Batson & Ahmad (in Press)

8/12/2019 Batson & Ahmad (in Press)

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Running Head: Empathy and Intergroup Relations

Using Empathy to Improve Intergroup Attitudes and Relations

C. Daniel Batson and Nadia Y. Ahmad

University o !ansas

Corresponding author: C. Daniel Batson

"ailing address: #$%# &oodland Brae' !no(ville' )N *#$%$

+hone: ,-/0/*%1%/-. 2a(: 3ame num4er' 4ut unrelia4le.

E1mail: HY+ER5IN! 6mailto:d4atson78u.edu6 d4atson78u.edu


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A4stra9t

Re9ently' so9ial psy9hologists have given 9onsidera4le attention to the possi4ility that empathy 9an 4e

used to improve intergroup attitudes and relations. 2or this possi4ility to 4ear pra9ti9al ruit' it is

important to 8no hat is meant 4y empathy 4e9ause dierent resear9hers use the term to reer to

dierent psy9hologi9al states. It is also important to understand ho ea9h o these empathy states

might ae9t intergroup relations 4y revieing theory and resear9h on the psy9hologi9al pro9esses

involved' and it is important to 9onsider the limitations o ea9h orm o empathy as a sour9e o

improved intergroup relations. 2inally' it is important to 9onsider the role o dierent empathy states in

e(isting programs designed to improve intergroup relations' hether in protra9ted politi9al 9onli9ts' in

edu9ational settings' or via media. In this paper' e pursue ea9h o these goals.


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Using Empathy to Improve Intergroup Attitudes and Relations

I 4egin to see' here e are' to people rom the ar ends o the en9e' havin; identi9al pro4lems'

e(9ept hers 4ein; 4la98 and me 4ein; hite. 2rom that moment on' I tell ya' that gal and I or8ed

together good. I 4egin to love the girl' really.

===1

>==% ,Bar1n !assem' >==' p. *==0.

Empathy is integral to solving 9onli9t in the amily' s9hoolyard' 4oardroom' and ar room. )he

a4ility to ta8e the perspe9tive o another person' to identiy 9ommonalities through our shared

eelings is the 4est pea9e pill e have.


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Intergroup antipathy and 9onli9t strain the a4ri9 o so9iety ithin and 4eteen nations. )hin8

o 3outh Ari9a;s 4rutal apartheid system' the longstanding ra9ial dis9rimination in the U.3. and the

groing ra9ial tension in Europe. )hin8 o the history o 9onli9t 4eteen native and non1native

populations in 4oth Canada and the U.3. )hin8 o the seemingly endless religious and ethni9 hostility

in the "iddle East and Northern Ireland. )hin8 o Randa;s geno9ide o the past de9ade and Darur;s

o the present one. Is there any ay to over9ome the ear' mistrust' and misunderstanding a9ross ra9es'

religions' ethni9 groups' and politi9al a9tions )he statements Fuoted a4ove suggest that a 8ey route

to improved intergroup relations may lie' impro4a4ly' through interpersonal pro9esses that lead

individual mem4ers o dierent groups to understand' appre9iate' and eel or one another. Can this 4e

true

)he 9onverse pro9ess==$0.


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2olloing the end o apartheid in 3outh Ari9a' the )ruth and Re9on9iliation Commission ,)RC0 led 4y

Ar9h4ishop Desmond )utu heard and then granted amnesty to roughly -/= human rights violators.

)his re9on9iliation pro9ess is given su4stantial 9redit or the remar8a4ly smooth transition rom

apartheid to demo9ra9y in 3outh Ari9a. 3u4seFuently' a >==% national survey provided eviden9e that'

9onsistent ith the )RC goals or over9oming intergroup suspi9ion and antipathy' 3outh Ari9ans o

all ra9es have 9ome to a99ept at least some legitima9y to the 9laims and values o their opponentsJ

,@i4son' >==/' p. *//0.

)he purpose o this paper is to revie theory and resear9h on the interpersonal' empathi9

pro9esses 9laimed to have the potential to improve intergroup relations. )his theory and resear9h ill

provide a 4asis or analyGing eight spe9ii9 programs that illustrate the use o empathy to improve

intergroup attitudes and relations.

&e hope our revie proves o use to poli9y ma8ers in to arenas. 2irst and most dire9tly' e

hope it is o use to those ho design 9onli9t1resolution programs' pea9e 9amps' and intergroup

dialogues in edu9ational and politi9al settings. 3e9ond' at a more general level' our revie highlights

psy9hologi9al pro9esses that may 4e important in promoting 4road14ased support or poli9ies to 4eneit

disadvantaged groups in so9iety. +eople;s attitudes toard spe9ii9 so9ial groups shape their vies o

poli9ies that ae9t the elare o those groups. In the U.3.' or e(ample' attitudes toard ra9ial

minorities inluen9e illingness to support airmative a9tion attitudes toard 5atinos inluen9e vies

on immigration reorm and attitudes toard people ith disa4ilities inluen9e support or

mainstreaming.

ur revie is divided into three maor se9tions. 2irst' to provide a 9on9eptual rameor8 or

hat ollos' e identiy our distin9t psy9hologi9al states' ea9h 9alled empathy' that have 4een


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9laimed to 9ontri4ute to improved intergroup relations. Clear dierentiation o these distin9t states

ma8es it possi4le to 9onsider the potential o ea9h.

3e9ond' e revie theory and resear9h on the spe9ii9 ays ea9h o these empathy states may

serve to improve intergroup attitudes and relations. In this se9ond se9tion' e also e(pli9itly address

the limitations o ea9h empathy state' as ell as ho these limitations might 4e over9ome.

2inally' e e(amine the role o the our orms o empathy in eight o the 4etter 8non programs

developed to improve intergroup relations. )hese programs all into three 4road 9ategories: ,a0

international 9onli9t1resolution or8shops and pea9e 9amps' ,40 programs designed to redu9e

interra9ial and interethni9 tensions and to in9rease harmony in s9hools' and ,90 use o media ,4oo8s'

plays' movies' )K' radio0 to improve intergroup attitudes and relations. &e shall suggest that empathy

plays a role in many o these programs' although oten ithout its role 4eing 9learly spe9iied. By

9onsidering the parti9ular empathy states involved' it may 4e possi4le to identiy more pre9isely the

potential o ea9h type o program and to 9reate ne programs that are 4etter designed to meet stated

goals. It may also 4e possi4le to 9ondu9t 9on9eptually grounded evaluation resear9h. )hese are

important agenda items or the ne(t de9ade.

2our +sy9hologi9al 3tates Called Empathy

I e are to use empathy to improve intergroup attitudes and relations' e need to 8no hat

empathy is. )his is not as easy as it sounds. In re9ent years' the term empathy has 4een applied to our

dierent psy9hologi9al states' ea9h o hi9h has 4een the su4e9t o 9laims that empathy 9an 4e used to

improve intergroup relations. )o o these our reer to orms o perspe9tive ta8ing: imagining ho

one ould thin8 and eel in an outgroup mem4er;s situation imagining ho an outgroup mem4er

thin8s and eels. )o reer to orms o emotional response: eeling as an outgroup mem4er eels


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eeling or an outgroup mem4er. &e shall not argue or one or another o these our as real or true

empathy. Rather' e shall try to highlight the uniFue eatures o ea9h. &e shall also 9onsider ho

these states relate to one another and ho ea9h might produ9e more positive intergroup relations. )a4le

% lists the our empathi9 states and provides a summary des9ription o the psy9hologi9al pro9ess

involved in ea9h. )he irst to are 9ognitiveLper9eptual states the last to' ae9tiveLemotional states.

