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688 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 15, NO. 4, JULY 2000
Energy, Environment, and Advances in PowerElectronics
Bimal K. Bose, Life Fellow, IEEE
AbstractThe technology of power electronics has gone throughrapid technological advancement during the last four decades, andrecently, its applications are fast expanding in industrial, commer-cial, residential, military and utility environments. In the global in-dustrial automation, energy conservation and environmental pol-lution control trends of the 21st century, the widespread impact ofpower electronics is inevitable. The paper begins with a discussionon global energy generation scenario and the corresponding en-vironmental pollution problem. The mitigation of this problem isthen discussed with particular emphasis on energy saving with thehelp of power electronics. A brief but comprehensive review of therecent advances of power electronics that includes power semicon-ductor devices, converters, machines, drives and control is incor-porated in the paper. Finally, a prognosis for the 21st century has
been outlined.Index TermsConverter, drive, energy, environment, machine,
power electronics, power semiconductor device.
I. INTRODUCTION
POWER electronics has now firmly established its impor-
tance as indispensable tool in industrial process applica-
tions after decades of technological evolution. Fortunately, we
are now living in an era of industrial renaissance when not onlypower electronics but also computers, communication, informa-
tion, and transportation technologies are advancing rapidly. The
advancement of these technologies has brought the geographi-
cally remote areas in the world closer day by day. We now livein a truly global society, particularly with the advancement of
internet communication . The nations of the world have now
become increasingly dependent on each other as a result of this
closeness. In spite of great diversity among nations, one thing
we can safely predict with certainty that in the 21st century,
wars in the world will be fought on economic rather than mil-
itary fronts. In the new global market, free from trade barriers,
the nations around the world will face fierce industrial compet-
itiveness for survival and improvement of living standards. In
the highly automated industrial environment struggling for high
quality products with low cost, it appears that two technologies
will be most dominating: computers and power electronics with
motion control.Let me first give a broad historical perspective. As you
know, before the industrial civilization in the world that started
around 200 years ago, people were essentially dependent on
manual and animal labor. Life was simple and unsophisticated,
Manuscript received January 29, 1999; revised January 20, 2000. Thiswork was presented at the IEEE-PEDES Conference, Australia, 1998, and theIEE-IAS Conference, Japan, 1997. Recommended by Associate Editor, L. Xu.
The author is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, University ofTennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-2100 USA.
Publisher Item Identifier S 0885-8993(00)05559-9.
and the environment was relatively clean. Then, in 1785, the
invention of steam engine by James Watt of Scottland brought
industrial revolution. It was the beginning of mechanical
age, or age of machines. The advent of internal combustion
engine in the late nineteenth century gave further momentum
to the trend. Gradually, industrial revolution spread from
Europe to America, and then to the rest of the world. In
1888, Nickola Tesla invented commercial induction motor.
The commercial dc machine came somewhat earlier, and
synchronous machine came somewhat later. The introduction
of electrical machines along with commercial availability of
electrical power started the new electrical age. It is interesting
to note that the Croatia-born engineer Tesla came to USA towork with Thomas Edison, the inventing wizard of nineteenth
century. Interestingly, with 1093 U.S. patents, Edison is often
considered as the greatest inventor in history. He had only three
months of formal schooling, and believed that genius is 99%
perspiration and only 1% inspiration. Edison was a fervent
advocate of dc machines and firmly believed that ac machines
had no future. He even refused to attend any discussion related
to ac machines. Gradually, Edison and Tesla became fierce
enemies because of their diagonally opposite viewpoints. The
invention of the transistor in 1948 by Bardeen, Brattain, and
Schokley brought us to the threshold of modern solid-state elec-
tronics age. Then, in 1956, Bell Telephone Laboratory invented
thyristor (PNPN transistor) which was later commercialized
by General Electric Co. Then, gradually came the modern eras
of integrated circuits, computers, communication and robot
technologies. It is often said that solid-state electronics brought
in the first electronics revolution, whereas solid-state power
electronics brought in the second electronics revolution. It is
interesting to note that power electronics essentially blends the
technologies brought in by the mechanical age, electrical age,
and electronics age. It is truly an interdisciplinary technology.
II. ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
A. Energy ScenarioEnergy has been the life-blood for continual progress of
human civilization. Since the beginning of industrial revolution
around two centuries ago, the global energy consumption has
increased by leaps and bounds to accelerate the human living
standard, particularly in the industrialized nations of the world.
In fact, per-capita energy consumption has been a barometer
of a nations economic prosperity. The USA has the highest
living standard in the world. With only 5% of world population,
it consumes 25% of total energy. Japan, on the other hand,
consumes 5% of total energy with 2% of world population.
08858993/00$10.00 2000 IEEE
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India and China together, with 38% of world population,
consumes only one-tenth of that of USA.
Globally, as indicated in Fig. 1(a), 87% of total energy is gen-
erated from fossil fuel (coal, oil and natural gas), 6% is gener-
ated in nuclear plants, and the remaining 7% comes from renew-
able sources (mainly hydro and wind power) [1]. The U.S. en-
ergy generation [Fig. 1(b)] approximately follows the same pat-
tern [2]. As indicated, 42% of U.S. energy comes from oil mostof which is consumed in automobile transportation. Currently,
USA imports more than 50% oil from outside. Fig. 2 shows the
electricity generation of USA, Japan, China and India by dif-
ferent types of fuel [3]. In USA, 37% of total energy is gener-
ated in electrical form of which 55% comes from coal and 20%
comes from nuclear plants. It is interesting to note that China
and India generate most of the electricity from coal (74% and
71%, respectively).
Unfortunately, the world has limited fossil fuel and nuclear
power resources. Fig. 3 shows the idealized potential energy de-
pletion curves of the world [4]. The world has large reserve of
coal. It is then followed by oil, natural gas and uranium fuel,
respectively. The natural uranium fuel is expected to last hardlyfor 50 years. Of course, breeder reactor can generate more nu-
clear fuel. Oil is expected to last hardly for more than 100 years,
and gas for 150 years. However, coal is expected to last for more
than 200 years. How can we operate our automobiles and aero-
planes when oil gets totally exhausted? Of course, fossil fuels
can often be converted to another form. Will the wheels of civi-
lization come to screeching halt beyond the 22nd century when
fossil and nuclear fuels become totally exhausted? By energy
conservation, the fuel depletion curves can be extended in time.
