The following day, the two armies were deployed for battle. Hannibal reminded to

his soldiers their great victories in Italy. On the other side, Scipio recalled the great

victories in Spain and Africa and he said that the fact that Hannibal sued for peace is

a sign of weakness.

8. DEPLOYMENT OF THE ROMAN ARMY

Scipio drew up in the first line the hastati. In the second line he deployed the

principes. In the rear the triarii were closing the formation. However, he did not

form cohort in close contact. Instead, he formed maniples at a considerable distance

from each other so that there would be an empty space were the elephants could be

driven through without breaking up the ranks. Laetius was posted with the Italic

cavalry on the left wing. Massinisa and his Numidians on the right. Scipio filled the

open passages between the maniples of the front line with velites, the lightly armed

of that day. In case that the elephants charged, they were given orders either to flee

behind the ranks in the line or else, dashing to right and left and closing up to the

maniples in the van, they should give the elephants an opening through which they

might rush among missiles thrown against them from both sides.

Mauretiania next to Numidia in north-west Africa

9. DEPLOYMENT OF THE CARTHAGINIAN ARMY

The Carthaginian army was composed of many different nations. Gauls, Ligurians,

Mauretanians, Balearicians, Numidians, Carthaginians, Bruttians, Macedonians.

Macedonia in 200 BC

Each of them had each own reasons to fight. Hannibal placed his 80 elephants in

front in order to create panic. Next, he placed his Ligurian and Gaul auxiliaries

together with Balearic and Mauritanian troops. In the second line, he placed

Carthaginians, Africans and Macedonians. Then, leaving a moderate interval, he

drew up a reserve line of Italic soldiers most of which were Bruttians. These soldiers

were forced to follow him when he returned from Italy. He also placed the cavalry

on the wing. The Carthaginian cavalry on the right wing and the Numidian on the

left.

10. MASINISSA'S NUMIDIAN CAVALRY VS HANNIBAL'S NUMIDIAN

CAVALRY, ITALIAN CAVARLY VS CARTHAGINIAN CAVARLY,

ELEPHANTS VS VELITES

While Hannibal was speaking to the Carthaginians and the other leaders to their

countrymen, trumpets and horns sounded on the Roman side. This was done on

purpose. The elephants turned against their own men, especially on the left wing

where the Mauritanians and the Numidians were placed. Masinissa took advantage

of this and stripped the end of the line from its cavalry support. A few of the

elephants that were driven into the enemy managed to cause great casualties to the

light-armed Romans but suffered many wounds themselves. The lightly armed

Romans were sprang back to the maniples and made way to the elephants so that

they wouldn't be trampled down. Then, they hurled their lanced from both sides

against the elephants that were exposed from both sides to missiles. The elephants

were driven out of the Roman line and into their own men by missiles thrown at

them. They elephants turned against their own cavalry on the right flank and forced

them to retreat. Laelius took advantage and attacked and routed them completely.

Battle of Zama, H.-P. Motte, ca 1890

11. HASTATI VS CARTHAGINIAN AUXILIARIES

The Carthaginians had lost all of their cavalry. At this time, the infantries of both

armies clashed. The Romans pressed on into the enemy by their own weight and the

weight of their arms. The Carthaginians made repeated charges at high speed but

with less power. The first charge of the Romans immediately dislodged the enemy

line. Then, beating them back with their shoulders and shields, they made

considerable progress as none resisted. When they saw that the enemy line had

given away, even the rear line presses upon the first which gave them a great force

in repulsing the enemy. The second line of the Carthaginians was far behind. As a

result, the Carthaginians and the Mauritanians could not support the auxiliaries

which gave away. Some auxiliaries found refuge in the second line but others were

not allowed by the second line to withdraw. These auxiliaries slashed at those who

were not making place for them. By this time, the Carthaginians were fighting not

only against the Romans but against their own men as well. In the end, the

Carthaginians closed up their ranks and forced the auxiliaries to the wings outside

the main battle so that they would not affect the morale of the rest of the army.

12. SCIPIO REDEPLOYS HIS ARMY

Heaps of bodies and arms had covered the place where the auxiliaries stood before

they retreated. For this reason, the Romans had great difficulty in making their way.

The men of the first line, the hastati, were trying to pursue the enemy but their

maniples and ranks broke. The principes also began to waver. Scipio immediately

ordered the recall of the hastati and after he drew the wounded to the rear line, he

placed the principes and the triarii to the wings in order to make the centre that was

composed of hastati safer. The Romans were superior to numbers and morale

because they had routed the cavalry and the elephants.