)he irst and third are sel1o9used the se9ond and ourth' other1o9used.

Imagine-Self Perspective: Imagining How One Would

Think and eel in !nother"s Situation

Adam 3mith ,%#/$L%-/*0 9olorully reerred to the a9t o imagining ho you ould thin8 and

eel in another person;s situation as 9hanging pla9es in an9y.J In the +iagetian tradition' imagining

ho one ould thin8 in the other;s pla9e has 4een 9alled either perspe9tive ta8ingJ or de9enteringJ

,+iaget' %$*>L%$/0. 3totland ,%$$0 9alled it an imagine1sel perspe9tiveJ so shall e.

&hen adopting an imagine1sel perspe9tive' the 9entral igure is onesel' one;s on thoughts

and eelings. Can this perspe9tive help us understand and appre9iate the plight o the person in hose

situation e imagine ourselves It depends. I e ollo the ma(im to not 9riti9iGe a man until you

al8 a mile in his mo99asins'J the goal is 9learly to understand and appre9iate. But it is possi4le to

imagine ourselves in another;s situation ithout gaining understanding. &e may simply insert

ourselves into the situation and o9us on ho e ould thin8 and eel' 4e9oming sel1a4sor4ed and

never 9onsidering hat this inormation may tell us a4out the thoughts and eelings o the other.

Imagine-Other Perspective: Imagining How !nother is Thinking and eeling

Rather than imagining ho you ould eel in another person;s situation' you 9an imagine ho

the other person is thin8ing and eeling in that situation. Your imagining 9an 4e 4ased on hat the


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person says and does' as ell as on your 8noledge o his or her 9hara9ter' values' and desires.

3totland ,%$$0 spo8e o this orm o perspe9tive ta8ing as an imagine him perspe9tive.J "ore

generally' it has 4een 9alled an imagine1other perspe9tiveJ ,Batson' %$$%0. )his latter term is the one

e shall use.

In the empathy literature' an imagine1other perspe9tive involves more than simply inerring

another;s internal state. Barrett15ennard ,%$-%0 spo8e o an empathi9 attentional setJ


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9alled shared physiology.J 3hared physiology provides no 9lear eviden9e o either mat9hing ,the

o4server;s arousal might 4e asso9iated ith a Fualitatively dierent emotion0 or 9at9hing ,rather than

4eing a response to the target;s emotional state' the o4server;s arousal might 4e a parallel response to a

9ommon situation' perhaps one to hi9h the target;s response dre attention0. In the re9ent

neuros9ien9e literature' 9laims o emotion mat9hing have 4een Fuite 9ommon' stimulated 4y interest in

mirror neurons. 3u9h 9laims are' hoever' rarely empiri9ally ustiied ,see de Kignemont 3inger'

>==/' or a useul 9autionary note0.

#mpathic %oncern: eeling for !nother Person Who is in &eed

In so9ial psy9hology' the terms empathyJ and empathi9 9on9ernJ have oten 4een used to

reer to an other1oriented emotional response eli9ited 4y and 9ongruent ith the per9eived elare o

someone else ,e.g.' Batson' %$$%0. Other-orientedhere reers to the person hose per9eived elare

evo8es the emotion it is eltforthe other. %ongruentreers to the valen9e o the emotion


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essential' stepping1stone to sensitive understanding o the other;s plight ,an imagine1other perspe9tive0.

)he stepping1stone may' hoever' prove slippery. I the other diers rom you' this strategy may lead

to misunderstanding ,?arymoi9G' %$$>0.

&hen you 8no the other ell' or hen you have 9lear inormation a4out ho the other eels'

imagining ho you ould eel in his or her situation is pro4a4ly not needed or sensitive

understanding it may even 4e an inhi4itor ,Ni98erson' %$$$0. Hearing that a riend as re9ently

dumpedJ 4y his or her romanti9 partner may remind you o your on e(perien9e last year hen you

suered the same ate' and you may get so 9aught up in reliving your on e(perien9e that you ail to

appre9iate your riend;s pain. Espe9ially i you ound it easy to re4ound 4ut your riend is struggling'

you may 9ontrast your on e(perien9e to his or hers. Rather than sensitive understanding' you may

respond ith impatien9e and udgment.

An imagine1sel perspe9tive 9an also lead to either emotion mat9hing or empathi9 9on9ern.

Imagining mysel in another;s situation' I may 9ome to eel as he or she does' espe9ially i the other

and I rea9t similarly to the situation. Hoever' emotion mat9hing produ9ed 4y an imagine1sel

perspe9tive is not li8ely to involve 9at9hing 4e9ause the perspe9tive is o9used on my response to the

situation' not the other;s. )o the e(tent that imagining mysel in another;s dii9ult situation leads me

to sensitive understanding o his or her plight ,i.e.' an imagine1other perspe9tive0' it should provide a

4asis or eeling empathi9 9on9ern.

Imagine-other perspective. )here is not 9lear eviden9e that an imagine1other perspe9tive

produ9es emotion mat9hing' even though 9laims o an automati9 per9eption1a9tion response ,+reston

de &aal' >==>0' o ae9tive resonan9e ,de &aal' >==-0' and o emotional 9ontagion ,Hatield et al.'

%$$>0 all imply that it should.


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Instru9tions to imagine ho the other is thin8ing and eeling have oten 4een used to indu9e

empathi9 9on9ern in parti9ipants in la4oratory e(periments ,see Batson' %$$% Davis' %$$' or partial

revies0. 3till' an imagine1other perspe9tive should not 4e 9onused or eFuated ith the empathi9

9on9ern it evo8es ,Co8e' Batson' "9Davis' %$#-0. "oroever' there seems to 4e a limit on this

ee9t. I I pla9e a negative value on another;s elare==#0.

#motion matching. 3ome have suggested that emotion mat9hing is a stepping stone to empathi9

9on9ern ,e.g.' de &aal' >==- Eisen4erg 3trayer' %$-#0. Although it may at times 4e' resear9h

suggests that it is neither a ne9essary nor a sui9ient pre9ondition ,Batson' Early' 3alvarani' %$$#0.

&hen emotion mat9hing does lead to empathi9 9on9ern' the ee9t is most li8ely the result o one;s on

emotional response ma8ing salient the need o the other' not a dire9t ee9t. )he dire9t ee9t o

emotion mat9hing is li8ely to inhi4it empathi9 9on9ern. 3ensing the nervousness o other passengers

on an airplane in rough eather' I too may 4e9ome nervous. 99upied ith my on nervousness' I am

not li8ely to eel or them.

#mpathic concern. Ea9h o the other three empathy states may lead to empathi9 9on9ern' 4ut

empathi9 9on9ern does not seem to produ9e any o the other three' at least not dire9tly. It may'

hoever' indire9tly lead to adoption o an imagine1other perspe9tive 4e9ause empathi9 9on9ern has

4een ound to in9rease valuing o the other;s elare ,Batson' )ur8' 3ha' !lein' %$$/0' hi9h has

in turn 4een ound to prompt adoption o an imagine1other perspe9tive toard that person ,Batson'

E8lund et al.' >==#0.

Other #ffects of These our #mpath( States


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Ea9h o these our empathy states may also have ee9ts on non1empathy pro9esses that may' in

turn' ae9t intergroup attitudes and relations.