The wind and solar power, not shown in Fig. 3, can be explored
extensively. Can we expect a break-through in fusion power to
solve our future energy needs? Unfortunately, in spite of pro-
longed and expensive research, fusion power has not yet shown
any practical sign of future promise. The U.S. Department of
Energy has recently down-scaled fusion research in the labora-
tories of USA. It appears that cheap and abundant energy supply
which we are now enjoying will be overin future and our society
will be forced to move in an altered direction.
B. Environmental Issues
Unfortunately, environmental pollution and safety problems
contributed by increased energy consumption are recently
becoming domination issues in our society. Nuclear power
plants have safety problems. Besides, nuclear plant waste
remains radioactive for thousands of years. Even with the latesttechnology, we do not know how to satisfactorily dispose of the
nuclear waste. The U.S. society vehemently opposes expansion
of nuclear power in spite of having stringent safety standards by
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). Anti-nuclear slogan
is now spreading in many countries of the world.
Burning of fossil fuels emits gases, such as CO , SO , NO ,
HC, O and CO, besides generation of fly ash by coal. These
gases create environmental pollution problems, such as global
warming (green house effect), acid rain and urban pollution.
Global warming (a few degrees in hundred years) may cause
melting of polar ice cap and corresponding inundation of
low-lying areas of the world. In addition, the resulting world
Fig. 1. Energy generation scenario.(a) Globaltotalenergy. (b)US total energy.
climate change may adversely affect our agriculture andvegetation. Of course, preserving the worlds rain forests and
widespread forestation can alleviate this problem. The acid
rain, mainly caused by SO and NO due to coal burning,
damages vegetation. Then, of course, there is urban pollution
problem mainly by IC engine vehicles.
Fig. 4 compares the present and projected emissions of four
different countries, i.e., USA, China, India, and Japan for elec-
tricity generation [3]. USA consumes largest amount of elec-
tricity, and therefore, emission generated by USA is the largest.
Japan is a smaller country and it has much stricter air pollu-
tion standard. However, fast developing countries like China and
India, mainly dependent on coal, are increasing pollution at a
much faster rate. Japan is already facing a problem by coal-gen-erated pollution in near-by China. Environmental pollution is
truly a global problem, and the Kyoto conference in 1997 tended
to address this problem.
How can we solve or mitigate the environmental pollution
problems? As a first step, all our energy consumption can be
promoted in electrical form, and then advanced emission control
standards can be applied in central fossil fuel plants. The prob-
lems then becomeeasier to handlewhen compared to distributed
consumption of coal, oil and natural gas. As emission control
technologies advance, more and more stringent controls can be
enforced in central power stations. Wind energy is the cheapest
(5 to 6 cents/kWH) environmentally clean and safe renewable
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690 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 15, NO. 4, JULY 2000
Fig. 2. Electricity generation by fuel types for selected countries.
Fig. 3. Idealized energy depletion curves.
energy source, and the world has truly vast potential of it. It
has been estimated that if 10% of raw wind potential could be
utilized (ignoring the economic constraints), the whole worlds
electricity needs could be met [6]. The recent advances in vari-
able speed wind turbines, power electronics and variable speed
drive technologies with advanced control are promoting large
expansion of wind energy programs in USA, Europe, China and
India [6]. Wind and solar power (also environmentally clean)
are particularly attractive for people of the emerging countries
who are not tied to electric power grids. It has been estimated
that currently around two billion people (33% of world pop-
ulation) are isolated from power grids. Of course, wind and
solar power, being statistical in nature, require back-up energy
sources. The solar photovoltaics are currently expensive ($3.5 to
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Fig. 4. Present and projected emissions of selected countries for electricitygeneration.
$4.5/W), and have low efficiency (13% to 16%). However, with
the present research trend, the cost and efficiency are expected
to improve significantly in future [8].
Urban pollution can be prevented by widespread use of elec-
tric vehicles and subway transportation. Note that wind power,
photovoltaics, electric car and subway systems heavily depend
on power electronics which will be discussed later. Conservation
of energy by more efficient use of electricity, and thus reduction
of fuel consumption, is a definite way to reduce pollution be-
sides having economic payoff. It also helps saving precious fuels
for the future. The role of power electronics in energy saving
will be discussed later. Unfortunately, availability of cheap en-
ergy promotes its wastage. It has been estimated that 33% of
total energy is simply wasted in the USA because of consumer
negligence [1]. In Japan, energy is typically four times more ex-
pensive, and therefore, the urge for energy saving is great.
III. ELECTRIC/HYBRID VEHICLES
Since electric and hybrid vehicles can play dominant role in
environmental pollution control and they constitute a major ap-
plication area of power electronics, the paper will remain in-
complete without some discussion of them. The history of EV
goes back to nearly a century, but serious R & D in this area
started during Arab oil embargo in the 1970s. The prime focus
at that time was oil saving in order to reduce dependence on
imported oil. However, in the 1980s, the environmental pol-
lution (particularly urban pollution) problem became a serious
concern in our society. Currently, oil conservation as well as en-
vironmental pollution control are the motivating factors that are
urging worldwide R & D activities in EV/HV. In 1990, Cali-
fornia Air Resource Board (CARB) established rules (with sev-
eral revisions thereafter) that mandated 10% of all vehicles sold
in California by 2004 must be zero emission vehicles (ZEV).
The California mandate made wide reverberations not only in
the other states of USA but in Europe and Japan also.Fig. 5 shows the fuel chains for gasoline-fuelled IC engine
vehicles (ICEV) and EV charged with coal-based power where
typical efficiency figures are incorporated. It is assumed that
electricity for EV is mainly generated in coal-based power sta-
tion. ICEV has very poor efficiency, and calculation indicates
that nearly 10% of gross energy of oil well is delivered to the
wheels. On the other hand, EV has much higher efficiency, and
nearly 20% of gross energy of coal mine is delivered to the
wheels. However, note that the urban pollution due to ICEV is
replaced by equivalent central power station pollution due to EV.
As mentioned before, the emission control in a central power
station is much easier to handle than that of individual vehicles.