13. THE ROMAN CAVARLY RETURNS AND SLAUGHTERS THE

CARTHAGINIANS

At the right moment, Laelius and Masinissa returned and charged into the rear of

the enemy line. Many Carthaginians were slain in the battle line. The Carthaginians

tried to withdraw but the Roman cavalry was in complete possession. Over 20.000

Carthaginians died and about 20.000 were captured. Only 1500 Romans died.

14. END OF THE WAR

Hannibal escaped with a few horsemen and fled to Hadrumentum. Hannibal had

done anything he could that day but still, he couldn't defeat Scipio. In the Senate

House, he admitted that he did not lose just a single battle but the war as well and he

said that there was no hope of safety except in successfully suing for peace. After the

battle, Lentulus, in command of 50 war ships and 100 transports with supplies

arrived near Utica. Scipio sent Laelius to Rome to report his victory and he ordered

Gnaeus Octavius to bring his legions to Carthage by land. Scipio went to his old fleet

reinforced from Lentulus' fleet and sailed from Utica towards the harbor of

Carthage. He was not far away when a Carthaginian ship with 10 envoys bedecked

with fillets and olive branches met him. They were sent by Hannibal to sue for

peace. When they approached holding the symbols of suppliants, begging and

beseeching the help and pity of Scipio, he told they that they should come to Tynes,

a city close to Carthage. Scipio sailed near in order to view the situation of Carthage,

because he wanted to humiliate the enemy. After that, he returned to Utica and

recalled Octavius.

A SHORT COMPARISON

Generally, Livius and Polybius offer a detailed description of the events before,

during and after the battle. Cornelius Nepos’ narration, on the other hand, is very

brief. His apparent purpose is to praise Hannibal. That’s the reason why he mentions

a few selected events.

The first difference between Livius and Polybius is that Livius doesn't mention

anything about the envoys. In addition, he doesn't mention the exact number of the

spies. Apart from this, Livius focuses much on the dialogue between Hannibal and

Scipio. Polybius also mentions this dialogue but without so many details. Another

difference is that Livius says that Scipio suggested that the Carthaginians would add

a compensation for the ships loaded with supplies that were taken and for the

violence he did to his envoys, while according to Polybius the terms were: The

Carthaginians would restore prisoners, they would surrender all their decked

vessels, they would pay 5000 talents and they would give hostages. Apart from these

differences, there are also differences regarding the battle. To begin with, Polybius

believes that the Carthaginians had 12.000 mercenaries that were Celts, Ligurians,

Balearicians and Mauretanians. Livius adds the Macedonians as well. Furthermore,

according to Livius, Hannibal placed in the first line only his Ligurian and Gaul

auxiliaries together with Balearic and Mauritanian troops and in the second line he

placed Carthaginians, Africans and Macedonians. According to Polybius, all of the

mercenaries were deployed in the first line. Moreover, Livius says that the elephants

were frightened by the Roman trumpets and horns but Polybius says that the noise

of their own horns and trumpets caused this. This difference can be explained if we

take into consideration that Livius was a Roman and wanted to give to Scipio as

much credit for the defeat of the elephants as he could. He also mentions at some

point that when Scipio was talking to his army he stand so erect and with such a

happy look on his face that one would have believed that he would be the victor.

Apart from this, Livius says that only the infantry fought with the elephants but

Polybius says that they were driven off the field by darts from the cavalry.

Furthermore, Livius believes that Scipio sailed from Utica towards the harbor of

Carthage and that the Carthaginians met him at that place. Then, he says that Scipio

told to the envoys to meet him at Tynes to discuss the terms. Polybius doesn't

mention anything about sailing to the harbor of Carthage. Instead, he mentions the

terms agreed.

All in all, I believe that Polybius is more objective than Livius and that Livius

elaborates at some points. For this reason, I think that Polybius has the best

description of the battle.

4. REFERENCES

http://www.history.com/topics/hannibal

http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/nepos/nepos.han.shtml

http://shot.holycross.edu/courses/Sallust-Livy/S06/pdfs/Nepos-Hannibal-eng.pdf

http://www.livius.org/ha-hd/hannibal/hannibal.html

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0136%3al

ife%3dhan.

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/polybius6.html#Rome and Carthage

Compared

www.perseus.tufts.edu

http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Nepos,_Cornel

ius

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos

http://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lsante01/Nepos/nep_intr.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NE_200bc.jpg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Localizaci%C3%B3n_de_las_Islas_Baleares.svg

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0159

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0234

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titus_Livius

http://www.ancientsites.com/aw/Post/847597

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