Imagine-self perspective. Davis' Con8lin' 3mith' and 5u9e ,%$$0' @alins8y and "os8oitG

,>===0' and @alins8y and !u ,>==0 have all suggested that imagining onesel in another person;s

situation in9reases the salien9e o sel1attri4utes' leading one to see the other as more sel1li8e. )o the

e(tent that one;s sel1image is more positive than one;s image o the other;s group' and to the e(tent

that one;s vie o the other generaliGes to the group as a hole' su9h an ee9t should produ9t a more

positive vie o the group.

Imagine-other perspective. Regan and )otten ,%$#/0 presented eviden9e that adopting an

imagine1other perspe9tive 9an in9rease the li8elihood o ma8ing situational rather than dispositional

attri4utions or the other;s plight. Dispositional attri4utions are oten asso9iated ith 4laming

disadvantaged groups or their pro4lems a shit toard situational attri4utions should redu9e su9h

4lame.

#motion matching. I the emotional state one mat9hes is aversive' emotion mat9hing should

produ9e motivation to remove one;s on aversive emotional state. 2or mat9hing 4ased on 9at9hing'

one 9an a9hieve this end either 4y removing the other;s aversive emotional state ,i.e.' helping0 or 4y

es9aping 9ontinued e(posure to the other;s state ,Batson' %$$% Dovidio' +iliavin' @aertner' 39hroeder'

Clar8' %$$%0. )hus' 9at9hing the emotion o a mem4er o an outgroup 9ould lead one to 4eneit this

person and perhaps other mem4ers o the outgroup as ell


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9ould lead one to 4eneit mem4ers o an outgroup 4y a9ting to remove the need.

Empathy at the Intergroup 5evel

Although the ee9ts o these our empathy states have most oten 4een 9onsidered at the

interpersonal level


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personalizing contactith one or more outgroup mem4ers. )hrough su9h 9onta9t' mem4ers o one

group are led to deal ith mem4ers o the other group on a personal 4asis' not simply as one o them.

As e are using the term' personaliGingJ reers to the nature o one;s intera9tion ith mem4ers o the

outgroup' not to per9eption o%$0.

Beyond en9ouraging open e(pression and listening' ho 9an personaliGing 9onta9t among

individuals on opposite sides o an intergroup 9onli9t 4e a9hieved 4viously' it is not easy. "ore is

reFuired than simply 4ringing the antagonists together mere 9onta9t is li8ely to invite urther hostility

and aggression ,+ettigre' %$$#' %$$-0. ne stru9tural te9hniFue that has proved espe9ially ee9tive


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in 9reating personaliGing 9onta9t in a non1adversarial situation' and there4y redu9ing intergroup

9onli9t and hostility' is to introdu9e a superordinate goal ,3heri' Harvey' &hite' Hood' 3heri'

%$%0. Asuperordinate goalis something that 4oth sides in the 9onli9t ant 4ut 9an attain only i the

to sides oin or9es and or8 together. +otential antagonists ind themselves united in the eort to

rea9h the 9ommon goal. 3trange 4edellos' perhaps' 4ut 4edellos nonetheless.

)hin8 o the psy9hologi9al 9onseFuen9es. &hen or8ing together toard a 9ommon goal'

9onli9t is 9ounterprodu9tive. )o 9oordinate eorts in pursuit o the goal' mem4ers o ea9h group must

attend to the perspe9tive o those in the other group' 4eing sensitive to hat they ant and need. )he

result should 4e an in9reased li8elihood o the various empathy states. Note that these empathy ee9ts

do not reFuire that group mem4ers give up their on group identity in order to pursue the superordinate

goal' although inding a higher1order' 9ommon group identity is li8ely to a9ilitate empathy indu9tion

,Dovidio' ?ohnson' @aertner' +earson' 3aguy' and Ash4urn1Nardo' in press0.

3heri et al. ,%$%0 provided the 9lassi9 demonstration o ee9tiveness o superordinate goals in

redu9ing intergroup 9onli9t. In their Ro44er;s Cave e(periment' superordinate goals ere used to

eliminate the open hostility that had erupted 4eteen 9ompeting groups o %>1 to %1year1old 4oys at a

summer 9amp. )his e(periment dramati9ally demonstrated the ee9tiveness o superordinate goals'

4ut it revealed little a4out the psy9hologi9al pro9esses through hi9h they or8. Empathy phenomena

may have 4een involved' 4ut e 9annot 4e sure.

Resear9h in the past %=1%/ years has more e(pli9itly addressed the ee9t o the our empathy

states on intergroup attitudes and relations' and has 4egun to 9onsider the psy9hologi9al pro9esses

involved. Based on the results o their meta1analysis o more than /== studies e(amining the ee9t o

intergroup 9onta9t on redu9tion o preudi9e' +ettigre and )ropp ,>==-0 9on9luded that greater


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emphasis on pro9esses involved in empathy and perspe9tive ta8ing ould 4e a ruitul dire9tion or

uture resear9hJ ,p. $*=0. &e agree' 4ut e also 4elieve that this resear9h needs to 4e inormed 4y a

9lear understanding o the ays in hi9h the dierent empathy states 9an improve intergroup attitudes

and relations. )he ays or hi9h there is at least some empiri9al eviden9e are summariGed in )a4le >

and revieed 4elo.

Imagine-Self Perspective 'educes Stereot(ping and

Increases Positive #valuation

Ee9ts o imagining onesel in the pla9e o a mem4er o a stigmatiGed group ,an imagine1sel

perspe9tive0 on intergroup relations seem to 4e mediated primarily 4y 9ognitiveLper9eptual pro9esses

su9h as gaining understanding o hy mem4ers o the group a9t as they do ,Hey' i I ere treated that

ay' I;d 4e angry and suspi9ious tooMJ0 and' espe9ially hen one has limited inormation' 4y proe9tion

,@alins8y !u' >== @alins8y "os8oitG' >===0.

@alins8y and "os8oitG ,>===0 reasoned that hen e adopt an imagine1sel perspe9tive

toard a mem4er o an outgroup' the sel19on9ept gets a9tivated and applied toard the targetJ ,p.

#=$0. )his appli9ation is then generaliGed' leading to redu9ed stereotyping and more positive

evaluation o the outgroup as a hole. )o test this reasoning' @alins8y and "os8oitG shoed

undergraduates a photograph o an older man and as8ed them to rite an essay a4out a day in his lie.

Beore seeing the photo' the undergraduates ere instru9ted either ,a0 to imagine themselves in the

man;s pla9e or ,40 to suppress the use o stereotypes a4out older adults hile riting the essay' or ,90

they ere given no spe9ii9 instru9tions a4out ho to go a4out riting the essay ,a 9ontrol 9ondition0.


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Essay 9ontent' used as a 9ons9ious measure o stereotyping' demonstrated that 4oth the imagine1sel

perspe9tive and suppression instru9tions led resear9h parti9ipants to rite essays that 9ontained

signii9antly less stereotyping than the essays o 9ontrol parti9ipants. n a le(i9al de9ision1ma8ing

tas8 used to measure non19ons9ious a99essi4ility o stereotypes' the suppression instru9tions led to

hypera99essi4ility o ords rele9ting stereotypes o the elderly' hereas the imagine1sel perspe9tive

instru9tions and no instru9tions did not. verall' riting a4out a day in the elderly man;s lie ater

loo8ing at the orld through his eyes and al8ing through the orld in his shoesJ ,@alins8y

"os8oitG' p. #%%0 seemed to redu9e stereotyping and lead to a more positive evaluation 4oth o the

man and o the elderly in general.