Considering the potential importance of electric and hybridvehicles, in September 1993, the U.S. President along with
the big three automakers (GM, Ford and Chrysler) declared
a PNGV (Partnership for Next Generation Vehicles) program
[9] with the goal of producing state-of-the art hybrid vehicle
by the year 2004. The vehicle should have fuel efficiency (80
miles/gallon) three times the present value, range of 380 miles,
useful life of 100000 miles and very low emission (0.125
HC/1.7 CO/0.2 NO gms/mile). Of course, the vehicle should
be cost-effective and acceptable by customers.
Although electric and hybrid vehicles have been commer-
cially introduced recently by a few companies around the world,
they are currently far below the consumers acceptance level in
cost and performance. Fortunately, EV/HV is very intensive in
power electronics that has reached an acceptable level of ma-
turity in the recent years. It is essentially the limitation of bat-
tery technology that is inhibiting the acceptance of EV in the
market place. Todays propulsion battery is too heavy and ex-
pensive. Besides, it has low cycle life, gives low vehicle range,
and has the limitation of slow charging. Even with the capa-
bility of fast charging, the present utility distribution network
can not handle the charging power if large number of EV bat-
teries are fast-charged simultaneously. With the limited energy
storage capability of battery, EV is essentially suitable for lim-
ited range city driving. HV can truly replace ICEV, but the cost
is much higher. Among the possible energy storage devices [11]for EV/HV, such as battery, flywheel and ultra-capacitor, the
battery is the most viable candidate, and will remain so in near
future. Battery has been the prime focus for research for a long
time, but the technological evolution has been very slow. In
1990, the U.S. Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC) was es-
tablished to sponsor R & D activities in this area. It established
near-term, mid-term and long-term research goals, as indicated
in Table I [12]. At present, lead-acid battery is possibly the best
compromise in energy density, power density, life-cycle, cost
and other criteria. It has been widely used in developmental
EVs that include GM commercial EV1. Nickel-Cadmium bat-
tery hashigher energy density and longer life, but it is expensive.
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692 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 15, NO. 4, JULY 2000
Fig. 5. Fuel chains for gasoline-fuelled ice vehicle and electric vehicle with coal-based power.
TABLE I
BATTERY TECHNOLOGY STATUS
Sodium-Sulfur battery has reasonably high energy density, high
cycle life, but itspowerdensity is low and operating temperature
is high. Nickel-Metal-Hydride and Lithium batteries appear to
be more promising EV battery, but currently they are very ex-
pensive.
The discussion on EV/HV will remain incomplete without
a few words about power devices. Power device helps in-
creasing the vehicle range, acceleration capability at high
speed, gradeability and maintaining a minimum state-of-charge
for the storage device. Although gasoline engine has been
the traditional power device, other candidates such as diesel
engine, gas turbine and fuel cell can also be considered. Diesel
engine has improved efficiency, but it is noisy and gives fumes.
For these reasons, it has not found customer acceptance in
USA. Fuel cell is particularly a very interesting device because
it is static, has high efficiency, and gives no emission when
used with hydrogen fuel. Of course, there will be emission if
natural gas is used as a fuel through a reformer. Table II shows
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TABLE IICHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS FUEL CELL TYPES
the different fuel cell types and their characteristics [13]. An
expanded review of power and energy storage devices for next
generation electric and hybrid vehicles is given in [11].
IV. IMPORTANCE OF POWER ELECTRONICS
The importance of power electronics in industrial automa-
tion, energy conservation and environmental pollution control
has already been touched in the previous sections. As the costof power electronics is falling and the system performance is
improving, its applications are proliferating in industrial, com-
mercial, residential, utility, aerospace and military systems. It
is expected that this trend will continue with high momentum
in this century. Modern computers, communication and elec-
tronic systems get life blood from power electronics. Modern
industrial processes, transportation and energy systems benefit
tremendously in productivity and quality enhancement with the
help of power electronics. As mentioned before, the environ-
mentally clean sources of power, such as wind, photovoltaics
and fuel cells which will be highly emphasized in future, heavily
depend on power electronics.
The growing importance of power electronics which isbeing increasingly visible now-a-days is the energy saving
of electrical apparatus by more efficient use of electricity.
It has been estimated that roughly 15% 20% of electricity
consumption can be saved by extensive application of power
electronics. According to EPRI (Electric Power Research
Institute) estimate, 60%65% of generated electricity in the
USA is consumed in motor drives, and majority of these drives
are for pumps and fans. Again, the processes by most of these
pump and fan drives can get benefit by variable flow control.
The example applications are ID/FD (induced draft/forced
draft) fans and boiler feed pumps in fossil power station. Tradi-
tionally, variable flow is obtained by throttle control while the
driving induction motor runs at constant speed. It can be shown
that power electronics controlled variable speed drive with
fully open throttle can save as much as 30% energy at light load
condition. The extra cost of power electronics can be recovered
in a period depending on the cost of electricity. Light load
machine operation at reduced flux (flux programming control)
can further improve drive efficiency, typically by 20%. In fact,
as the cost of power electronics goes down drastically, the use
of variable frequency starter in the front-end of the machine willpermit flux-programming control even for constant speed drive
applications. Another example application is variable speed
load-proportional air-conditioner/heat pump drive that can
save as high as 30% energy in comparison with conventional
thermostatically-controlled system. Interestingly, because of
high energy cost, typically 70% of room air-conditioners in
Japanese homes use variable speed drives to save energy. On
the other hand, variable speed air-conditioners are practically
unknown in the USA because of cheap energy. It has been
estimated that typically 20% of generated energy is consumed
in lighting. It is well-known that fluorescent lamps are two to
three times more efficient than incandescent lamps. Using high
frequency power electronics ballast can boost fluorescent lamp
efficiency typically by additional 20%. Note that energy saving
not only gives economic benefit but the cooling burden also
becomes less, and there is the benefit of reduced environmental
pollution because of reduced generation.