@alins8y and "os8oitG ,>===0 e(tended these results in a se9ond e(periment. )hey ound

that among undergraduates adopting an imagine1sel perspe9tive' representations o the elderly 4e9ame

more similar to representations o the sel' hi9h ere positive. )his inding as 9onsistent ith the

idea that these undergraduates a9tivated and applied their sel19on9epts to the elderly' although more

positive evaluation o the elderly' 4y itsel' 9ould a99ount or the in9reased similarity. A third

e(periment provided a generaliGed repli9ation. +arti9ipants told they ere dot overestimatorsJ gave

trait ratings o 4oth overestimators and underestimators. )hose ho gave their ratings ater adopting an

imagine1sel perspe9tive and riting a4out a day in the lie o an underestimator tended to evaluate

underestimators more positively than did those ho simply rated' ho rote a4out similarities 4eteen

the to groups' or ho re9alled a time hen they underestimated something.

)he a9tivation1and1appli9ation


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that adopting an imagine1sel perspe9tive 4eore riting a4out the elderly man;s day improved

evaluations o the elderly only among parti9ipants ith 9hroni9ally ,E(periment %0 or temporarily

,E(periment >0 high sel1esteem.

It is important to note that in all o these e(periments' parti9ipants had very little inormation

a4out the person into hose shoes they ere as8ed to step' and the outgroup o hi9h the person as a

mem4er as alays one toard hi9h it as unli8ely that parti9ipants had entren9hed antipathy.

Under these 9onditions' a99essing and applying my on attri4utes to the target and then evaluating him

and his group a99ordingly may 4e a natural ,even ne9essary0 pro9ess. Hoever' i I have entren9hed

antipathy toard an outgroup or i an outgroup;s plight is the result o my a9tions or the a9tions o my

group' I may resist stepping into the other;s shoes. And even i I do step into his or her shoes' my on

values and perspe9tive may 4lind me to the uniFue needs o the outgroup. Imagining mysel in the

other;s situation may lead to 9ontrast rather than assimilation ee9ts it may sensitiGe me to dieren9es

rather than similarities 4eteen mysel and the target ,thin8 or e(ample' o the Israeli1+alestinian

9onli9t


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ith personal attri4utions or the dii9ulties endured 4y stigmatiGed groups ,e.g.' they 4ring it on

themselvesJ==*0 also measured empathi9 9on9ern

elt or the young man. As e(pe9ted' adopting an imagine1other perspe9tive in9reased empathi9

9on9ern' and this other1oriented emotional response proved to 4e an independent' 4ut ea8er' mediator

o the ee9t o perspe9tive on pro1Bla98 attitudes. Kes9io and Hestone ,>==%0 ound similar ee9ts


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o adopting an imagine1other perspe9tive hile listening to a gay man dis9uss his e(perien9es as a

vi9tim o homopho4ia on attitudes toard homose(uals. n9e again' empathi9 9on9ern mediated the

ee9t on attitudes. Harth' !essler' and 5ea9h ,>==-0 ound that an indire9t indu9tion o an imagine1

other perspe9tive ,e.g.' having psy9hology students read a4out the illegitimate relative disadvantage o

edu9ation students in inding o4s0 in9reased empathi9 9on9ern ,s(mpath(' compassion0 ater reading

a4out the ineFuity' hi9h in turn in9reased illingness to have the ineFuity redressed.

Batson' +oly9arpou' Harmon1?ones' Imho' "it9hener' Bednar' !lein' and High4erger ,%$$#0

and Batson' Chang' rr' and Roland ,>==>0 have presented the most systemati9 analysis o the ee9ts

o empathi9 9on9ern indu9ed 4y an imagine1other perspe9tive on attitudes toard and a9tion on 4ehal

o stigmatiGed groups. Hoever' 4e9ause their analysis o9uses on empathi9 9on9ern' ith an imagine1

other perspe9tive simply 4eing used to indu9e this empathi9 emotion' e shall dis9uss it 4elo. Here'

e only note that a9ross our e(periments' adopting an imagine1other perspe9tive hen hearing a4out

the plight o a mem4er o a stigmatiGed group ,people ith AID3' homeless people' 9onvi9ted

murderers' and drug addi9ts0 9onsistently led to in9reased empathi9 9on9ern' more positive attitudes

toard the group' and in9reased illingness to help the group. In ea9h e(periment' the ee9ts o the

imagine1other perspe9tive on attitudes and helping ere mediated 4y the empathi9 9on9ern aroused as a

result o adopting the imagine1other perspe9tive.

&hen as8ing resear9h parti9ipants to adopt an imagine1other perspe9tive' 9onsidera4le

inormation is typi9ally presented a4out the outgroup mem4er hose thoughts and eelings parti9ipants

are as8ed to imagine ,unli8e the resear9h using an imagine1sel perspe9tive0. "oreover' the

inormation typi9ally has several eatures. 2irst' it 9learly presents the target;s thoughts and eelings.

3e9ond' it presents the target in a sympatheti9 light


21/65

aggressive. )hird' it ma8es salient his or her mem4ership in the stigmatiGed group. 2inally' the

inormation is presented in a non1threatening situation. )hese eatures are designed to produ9e the

personaliGing 9onta9t des9ri4ed earlier.

In the a9e o strong pre1e(isting animosity and antipathy' a9hieving these eatures may prove

dii9ult i not impossi4le. And in their a4sen9e' imagining ho the other is thin8ing and eeling may

not in9rease situational attri4utions' empathi9 9on9ern' and more positive intergroup attitudes and

4ehavior. Instead' it may sho one ho 4est to harm the other and his or her group. Clearly' more is

reFuired than simple instru9tions to imagine the thoughts and eelings o an outgroup mem4er.

#motion $atching eads to $ore &egative #valuation of Those %ausing

the Other"s Plight and $ore Positive eelings Toward the Outgroup

As previously dis9ussed' there is little eviden9e that emotion mat9hing in the orm o emotional

9ontagion===0 had &hite U.3. undergraduates read a series o 4rie essays ostensi4ly ritten

either 4y Bla98 students attending a metropolitan 9ollege in the U.3. or 4y Ameri9an students attending

a university in Hong !ong. +arti9ipants ere told that the students had 4een as8ed' as an assignment

or a 9reative riting 9lass' to rite a4out their personal e(perien9es ith dis9rimination. )he essays

des9ri4ed situations o 4eing alsely a99used o rongdoing' 4eing denied mem4ership in a group'

4eing per9eived as a threat' and so on. Evaluative dieren9es avoring &hites over Bla98s ere ound


22/65

in a 9ontrol 9ondition in hi9h parti9ipants did not read the essays 4ut ere not ound among

parti9ipants ho either read the Bla98 essays or read the Ameri9an essays ater re9eiving perspe9tive

instru9tions ,either imagine1sel or imagine1other0. Independent o perspe9tive instru9tions' those ho

read the essays a4out dis9rimination against Bla98s reported aterard eeling more anger' annoyan9e'

hostility' dis9omort' and disgust toards &hites than did those ho read a4out dis9rimination against

Ameri9ans. 2inley and 3tephan ,>===0 interpreted these eelings as parallel empathi9 emotions that

mat9hed the eelings o anger at inusti9e elt 4y the Bla98s riting the essays. Unortunately' the

asso9iation 4eteen these eelings and the evaluative ratings ere not reported.

Esses and Dovidio ,>==>0 reported eviden9e that e(perien9ing anger in response to itnessing

an outgroup mem4er suer dis9rimination 9an in9rease illingness to have uture 9onta9t ith

mem4ers o the outgroup. )heir pro9edure involved instru9ting &hite U.3. undergraduates to o9us on

either their thoughts or their eelings hile at9hing a video 9lip rom the nes do9umentary True

%olorsthat shoed several a9ts o ra9ial dis9rimination against a young Bla98 man. )houghts1o9used

parti9ipants ere signii9antly more li8ely to minimiGe or deny the dis9rimination than ere eelings1

o9used parti9ipants. 2eelings-o9used parti9ipants ere more li8ely than thoughts1o9used

parti9ipants to report eeling outraged' appalled' and indignant hile at9hing the 9lip. 2olloing

2inlay and 3tephan ,>===0' Esses and Dovidio ,>==>0 interpreted these eelings o anger as indignation

at the inusti9e. 2inally' eelings1o9used parti9ipants shoed greater illingness to have 9onta9t ith

Bla98s in the uture' and a path analysis indi9ated that reported anger mediated this ee9t.

3u4seFuent or8 4y Dovidio' ten Kergert' 3teart' @aertner' ?ohnson' Esses' Ri98' and +earson

,>==' 3tudy %0 provided eviden9e that anger in response to itnessing an outgroup mem4er suer

dis9rimination 9an improve attitudes toard the outgroup. Beore at9hing the True %olors video 9lip'


23/65

&hite U.3. undergraduates ere instru9ted to ,a0 remain o4e9tive' ,40 imagine the Bla98 man;s

eelings' or ,90 ere given no spe9ii9 instru9tions a4out ho to at9h. 3ignii9ant redu9tion in

preudi9e toard Bla98s as ound in only in the imagine1other 9ondition' and a mediation analysis

indi9ated that reported eelings o anger==0 interpreted the anger as indignation at the inusti9e.

I the &hite parti9ipants in these three studies ere mat9hing eelings o anger at inusti9e that

they per9eived the Bla98s suering dis9rimination to eel' then these results provide eviden9e o an

ee9t o emotion mat9hing on ,a0 negative evaluation o those ho dis9riminate against Bla98s and ,40

more positive eelings toard Bla98s' less preudi9e' and greater illingness to have uture 9onta9t

ith Bla98s. )here is' hoever' another possi4ility. )he anger reported in these studies may have 4een

empathi9 anger==*0. I so' these studies 4elong in the ne(t se9tion' and e are

let ith no 9lear eviden9e that emotion mat9hing is a sour9e o improved intergroup attitudes and

relations. Resear9h is needed to determine hi9h o these to possi4ilities is true. Both 9ould 4e.

#mpathic %oncern eads to Increased /aluing of the Other"s Welfare+

$ore Positive !ttitudes toward the Outgroup+ and Increased 'eadiness

to Help the Outgroup

Batson' +oly9arpou et al. ,%$$#0 outlined a three1step model o ho empathi9 9on9ern 9an lead

to improved attitudes toard a stigmatiGed group:

Step 0. Indu9e empathi9 9on9ern or a mem4er o a stigmatiGed group as he or she des9ri4es

stigma1related needs.


24/65

Step 1. Kia 4a98ard ineren9e' the empathi9 9on9ern should lead to in9reased valuing o this

person;s elare ,Batson et al.' %$$/0.

Step 2. Kaluing this person;s elare should generaliGe to valuing the elare o the stigmatiGed

group as a hole' produ9ing more positive 4elies a4out' eelings toard' and 9on9ern

or the group.

In a series o three e(periments' Batson' +oly9arpou et al. ,%$$#0 su99essully used perspe9tive1

ta8ing instru9tions ,imagine1other perspe9tive0 to indu9e empathi9 9on9ern or a mem4er o a

stigmatiGed group and' there4y' to improve attitudes toard the group as a hole. Ea9h e(periment

employed this strategy ith a dierent stigmatiGed group ee8s later'

parti9ipants ho had 4een indu9ed to eel empathi9 9on9ern or the 9onvi9ted murderer in the la4

reported signii9antly more positive attitudes toard murderers in general than did parti9ipants ho

had not. Apparently' the high1empathy parti9ipants resisted letting their empathi9 9on9ern or one

murderer inluen9e their attitudes toard murderers in general hen these attitudes ere assessed


25/65

immediately and parti9ipants ere aare o the inluen9e. 5ater' ith their guard don' the ee9t on

attitudes sura9ed.

A similar long1term ee9t o empathy on attitudes as reported 4y Clore and ?erey ,%$#>0 in a

study o attitudes toard the physi9ally disa4led. +arti9ipants ere assigned to ,a0 play the role o a

heel9hair14ound student' ,40 ollo and o4serve a heel9hair14ound parti9ipant' or ,90 move a4out

9ampus reely. 3u4seFuent measures o thoughts and eelings indi9ated that parti9ipants in the irst to

9onditions reported more empathi9 9on9ern ,compassionate' concerned0 and more positive attitudes

toard the disa4led than did those in the third 9ondition. Empathi9 9on9ern mediated the ee9t on

attitudes. Importantly' the ee9t on attitudes as still present on a disguised measure our months later.

In other resear9h' indu9ing empathi9 9on9ern or a mem4er o a ra9ial or ethni9 minority has led

to more positive eelings toard the minority group ,Dovidio et al.' in press Kes9io et al.' >==*0.

Indu9ing empathi9 9on9ern or a gay man has improved attitudes toard homose(uals ,Kes9io

Hestone' >==%0. And the more positive intergroup attitudes that result rom riendship ith an ethni9

outgroup mem4er have 4een interpreted as 4eing a result o empathi9 9on9ern ,+ettigre' %$$#' %$$-0.

Unders9oring the 4road appli9a4ility o empathy1indu9ed attitude 9hange' 39hultG ,>===0 ound that

empathi9 9on9ern indu9ed or animals 4eing harmed 4y pollution improved attitudes toard prote9ting

the natural environment.

Do these more positive attitudes maniest themselves in a9tion on 4ehal o the group Batson

et al. ,>==>0 provided eviden9e that they do. Indu9ing empathi9 9on9ern or a mem4er o a stigmatiGed

group led to in9reased 4udget allo9ations to help the stigmatiGed group ,drug addi9ts0. Importantly' this

in9rease o99urred hen it as 9lear that the help ould not 4eneit the parti9ular heroin addi9t and

dealer or hom empathi9 9on9ern as indu9ed. )he ee9t o empathi9 9on9ern on 4udget allo9ations


26/65

as mediated 4y its ee9t on attitudes toard drug addi9ts. Again rele9ting the 4readth o

appli9a4ility' 3helton and Rogers ,%$-%0 ound that empathi9 9on9ern indu9ed hile at9hing a video

9lip shoing hales in9reased readiness to help save hales in general. Apparently' those indu9ed to

eel empathi9 9on9ern or a mem4er o an outgroup


27/65

see the target or targets o empathy as metaphori9ally 9hildli8e


28/65

li8ely plays a role. 3e9ond' our o4servations a4out the role played 4y dierent empathy states in these

programs are ne9essarily spe9ulative. In most 9ases' program developers have not 4een e(pli9it a4out

the role empathy plays' even though empathy is mentioned as an important a9tor. By ma8ing the

li8ely role e(pli9it' e hope that uture program development and evaluation may 4e a4le to apply and

assess hat is 8non a4out the ee9ts o empathy on intergroup relations in a more 9ons9ious and

ee9tive ay.