V. ADVANCES IN POWER ELECTRONICS AND DRIVES
A. Power Semiconductor Devices
Todays progress in power electronics has been possible pri-
marily due to advances in power semiconductor devices. Apart
from device evolution, the inventions in converter topologies,
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PWM techniques, analytical and simulation methods, control
and estimation techniques, computers, digital signal processors,
ASIC chips, control hardware and software, etc. have also con-
tributed to this progress. It is interesting to note that histor-
ically the power electronics age began with the invention of
glass-bulb mercury-arc rectifier at the beginning of this cen-
tury (1901). However, the modern era of solid state power elec-
tronics started with the invention of thyristor (or silicon-con-trolled rectifier) in the late 1950s. Gradually, other devices,
such as triac, gate turn-off thyristor (GTO), bipolar power tran-
sistor (BPT or BJT), power MOSFET, insulated gate bipolar
transistor (IGBT), static induction transistor (SIT), static induc-
tion thyristor (SITH), MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT), and in-
tegrated gate-commutated thyristor (IGCT) were introduced. Of
course, power semiconductor diode which is not included in the
list, is equally important. As the evolution of new and advanced
devices continued, the voltage and current ratings and electrical
characteristics of the existing devices began improving dramati-
cally. Power electronics evolution generally followed the device
evolution. Again, device evolution has been heavily influenced
by the advances in microelectronics. Suffice it to say that if de-vice evolution stopped after invention of thyristor, power elec-
tronics evolution could have also stopped in a primitive age.
In fact, the device evolution along with converter, control and
system evolution has been so spectacular in the last decade of
20th century, we can define it as the decade of power elec-
tronics."
Thyristor, the general workhorse of power electronics, dom-
inated the first generation of power electronics, typically in the
period of 19581975. Even today, thyristors are indispensable
for handling very high power at low frequency for applications,
such as HVDC converters, phase-control type static VAR
compensators, cycloconverters and load-commutated inverters.
It appears that the dominance of thyristor in high power
handling will not be challenged at least in the near future. Triac
is basically an integration of anti-parallel thyristors, and is
suitable for low frequency resistive type load, such as heating
and lighting control. The advent of high power GTOs pushed
the force-commutated thyristor inverters, once so popular, into
obsolescence. The device continues to grow in power rating
(most recently 6000 V, 6000 A) for multi-megawatt voltage-fed
and current-fed (with reverse blocking device) converter
applications. Slow switching of the device that causes large
switching loss restricts its switching frequency to be low (a
few hundred Hz) in high power applications. Large dissipative
snubbers are essential for GTO converters. Of course, regen-erative snubber can be used to improve converter efficiency.
Power MOSFET, unlike most other devices, is a majority
carrier device. Therefore, its conduction drop is high for higher
voltage devices, but the switching loss is low. It is very popularin low voltage high frequency applications, such as switching
mode power supplies (SMPS) and other battery-operated power
electronic apparatus. Recently, trench-gate devices with lower
conduction drop have been introduced. The device does not
have any competitor in future. The advent of large Darlington
BJTs in the 1970s brought great expectations in power
electronics. Recently, and almost suddenly, the device has
been totally ousted in competition with power MOSFET (low
voltage range) and IGBT (higher voltage). The introduction of
IGBT in the 1980s was an important milestone in the history
of power semiconductor devices. Its switching frequency is
much higher than that of BJT, and square SOA (safe operating
area) permits easy snubberless operation. The power rating
(currently 3500 V, 1200 A) and electrical characteristics of the
device are continuously improving. IGBT intelligent power
modules (IPM) have been available with built-in gate driver,control and protection for up to several hundred kW power
rating. The present (fourth-generation) IGBTs with trench gate
technology have conduction drop which is slightly higher than
a diode, and much higher switching speed. MCT is another
MOS-gated device which was commercially introduced in
1992. The present MCT (P-type with 1200 V, 500 A), however,
has limited RBSOA (reverse-biased SOA), and switching
speed is much inferior than IGBT. MCTs are being promoted
for soft-switched converter applications (will be discussed
later) where these inferiorities are not barriers. Currently,
the U.S. Government, in collaboration with industries and
universities, has started a large R & D program in PEBB (power
electronic building block) development [23]. IGCT, basically ahard-switched GTO, has been commercially introduced most
recently [24] (currently 4500 V, 3000 A). The claimed advan-
tages over GTO are lower conduction drop, faster switching,
monolithic bypass diode, snubberless operation, and ease of
series operation.
Although silicon has been the basic raw material for power
semiconductor devices for a long time, several other raw mate-
rials, such as silicon carbide and diamond, are showing signifi-
cant future promise. These materials have large band gap, high
carrier mobility, high electrical and thermal conductivities and
strong radiation hardness. Therefore, devices can be built for
higher voltage , higher temperature, higher frequency and lower
conduction drop. Unfortunately, processing of these materials is
very complex. SiC power devices (diode, power MOSFET and
thyristor) have already been demonstrated in laboratory, and are
likely to be commercially available in early part of this century.
It is expected that eventually most of silicon power devices will
disappear from the market.
B. Converters
A converter uses a matrix of power semiconductor switches
to convert electrical power at high efficiency. It is interesting
to note that converter technology has generally followed the
device evolution, although the most common type of con-verter operating on utility system is the Graetz bridge which
was introduced long time ago. Diode or phase-controlled
converters using thyristor type devices distort line current
wave, and thus create utility power quality problems. The
latter, particularly, deteriorates line power factor. Rigorous
IEEE-519 and IEC-1000 standards have been formulated to
restrict harmonic loading on the utility system. The IEEE-519
standard limits harmonic loading at the point of common
coupling by the consumer (but not the individual equipment),
whereas IEC-1000 restricts harmonic generation by individual
pieces of equipment. Since diode and thyristor type converters
are very common and constantly growing on utility system,
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various types of passive, active and hybrid filters have been
proposed to combat these problems. Of course, high power
converters can solve this problem by using multi-pulsing
technique. Active filters and static VAR compensators (SVC)
can be based on voltage-fed or current-fed converter topology,
but the former type is generally preferred because of lower cost
and improved performance. The active power line conditioner
(APLC) has the dual functions, i.e., active filtering as well asVAR compensation. These types of apparatus are attractive for
retrofit applications to phase-controlled apparatus, but have not
found much popularity because of high cost. It is interesting to
note that recently very high power (48 MVA) SVC (static VAR
compensator) using GTO-based multi-stepped voltage-fed
converter has been installed in Japanese railway system [26].