!ddressing Protracted Political %onflicts

As previously noted' the indu9tion o empathy is oten a 9omponent o te9hniFues used in

9onli9t1resolution or8shops' pea9e or8shops' and pea9e 9amps. +arti9ipants are en9ouraged to

e(press their hopes and ears and to listen to one another;s 9on9erns' hile not ignoring dieren9es

,!elman' %$$# "alhotra 5iyange' >==/ 3han4el' Nadler' Canetti1Nisim' Ullri9h' in press0.

%onflict-resolution workshops. In 9onli9t1resolution or8shops' *1 leading igures o

opposing sides in an international 9onli9t are 4rought together or a 4rie or8shop ,rarely lasting

more than a ee80 in a non1threatening' neutral situation. )he 9onidential' o1the1re9ord intera9tion is

designed to en9ourage ,a0 4etter understanding ea9h other;s position and ,40 inding a path toard a

mutually 4enei9ial negotiated settlement. )he e(9hange is guided 4y trained a9ilitators ho esta4lish

ground rules and the agenda. +erhaps the 4est18non e(amples o su9h or8shops are those organiGed

4y Her4ert !elman and his 9olleagues that have 4rought together Israeli and +alestinian

representatives. Immediate goals o these or8shops are or ea9h side to understand the perspe9tive

,i.e.' imagine1other perspe9tive0 and to 4egin to trust the other side' ith the ultimate goal 4eing to ind

a mutually a99epta4le pea9eul solution to the 9onli9t ,!elman' >==/0.

&hat empathy states are involved It seems unli8ely that imagine1sel perspe9tive ta8ing plays


29/65

mu9h role in these or8shops. )o imagine onesel in the other side;s shoes is apt to 4e personally

aversive and threatening. Nor is an imagine1sel perspe9tive ne9essary' given the e(pli9it o9us o

having ea9h side e(press thoughts and eelings 9learly and honestly. Rather' an imagine1other

perspe9tive is 8ey. Although mutual respe9t and sometimes even riendships 9an develop among the

adversaries' empathi9 emotion==/' p. 0.

Although ormal evaluation o these 9onli9t1resolution or8shops is not possi4le' they do seem

to have met ith some su99ess. )hey have led parti9ipants to a more dierentiated and sensitive vie

o the other side and a illingness to re9ogniGe and address the other side;s 9on9erns ,3tephan

3tephan' >==%0. )hey have also 9ontri4uted in important ays to oi9ial negotiations 4eteen the to

sides


30/65

ta8e part in stru9tured e(er9ises' and share 9ultural e(perien9es. )hese a9tivities provide personaliGing

9onta9t' aareness o outgroup needs' and superordinate goals. )hey en9ourage 9ross1group

riendships' and seem li8ely to indu9e imagine1other perspe9tive ta8ing and empathi9 9on9ern or

outgroup mem4ers. )o the degree that 9ross1group riendships develop' parti9ipants may employ

imagine1sel perspe9tive ta8ing as a stepping stone to an imagine1other perspe9tive. Emotion mat9hing

,eeling as the other eels0 li8ely plays little role.

ne ell18non e(ample is the or8shop program or ?eish and Ara4 youths at Neve

3halomL&ahat al 3alam ,the He4re and Ara4i9 names or the same 9ommunity0 in Israel ,Bargal

Bar' %$$>0. 5ess ell18non' 4ut Fuite interesting 4e9ause o a one1year ollo1up assessment o

attitudes and 4ehavior toard the outgroup' as a 1day pea9e or8shop in 3ri 5an8a that 4rought

together 3inhalese ,maority0 and )amil ,minority0 youth ,"aslhotra 5iyanage' >==/0. Ater one

year' parti9ipants in this or8shop e(pressed more understanding o and 9on9ern or the ell4eing o

mem4ers o the other group ,on a version o Davis;s' %$$' Empathi9 Con9ern s9ale modiied to 4e

spe9ii9 to the other group0 than did either o to 9omparison groups==0. Bar1n ,%$$/0 had previously used this method to a9ilitate

dialogue 4eteen 9hildren o survivors o the Holo9aust and 9hildren o perpetrators in @ermany. )he


31/65

method involved having students in the 9lass audiotape intervies in hi9h amily mem4ers rom their

parents; or grandparents; generation told their lie story. )hese intervies ere then played or the

entire 9lass and served as a spring4oard to rele9tion and dis9ussion under the guidan9e o a ?eish and

a +alestinian a9ilitator. )he a9ilitators sought to maintain an atmosphere o openness and toleran9e.

3tudents 8ept personal ournals in hi9h they des9ri4ed 4oth ,a0 hat happened in the group during

ea9h 9lass meeting and ,40 their on rea9tions. Additionally' ?eish1+alestinian student pairs gave a

oint 9lass presentation and rote a oint inal paper.

)he sharing o amily lie stories appeared ee9tive in providing personaliGing 9onta9t among

9lass mem4ers and in in9reasing aareness o outgroup needs. It also seemed to indu9e perspe9tive

ta8ing ,imagine1other0. 3ometimes' imagine1sel perspe9tive ta8ing seemed to serve as a stepping1

stone. Emotion mat9hing as not apparent. No o4e9tive measures o the ee9ts o the 9lass

e(perien9e ere ta8en. Hoever' 4ased on the a9ilitators; notes and students; ournals' Bar1n and

!assem ,>==0 9on9luded that the sharing o stories 9ontri4uted to the students; a4ility to listen to one

another and to 9onstru9t a more 9omple( image o the Oother; than the one usually 9onveyed through

the mediaJ ,p. >$#0. )he imagine1other perspe9tive ta8ing that o99urred seemed to lead to 4oth

in9reased situational attri4utions and ,more limited0 in9reased empathi9 9on9ern or outgroup suering.

!ddressing Intergroup 'elations in #ducational Settings

A num4er o pro9edures have 4een used to try to improve intergroup relations in edu9ational

settings


32/65

inormation 4eteen students organiGed in small groups. )he immediate goal is to redu9e 9ompetition

4y ma8ing ea9h student;s learning dependent on every other mem4er o their group. Hoever'

9ooperative learning has also 4een used to improve relations among dierent ra9ial and ethni9 groups.

+erhaps the 4est18non e(ample o use o 9ooperative learning to improve intergroup relations is

the Jigsaw Classroom. This program was developed by Elliot Aronson and his colleagues to try to

overcome racial/ethnic tension and animosity in desegregated schools in Austin, Texas (Aronson, 2004;

Aronson, Blaney, Stephan, Sikes, & Snapp, 1978). In a Jigsaw Classroom, students spend part of their

school day in racially/ethnically mixed groups (ideally, 5-6 students per group). Each group is given a

learning task, and each member of the group has one, but only one, part of the information the group

needs to complete the task. As a result, each person in the group must rely on the contribution of every

other person to succeed. After about 8 weeks the groups are dissolved, new groups are formed, and

each student must learn to work effectively with 4-5 more students in a new racially/ethnically mixed

group. After another 8 weeks, new groups are formed again, and so on.

Aronson et al. (1978) reported that liking for fellow group members increased as a result of the

jigsaw experience; so did helping. Unfortunately, Aronson et al. did not report the effect specifically on

interracial liking and helping. However, in an earlier study, Weigel, Wiser, and Cook (1975) did report

effects of interdependent, ethnically mixed (European-, African-, and Mexican-American) student work

groups on cross-ethnic liking, conflict, and helping. Results of that study indicated that working

together in interdependent groups significantly increased both cross-ethnic liking and helping behavior;

it also reduced cross-ethnic conflict (also see Johnson & Johnson, 1987).

Why does cooperative interaction in jigsaw groups increase liking and helping? Such groups

involve both personalizing contact and superordinate goals, which should lead to increased imagine-


33/65

other perspective taking (once again, imagine-self perspective taking may be involved as a stepping-

stone), understanding and appreciation of outgroup members, outgroup friendships, increased empathic

concern, and outgroup helping. Supporting these expectations, Aronson et al. (1978) reported that

imagine-other perspective takingwhich they called empathywas one of the crucial mechanisms

underlying the effects (p. 118also see Aronson & Bridgeman, 1979). Specifically, Diane Bridgeman

(1981), in dissertation research under Aronsons direction, found that students from a Jigsaw Classroom

performed better on a perspective-taking task than did students from a traditional classroom. The task

tested students ability to adopt the perspective of characters in brief stories, seeing the story situation

from the characters rather than their own point of view. Apparently, perspective-taking abilities

learned in the jigsaw groups generalize. Research also indicates that programs like the Jigsaw

Classroom that involve learning cooperatively in racially or ethnically mixed groups increase cross-

group friendships, especially close friendships (see Paluck & Green, 2009). These effects suggest that

the imagine-other perspective taking increases outgroup empathic concern. It may also increase

situational attributions. Emotion matching does not seem to play an important role.

Writing in the wake of the tragic shooting at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado,

Aronson (2004) affirmed:

I 4elieve that' i the igsa method had 4een idely used in 5ittleton' the Colum4ine massa9re

might never have o99urred' and those %/ people ould still 4e alive. Admittedly' that is a 4old

statement


34/65

and more tolerant o diversity than students in traditional 9lassrooms. ,p. -0

'oots of #mpath( pro5ect. )he Roots o Empathy proe9t developed 4y "ary @ordon ,>==/0

and implemented in primary1s9hool 9lassrooms ,8indergarten through @rade -0 in Canada and

Australia is not e(pli9itly designed to improve intergroup attitudes and relations. )he goal is to

develop empathy==/' pp. (vi1(vii0

)he Roots o Empathy proe9t is novel in its approa9h. )he 9ore o the program is a visit to the

9lassroom monthly throughout the s9hool year 4y a mother ,or sometimes a ather==/'


35/65

p. 0 and that o4serving the 4a4y;s development and the parent1inant intera9tion ill en9ourage

perspe9tive ta8ing and valuing o the inant;s elare. Using the parent1inant intera9tion as a 9atalyst

or empathy development is Fuite 9ongruent ith the groing emphasis in the resear9h literature' noted

earlier' that the 4iologi9al su4strate or empathi9 9on9ern may lie in parental nurturan9e and tenderness

toard 9hildren ,see Batson et al.' >==/0.

A trained Roots o Empathy instru9tor guides the amily visits and meets ith the 9lass prior to

and ater ea9h visit' providing 4asi9 inormation a4out inant development' en9ouraging pupils to

imagine hat the inant is thin8ing and eeling' and e(tending this perspe9tive ta8ing to the pupils

themselves and to peers. &hen a Roots o Empathy 9lassroom is ra9ially or ethni9ally diverse' e(pli9it

attention is given to 4ringing in parents and inants rom the dierent groups represented in the 9lass in

order to provide a 4asis or intergroup perspe9tive ta8ing and ae9tion.

3everal evaluation proe9ts assessing ee9tiveness o the Roots o Empathy proe9t suggest that

the program has positive ee9ts on 9hildren;s emotional development and perspe9tive1ta8ing s8ills and

that it leads to redu9ed aggression ,39honert1Rei9hl' >==/0. Compared to 9hildren ho have not

e(perien9ed a Roots o Empathy 9lassroom' 9hildren ho have ere rated 4y 4oth tea9hers and peers

as more advan9ed in emotional and so9ial understanding. )his understanding as' in turn' asso9iated

ith redu9ed aggression and in9reased helping' sharing' and 9ooperation.

)he empathy states involved in the Roots o Empathy proe9t are ,a0 imagine1other perspe9tive

ta8ing ,imagine1sel perspe9tive ta8ing may at times serve as a stepping1stone to imagining the

thoughts and eelings o the inant' the parent' and peers0 and ,40 empathi9 9on9ern


36/65

target ,or perpetrator0 o dis9rimination have 4een used in a variety o edu9ational situations' rom

primary1s9hool 9lassrooms to universities. +erhaps 4est 8non is the Blue Eyes1Bron EyesJ

simulation that ?ane Elliott developed or use in her 9lassroom in a predominately hite' rural primary

s9hool in Ioa ,+eters' %$-#0. In this simulation' hi9h oten lasts *1 hours' one group ,typi9ally'

4lue1eyed individuals0 are targeted or a range o dis9riminatory a9tivities ,4eing e(9luded' 4eing

deprived o seats and 9onvenient restrooms' et9.0 and' in university settings' ith ridi9ule' hereas the

other group ,non14lue1eyed individuals0 are given privileges and en9ouraged to oin in the ridi9ule.

3ometimes' the roles are then reversed so that those in ea9h group 9an e(perien9e 4eing targets o

dis9rimination. Dis9ussion ollos the simulation mem4ers o 4oth groups are en9ouraged to e(press

and rele9t on ho they elt and a9ted. )he goal is to help parti9ipants understand the 9onseFuen9es o

dis9rimination' 4oth the eelings it evo8es and the 4ehaviors' and there4y to improve attitudes toard

the targets o dis9rimination.

Ee9ts o the Blue Eyes1Bron EyesJ simulation have reFuently 4een interpreted as 4eing a

result o empathy ,Byrnes !iger' %$$= &einer &right' %$#*0. &hat empathy states are involved

It might seem that an imagine1sel perspe9tive is 8ey' and it may play a role or perpetrators. But or

those dis9riminated against' no imaginative perspe9tive ta8ing is reFuired they e(perien9e the

dis9rimination dire9tly' perhaps leading to emotion mat9hing ,in the sense o eeling parallel emotions

to those elt 4y the vi9tims o dis9rimination in so9iety' although not as a result o emotion 9at9hing0.

)his e(perien9e may en9ourage the targets to imagine ho they ould eel in shoes o targets o

dis9rimination outside the simulation ,i.e.' adopt an imagine1sel perspe9tive0' leading them' in turn' to

a more sensitive understanding o ho the targets o dis9rimination in so9iety eel ,i.e.' an imagine1

other perspe9tive0 and there4y to more situational attri4utions or the 4ehavior o these targets and to


37/65

more positive eelings toard them' in9luding empathi9 9on9ern. +resuma4ly' this as Elliott;s

original goal hen she developed the simulation to tea9h her students a4out preudi9e and

dis9rimination ater the assassination o "artin 5uther !ing' ?r.