In the 1960s, when inverter-grade thyristors appeared, var-
ious types of voltage-fed force-commutated thyristor inverters,
such as McMurray inverter, McMurray-Bedford inverter,
Verhoef inverter, ac-switched inverter and dc-side commutated
inverter were introduced. Many other commutation techniques
were highlighted in the literature. However, this class of
inverters gradually faced obsolescence because of the advent ofself-commutated GTOs and bipolar transistors. As mentioned
before, BJTs became obsolete with the advent of IGBTs.
Among the PWM techniques, sinusoidal voltage control PWM
and hysteresis-band instantaneous current control PWM be-
came very popular. Digital computation intensive space vector
PWM (SVM) with isolated neutral loads was introduced in
the 1980s. SVM performance is superior to sinusoidal PWM
but computation time restricts the upper limit of switching
frequency. Because of superior performance, the recent trend is
to replace current control PWM by voltage control PWM.
Since PWM inverter can operate both in inversion and
rectification modes, the unit can replace the phase-controlled
converter on line side solving the harmonics and power factor
problems. Fig. 6 shows the progression of modern voltage-fed
converter topology. The diode rectifier with boost chopper
shapes the line current to be sinusoidal at unity power factor,
but it is nonregenerative. A double-sided PWM converter
system, in addition, gives regeneration capability which is
important for a drive. The topology in this system can be either
two-level or three-level (neutral point clamped or NPC). In
fact, higher number of levels is also possible. Again, each
unit can have half-bridge, H-bridge, or three-phase bridge
configuration. Three-level topology, used in high voltage
high power applications, gives better harmonic performance
without increasing PWM switching frequency. Recently,attempts have been made to replace multi-megawatt thyristor
phase-controlled cycloconverters for machine drives with
the GTO-based three-level converter system. An example
is 10-MVA three-level convertersynchronous motor drive
for rolling mill drive introduced by Mitshubishi [29] a few
years ago. The system is more economical than cyclocon-
verter drive with hybrid APLC. Since IGBTs have higher
switching frequency, and their voltage and current ratings
are increasing recently, there is a growing trend to replace
two-level GTO converters in the lower end by three-level IGBT
converters. Again, with higher IGBT voltage rating, there is
also a trend to replace three-level IGBT converters by the
Fig. 6. Progression of voltage-fed converters.
corresponding two-level converters giving large size and cost
benefits. Japanese railway drive with 1500 V dc supply is an
example [30]. Fig. 7 shows the progression of current-fed con-
verters. Thyristor phase-controlled rectifier/inverter is the most
common example in this class. High power (multi-megawatt)
load-commutated thyristor inverter (LCI) synchronous motor
drives where machines operate at leading power factor are
very popular in industry. With induction motor, the same type
of converter has been used but with a capacitor bank at the
machine terminal for load commutation. Converters can again
be multi-stepped (12 or 24 pulse), as mentioned before, to
reduce harmonics in line and load currents, but the problem
of poor displacement factor remains. Force-commutated cur-
rent-fed auto-sequential commutated inverters (ASCI) have
been used for induction motor drives, but recently, they have
become obsolete. Double-sided PWM current-fed converters
using self-controlled reverse-blocking devices have essentially
the same features as those of voltage-fed topology [Fig. 6(b)].
However, the voltage-fed topology is superior and far morepopular in industrial drive applications.
In the recent literature, we have seen an enormous growth
of soft switching technology [31]. The traditional converters
with self-controlled devices use hard switching principle. Soft
switching of devices at zero voltage or zero current (or both)
tends to minimize or eliminate device switching loss, thus
giving improvement of converter efficiency. Besides, the other
advantages are: elimination of snubber loss, improvement
of device reliability, less dv/dt stress on machine insulation,
reduced EMI problem, and elimination of machine bearing
current problem and voltage boost effect at machine terminal
with long cable. Of course, some of these problems can be
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Fig. 7. Progression of current-fed converters.
solved by using low-pass LC filter at the machine terminal.
Soft-switched converters can be generally classified as resonant
link dc, resonant pole dc, and high frequency ac link systems.
The resonant link dc can be voltage-fed or current-fed type. The
former again can be classified as free-resonance or quasires-
onance types, or active or passive clamp types. Soft-switched
high frequency ac link system can be resonant (parallel or
series) or nonresonant type. This class has the advantages of
transformer coupling although the number of components is
larger. Unfortunately, in spite of technology evolution for more
than a decade, soft-switched converters have hardly shown in
the market place. In spite of the claimed potential advantages,
the need of extra components and control complexity are
possibly the reasons of their disfavor.
C. Machines and Drives
Electrical machine is the workhorse in a drive system. Its evo-
lution over the past century has been slow and much less dra-
matic than that of power semiconductor devices and converter
circuits. Electrically, mechanically and thermally, a machine is a
very complex system. The advent of modern digital computers,
improved modeling, simulation and CAD programs, and avail-ability of new materials have contributed to higher power den-
sity, higher efficiency, improved reliability, reduced cost, and
improved mechanical and thermal design of the machine in the
recent years. Advanced studies related to machine modeling,
control, state and parameter estimation, etc. are the exciting
R&D topics today for drive system engineers. Although dc ma-
chines have been traditionally used for variable speed appli-
cations, and yet count as majority today, the advent of solid
state variable frequency inverters, improved power semicon-
ductor devices, microprocessors, DSPs, powerful ASIC chips,
and advanced control and estimation techniques gradually en-
hanced the application trend of variable frequency ac drives.
Both induction and synchronous machines have been
widely used in variable speed drives. Although the cage type
induction motor is most commonly used in wide power range,
wound-rotor machines with slip power recovery control (known
as static Kramer and Scherbius drives) have been generally
used in limited speed range multi-megawatt drive applications.
Because of expensive machine and poor system performance,
particularly with phase-controlled converters , these drives arerecently being disfavored except for specialized applications.
Synchronous machines can be classified as reluctance machine,
permanent magnet (PM) machine, and wound-field machine.
The PM machines can again be classified as surface and inte-
rior magnet types, radial and axial field types, and sinusoidal
and trapezoidal flux types. Although PM machine is more
expensive (particularly with high energy NdFeB magnet) and
require absolute position sensor, it has higher power density
and improved efficiency that reduces the life cycle cost. While
the trapezoidal and sinusoidal surface magnet machines are
essentially restricted to constant torque region speed control,
the interior permanent magnet (IPM) machines can extend
operation into field-weakening region. Synchronous reluctancemachines often provide low cost and robust solution, and are
suitable for high speed applications. Design of this class of
machines has gone through a lot of improvement in recent
years. It was mentioned before that wound-field synchronous
machines are very popular in the highest power range. Although
somewhat expensive compared to induction motor, it has the
advantages of programmable power factor control (leading,
lagging or unity), improved efficiency and reduced moment of
inertia. Programmability of power factor makes the converter
economical and further boosts the drive efficiency.
The discussion on machines and drives will remain incom-
plete without some discussion on switched reluctance machine
(SRM) drives which have received so much attention in the re-
cent literature. This electronic motor is claimed to be simple,
rugged, low-cost, fault-tolerant, and can operate at high speed.
However, there are pulsating torque and acoustic noise prob-
lems, and absolute position sensor is required unlike induction
motor drive. Of course, position estimation and pulsating torque
compensation techniques have been proposed in the literature.
Unfortunately, machines can not be operated in parallel on a
single converter, bypass operation of converter(in case of con-
verter fault) is not possible unlike induction motor drive with
60 Hz supply, and estimation of feedback signals is difficult. In
spite of large commercialization effort, it is expected that SRM
drives will be restricted to very specialized applications.
D. Control and Estimation
Control and estimation of high performance ac drives have
been a very fascinating and challenging area of R & D in the
recent years, and literature in this area is extensive [32]. The
advent of powerful microcomputers, digital signal processors,
application specific ICs, personal computers, CAD and sim-
ulation tools, AI techniques, and advancement of control and
estimation theories has continuously extended the frontier of
control and estimation techniques. In this section, control and
estimation related to induction motor drive only will be briefly
reviewed. Although simple volts/Hz control is known for a long
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time, and is yet extensively used in low performance industrial
drives, the advent of vector or field-oriented control since the
1970s brought renaissance in modern high performance control
of ac drives. It has been widely accepted forapplications, such as
paper and textile mills, metal rolling mills, servos and machine
tools, elevators, electric vehicles, etc. where dc machine-like
performances are demanded. In spite of complexity, this type of
control is expected to be universal for ac drives in future. Vectorcontrol can be classified into indirect and direct methods, and
can be based on rotor or stator flux orientation. Currently, the
indirect method with rotor flux orientation is most popular in
industrial applications. A problem in indirect vector control is
detuning of slip gain (Ks) due to machine parameter variation
that causes the coupling effect. For a machine with unknown
parameters, the initial or off-line tuning can be easily made by
automated parameter measurement by inverter-injected signals.
This also helps self-commissioning of a drive where tuning of
feedback control parameters is also required. On-line tuning of
Ks is more difficult and has been attempted by methods, such
as injection of PRB (pseudo-random binary) signal in machine
-axis and observation on -axis, extended Kalman filter pa-rameter estimation, parameter estimation by solving machine
- model, MRAC (model referencing adaptive control) and
fuzzy MRAC methods. The direct vector control with rotor flux
orientation is much less parameter sensitive if the flux vector
is estimated from the machine terminal voltages and currents
(voltage model). However, zero or near-zero speed operation
requires flux vector estimation from speed and current signals
(current model or Blaschke equation) where parameter variation
problem becomes serious. In a wide range speed control with
this method, the voltage and current models can be hybrided for
flux estimation. The stator flux oriented direct vector control has
the advantage that the flux vector estimated by voltage model
is sensitive to stator resistance only which can be compensated
somewhat easily. However, in this method, there is inherent cou-
pling effect, and therefore, decoupling current compensation is
required in the flux control loop.
Speed sensorlessvector control isa popular R & D topic in the
recent literature. Speed estimation by processing the machine
voltage and current signals has been attempted by methods,
such as slip and stator frequency estimation, solving the dy-
namic machine model, slot harmonic voltages, MRAC method,
speed adaptive flux observer (Luenberger observer), and ex-
tended Kalman filter. Very recently, it has been attempted by
injecting auxiliary signals through the inverter. Although speed
sensorless vector- controlled drives are available commercially,speed estimation at zero speed or near zero speed yet remains a
challenge.
A type of performance-enhanced scalar control, called direct
torque and flux control (known as DTC) which was proposed
in the 1980s, is receiving a lot of attention in the recent liter-
ature. The DTC control gives adequately fast response, has the
simplicity of implementation due to absence of close loop cur-
rent control, traditional PWM algorithm and vector transforma-
tion. However, the inherent demerits of limit cycle operation,
such as pulsating torque, pulsating flux and additional machine
harmonic loss exist. Since the torque and stator flux vector are
estimated from machine voltages and currents, the low speed
limitation and parameter variation problem are similar to stator
flux oriented vector control. Recently, fuzzy and neuro-fuzzy
control techniques have been proposed to alleviate the perfor-
mance of DTC control.
In a high performance control where the machine parameter
variation and load torque disturbance can be problems, the con-
troller parameters (and sometimes the control structure) can be
varied adaptively to give the desired stability, robustness anddead-beat response. Various adaptive control techniques, such
as self-tuning regulator (STR), H-infinity control, MRAC and
sliding mode control (SMC) or variable structure system (VSS)
have been proposed in the literature. With vector control in the
inner loop, the transient model becomes dc machine-like, and
then it becomes much easier to apply adaptive control in the
outer loop.
In the recent years, intelligent control based on AI (artificial
intelligence) techniques is showing high promise for advanced
ac drive applications [33]. AI can be classified into expert
system (ES), fuzzy logic (FL), artificial neural network (ANN)
and genetic algorithm (GA). The ES, based on Boolean algebra,
uses hard or precise computation, whereas FL, ANN and GAuse soft or approximate computation. With a control based
on AI, a system is often said to be intelligent, autonomous,
adaptive, self-organizing or learning. A plant model is
often unknown, or ill-defined. Or, the system may be nonlinear,
complex, multivariable with parameter variation problem.
An intelligent control can identify the model, if necessary,
and give predicted performance even with wide range of
parameter variation. In ES, the expertise of a human being in
a certain domain is embedded into a computer program. The
ES has been applied in auto-tuning of P-I control, off-line and
on-line diagnostics in equipment, automated design, simulation
and test of power electronic systems. Fuzzy logic, unlike
Boolean logic, deals with problems that have vagueness or
imprecision, and uses membership functions and fuzzy rule
table to solve a problem. FL has been applied in adaptive
control for parameter variation, robust control with load
disturbance, nonlinear compensation, estimation of distorted
waves, state and parameter estimation, modeling of machine,
and tuning off-line P-I control in self commissioning of drive.
Fig. 6 gives an example of FL application in variable speed
wind generation system [37]. The wind turbine is coupled to
an induction generator which generates power for the grid
through a double-sided PWM IGBT converter system. The
machine speed is controlled in regenerative mode to track
the wind velocity with indirect vector control, whereas theline-side converter uses direct vector control to pump power
to the utility grid at unity power factor. The system uses three
fuzzy controllers. The controller FLC-3 gives robustness to
speed control loop against the pulsating torque of vertical
turbine and shock by wind vortex. The controllers FLC-1 and
FLC-2 maximize the system power output by on-line search,
as explained in Fig. 8. FLC-1 continuously tracks the wind
velocity with the machine speed to maximize the turbine
aerodynamic efficiency, whereas FLC-2 optimizes the machine
efficiency by on-line programming of the flux. Fuzzy control
in FLC-1 and FLC-2 is justified because it improves speed of
convergence and permits use of noisy signals. ANN is a more
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 8. (a) Fuzzy logic based control of variable speed wind generation system. (b) System operation with fuzzy controllers FLC-1 and FLC-2.
generic form of AI and tries to emulate the biological neural
network of human brain. It can be generally classified intofeedforward and feedback or recurrent type. Although many
different topologies of ANN are proposed in the literature, back
propagation or multiple perceptron type feedforward topology
is most commonly used. This type of network basically maps
input-output static patterns using associative memory property.
Dynamical systems can be emulated by feedforward ANN
with delayed inputs, outputs or feedback, or by recurrent ANN.
Various off-line and on-line training methods of ANN have
been proposed in literature. Recurrent ANNs are somewhat
difficult to train, but Kalman filter based off-line and on-line
training have shown a lot of promise. The ANNs have been
used in one or multi-dimensional nonlinear function genera-
tion, PWM techniques, zero-phase delay harmonic filtering
of waves, waveform FFT signature analysis, on-line diag-nostics, dynamic model emulation of machines, and inverse
dynamics-based drive control, feedback signal estimation, etc.
ANN-based intelligent control seems to have extremely bright
future. Fig. 8 gives an example of neural network application
in an inverse dynamics based adaptive control of a multiple
degree of freedom robotic manipulator [41] where it is intended
to control a multi-dimensional trajectory with the respective
command signals. The N-degree of freedom plant is nonlinear
and have mutual coupling. In the beginning, a feedforward
ANN is trained off-line to emulate the plant model. The ANN is
then used in feedforward manner to cancel the plant dynamics.
The feedback loop detects the tracking error due to training
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Fig. 9. Neural network based inverse dynamics adaptive control.
Fig. 10. Speed sensorless stator flux oriented vector control with neuro-fuzzy based performance enhancement.
imperfection and parameter variation, and generates the sup-
plementary corrective signals, as shown, which can be used
for on-line training of the ANN. A simpler version of Fig. 9
can be used in industrial drive. Fig. 10 shows an example of
a speed sensorless stator flux-oriented vector-controlled drive
[42] for electric vehicle that uses fuzzy and neural techniques
to enhance the drive performance. The drive is started with the
current model (or Blaschke equation) but without speed sensor,
and then transferred to direct vector control at zero speed but
finite torque (i.e., slip frequency). The voltage model based
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stator flux vector estimation uses programmable cascaded
low-pass filters (PCLPF) which permit integration of voltage
down to zero speed. A quasifuzzy stator resiatance estimator
provides correction to the flux estimator. The neuro-fuzzy
controller permits flux programming efficiency optimization
control [similar to FLC-2 of Fig. 8(a)] of the machine where an
ANN is used to replace the fuzzy controller.
VI. CONCLUSION AND PROGNOSIS FOR THE 21ST CENTURY
The paper gives a brief but comprehensive review of global
energy scenario, future depletion of fossil and nuclear fuels,
environmental pollution problem, and mitigation of environ-
mental problems with particular emphasis of energy conser-
vation with the help of power electronics. Electric/hybrid ve-
hicle technology that plays an important role in fuel saving and
pollution control has been reviewed in this context. The ad-
vances in power electronics that includes power semiconductor
devices, converters, machines, drives, control and estimation
have been reviewed with some emphasis on modern intelligent
control methods.
Finally, it may be possible to give some prognosis for the
21st century trend in power electronics. Of course, our present
knowledge and trends can only be extrapolated for the future.
Any breakthrough invention, like invention of transistor or
artificial neural network, can alter the entire scenario. Again, of
course, these are the authors own opinion based on his knowl-
edge and experience. First, it can be predicted with confidence
that power electronics applications will spread everywherein
every phase of industrial, commercial, residential, utility,
transportation, aerospace and military environments. The main
reason is drastic cost and size reduction with improvement of
performance and reliability of future power electronics systems.Besides general process applications, energy saving will be
the important motivation, as mentioned before. As our energy
demand tends to grow further to improve our living standard,
more rigid environmental regulations will tend to drive up
the energy cost, and thus will promote more conservation of
energy. With the present research trend, the cost of photovoltaic
energy will come down substantially. Environmental regula-
tions will promote photovoltaic and wind energy extensively.
The trend in wind energy is already evident. Our future hope
of environmentally clean and safe fusion energy appears very
uncertain at this point. A new and break-through approach is
needed in this direction. The battery technology is expected
to have a break-through promoting widespread applications ofelectric and hybrid vehicles in future. The scarcity of IC engine
fuels (and correspondingly high cost), and the urge to minimize
urban pollution problem, are bound to promote EV/HV in the
market eventually even with the expensive and bulky batteries.
Of course, extensive R & D will significantly improve other en-
ergy storage and power devices. Silicon carbide, and ultimately
the diamond power semiconductor devices, will usher another
renaissance in power electronicspushing the silicon material
essentially into control microelectronics only. High frequency,
high temperature, low conduction drop and improved radiation
hardness of the new power devices will boost efficiency of the
increasingly popular voltage-fed converters. It can be easily
predicted that phase-controlled converters which are currently
so popular on utility line will eventually phase extinction, thus
solving the power quality and power factor problems perma-
nently. High power multi-terminal HVDC systems, rolling mill
drives, pump and compressor drives, static VAR compressors
in flexible ac transmission (FACT) systems will use voltage-fed
inverters with these devices. Soft-switching converters may
appear briefly, but will then disappear, except in specializedapplications. Traditional matrix converters operating on utility
line do not show future promise because of larger count of
power semiconductors and expensive ac capacitor bank on the
line. We expect that the converter technology will have the
similar trend as VLSI technology, and the present generation of
converter circuit designers will tend to disappear. Future con-
verters will have automated computer-aided design and built as
integrated and intelligent building blocks, similar to the trend
of micro chips. Future power electronics R & D activity will be
essentially confined to devices and systems. With drastic cost
reduction, almost every ac machine (both variable and constant
speed) will be eventually coupled with a front-end converter.
Variable frequency starting (solid state starter) of a constantspeed machine will solve power quality problem as well as im-
prove operational efficiency at light-load by flux programming
control (the idea is similar to Nola controller). At the lower end
of power, intelligent machines will be built with integrated
converter and control in the same frame. Thomas Edisons
favorite dc machine will eventually face total demise in this
century. It appears that switched reluctance drives will not be
able to stand in competition with induction and PM machine
drives for general industrial applications. Its application will
be restricted to a few specialized applications, as mentioned
before. Reduced cost of high energy magnet and improved
efficiency will promote increased volume of PM machine
drives, particularly when energy cost increases. Considering
the present trend, it appears that the popular volts/Hz control
of ac drive will disappear and sensorless vector control will
be universally accepted, except for high precision speed and
position control systems that require near zero speed operation.
The simplicity of volts/Hz control and complexity of sensorless
vector control with powerful DSP are essentially transparent
to the user. Advanced intelligent control and estimation based
on fuzzy logic and neural network will find dramatically in-
creasing acceptanace in power electronic systems. ANN-based
advanced control and estimation, embedded in ASIC chips,
particularly shows very high promise.
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IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 46, pp. 662665, Apr. 1999.[44] P. Vas, Sensorless Vector and Direct Torque Control. Oxford, U.K.:
Oxford Univ. Press, 1998.
Bimal K. Bose (S59M60SM78F89LF96)received the B.E. degree from the Bengal Engi-neering College, Calcutta, India, the M.S. degreefrom the University of Wisconsin, Madison, and thePh.D. degree from Calcutta University, Calcutta, in1956, 1960, and 1966, respectively.
He currently holds the Condra Chair of Excellencein Power Electronics at the University of Tennessee,Knoxville, where he is responsible for organizing thepower electronics teaching and research program forthe last thirteen years. He is also the Distinguished
Scientist of EPRI-Power Electronics Applications Center, Knoxville; Honorary
Professor of Shanghai University, China University of Mining and Technologyand Xian Mining Institute (also Honorary Director of its Electrical EngineeringInstitute),China; and Senior Adviser of Beijing Power ElectronicsResearch andDevelopment Center, China. Early in his career for eleven years, he served as afaculty member at Calcutta University (Bengal Engineering College). In 1971,he joined Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, as Associate Professorof Electrical Engineering and conducted its teaching and research program. In1976, he joined General Electric Corporate Research and Development, Sch-enectady, NY, as Research Engineer and served there for eleven years. He hasserved as a consultant in more than ten industries. His research interests extendacross the whole spectrum of power electronics, and specifically include powerconverters; AC drives; microcomputer control; EV drives; and expert system,fuzzy logic and neural network applications in power electronics and drives. Hehas published more than 150 papers, and holds 21 U.S. patents. He is author andeditor of a number of books that include Power Electronics and AC Drives (En-glewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986), Adjustable Speed AC Drive Systems(New York: IEEE Press, 1981), Microcomputer Control of Power Electronics
and Drives (NewYork: IEEE Press, 1987) and Modern Power Electronics (NewYork: IEEE Press, 1992), and Power Electronics and Variable Frequency Drives(New York: IEEE Press, 1997). The bookPower Electronics and AC Drives hasbeen translated into Japanese, Chinese, and Korean, and is widely used as agraduate level text book
Dr. Bose received the IEEE Industry Applications Societys OutstandingAchievement Award for outstanding contributions in the application ofelectricity to industry in 1993; IEEE Industrial Electronics Societys EugeneMittelmann Award in recognition of outstanding contributions to research anddevelopment in the field of power electronics and a lifetime achievement inthe area of motor drive in 1994; IEEE Region 3 Outstanding Engineer Awardfor outstanding achievements in power electronics and drives technologyin 1994; IEEE Lamme Gold Medal for contributions in power electronicsand drives in 1996; and IEEE Continuing Education Award for exemplaryand sustained contributions to continuing education in 1997, the IEEEMillennium Medal in 2000, and the Premchand Roychand Scholarship andMouat Gold Medal from Calcutta University, in 1968 and 1970, respectively,
for his research contributions, and the GE Publication Award, Silver PatentMedal, and a number of IEEE prize paper awards. He was the Guest Editorof the Proceedings of the IEEE Special Issue on Power Electronics and
Motion Control, August 1994. He is listed in Marquis Whos Who in America.He has served the IEEE in various capacities that include Chairman of IESociety Power Electronics Council, Associate Editor of IE Transactions,IEEE-IECON Power Electronics Chairman, Chairman of IAS Industrial PowerConverter Committee, IAS member in Neural Network Council, and variousother professional committees. He is a member of the Editorial Board of thePROCEEDINGSOF THE IEEE (1995present), and has served in a large number ofnational and international professional organizations. He was a DistinguishedLecturer in IEEE-IA and IE Societies. In 1995, he initiated Power Electronicsfor Universal Brotherhood (PEUB), an international organization to promotehumanitarian activities of the power electronics community.