Eviden9e on the ee9tiveness o the Blue Eyes1Bron EyesJ simulation is generally positive

4ut not altogether 9lear. &einer and &right ,%$#*0 ound among *rdgraders in North Carolina that

those undergoing an range +eople1@reen +eopleJ dis9rimination simulation 9losely modeled on

Elliott;s original ere more li8ely than 9hildren rom a no1simulation 9omparison 9lass ,a0 to e(press

less1preudi9ed 4elies a4out Bla98 9hildren and ,40 to desire a pi9ni9 ith a group o Bla98 9hildren

4oth on the day ater the simulation and to ee8s later. As &einer and &right noted' hoever'

demand 9hara9teristi9s may have played a role in produ9ing these results. Byrnes and !iger ,%$$=0

reported no ee9ts o a Blue Eyes1Bron EyesJ simulation on a ra9ial so9ial distan9e measure and

moderate ee9ts on ra9ial attitudes among university tea9her1edu9ation students' 4ut on9e again'

demand as a 9on9ern. 3teart' 5aDu8e' Bra9ht' 3eet' and @amarel ,>==*0 reported signii9antly

more positive attitudes toard Asian Ameri9ans and 5atinoL5atina individuals and marginally more

positive attitudes toard Ari9an Ameri9ans among students at a li4eral 9ollege in the northeastern U.3.

But e(pressed attitudes toard ea9h outgroup ere strongly positive in this student population even

among students not ta8ing part in the simulation' 9louding interpretation. Both Byrnes and !iger

,%$$=0 and 3teart et al. ,>==*0 also noted that their parti9ipants and leaders ound the simulation

e(perien9e' hi9h in ea9h 9ase involved ridi9ule' stressul.

Intergroup-dialogue classes. Building on a model developed around %$$= at the University o

"i9higan' intergroup1dialogue 9lasses have 4een introdu9ed at a num4er o universities a9ross the U.3.

==>0.


38/65

)he goal o these 9lasses ,typi9ally' a semester1long undergraduate 9ourse0 is to improve student

relations a9ross ra9ial' ethni9' religious' and other divides. 3tudents ,usually %=1>=0' dran in eFual

num4ers rom to groups ith a history o 9onli9t ,e.g.' Bla98s and &hites0' are irst a9Fuainted ith

general dialogue norms and 9ommuni9ation s8ills' then share their e(perien9es relevant to the

intergroup dieren9e and 9onli9t' dis9uss su4stantive issues o identity and so9ial usti9e' and inally

9onsider a9tiona4le steps in their on lives to improve intergroup relations. ten' dialogue a9ilitators

are trained students ho have previously gone through the 9lass themselves ,3tephan 3tephan'

>==%0.

)hese 9lasses provide the opportunity or personaliGed 9onta9t ith mem4ers o the other

group. )he ran8 sharing o personal e(perien9es' 9oupled ith norms to understand one another and

to honor dieren9es' leads to 4oth hearing and 4eing heard' provides aareness o outgroup needs' and

en9ourages imagine1other perspe9tive ta8ing ,some imagine1sel perspe9tive ta8ing may o99ur as a

stepping1stone0. )hese 9onditions' in turn' should produ9e more situational attri4utions or outgroup

4ehavior and more empathi9 9on9ern' hi9h in turn should produ9e more positive attitudes toard

outgroup mem4ers and a desire to see dis9rimination eliminated. Aareness o the 9hallenges that the

other group a9es may also lead to mat9hed emotions ,e.g.' eelings o anger or outrage0. Hoever'

these are not li8ely to 4e 9aught emotions 4ut emotion elt on 4ehal o the other ,empathi9 anger0 or

dire9t emotion ,personal anger0 at the state o so9iety.

It is 4elieved that parti9ipants 4eneit rom an opportunity to e(press deeply elt emotions and

opinions regarding 9entral issues o 9ontention 4eteen groups and that the mem4ers o the

other group need to hear these 9on9erns e(pressed in an open and honest ay. In the pro9ess'

people 9ome to value the opinions and elare o people ho dier rom them. . . . ,3tephan


39/65

3tephan' >==%0

An evaluation o the University o "i9higan program 4y @urin' +eng' 5opeG' and Nagada

,%$$$0' hi9h used a pretest1posttest design ith a mat9hed 9omparison group' measured students;

attitudes three years ater they too8 part in the 9ourse. @urin et al. ,%$$$0 reported that three years later

&hite students ho parti9ipated in the program per9eived greater 9ommonality o interests and values

ith students o 9olor and more reFuently supported airmative a9tion than did &hites ho did not

parti9ipate. 3tudents o 9olor shoed similar ee9ts ,at least those ho ere highly group identiied

did0. In addition' students o 9olor ho parti9ipated in the program reported more positive intera9tions

ith &hites 9ompared to students o 9olor ho did not. )hus' the program appeared to produ9e

positive ee9ts three years ater students too8 part.

!ddressing Intergroup 'elations /ia the $edia

8ooks+ pla(s+ movies+ T/+ and radio. It may 4e possi4le to use empathy to improve attitudes

toard' and a9tion on 4ehal o' stigmatiGed groups ithout organiGing 9onli9t1resolution or8shops'

introdu9ing superordinate goals' stru9turing 9ooperative groups' simulation e(er9ises' or intergroup

dialogues. )hin8 o 4oo8s su9h as 9ncle Tom"s %a*in,3toe' %-/>L>==>0 or8orrowed Time

,"onette' %$--0. )hin8 o movies su9h as! 'aisin in the Sun' The #lephant $an''ain $an'

ongtime %ompanion' andHotel 'wanda. )hin8 o )K do9umentaries su9h as#(es on the Prizeand

Promises. Ea9h o these or8s' and many similar ones' appear designed to improve attitudes toard a

stigmatiGed group


40/65

3e9ond is the 4elie that these empathi9 eelings ill generaliGe' leading to more positive attitudes

toard the group as a hole. Are they right

Resear9h suggests they are. )here is 9lear eviden9e that media material 9an lead one to imagine

ho the protagonist is thin8ing and eeling ,imagine1other perspe9tive0 and' at times' to imagine one;s

on thoughts and eelings in the protagonist;s situation ,imagine1sel perspe9tive0 as a stepping1stone'

leading to eelings o empathi9 9on9ern even or mem4ers o stigmatiGed outgroups ,e.g.' Batson'

+oly9arpou et al.' %$$# illmann' %$$%0. )here is also 9lear eviden9e that people rea9t to hat they

8no to 4e i9tional 9hara9ters in mu9h the same ay' and perhaps even more strongly' as they rea9t to

real people in similar situations ,atley' >==> illmann' %$$%0. "ost relevant to our present 9on9ern'

there is eviden9e that positive media e(posure to individual mem4ers o an outgroup 9an lead to more

positive attitudes toard the outgroup as a hole ,Hayes Con8lin' %$/* @raves' %$$$ +alu98'

>==$ 3later' >==>0.

+alu98 ,>==$0 9ondu9ted an am4itious year1long ield e(periment in Randa to test the ee9t

o a radio soap opera designed to promote re9on9iliation 4eteen )utsi and Hutu. Along ith dida9ti9

messages a4out the roots and prevention o preudi9e' the program presented 9hara9ters restling ith

pro4lems 8non to all Randans' su9h as 9ross1group riendships' over4earing leaders' poverty' and

memories o violen9e. )he story1line eatured the struggles o a young 9ross1group 9ouple ho pursue

their love in the a9e o 9ommunity disapproval and start a youth 9oalition or pea9e and 9ooperation.

)he story' espe9ially the young 9ouple;s struggles' seemed to produ9e 4oth perspe9tive ta8ing

,imagine1other perhaps also imagine1sel as a stepping1stone0 and empathi9 9on9ern. 2ollo1up

measures indi9ated that these ee9ts generaliGed' produ9ing in9reased imagine1other perspe9tive ta8ing

and eelings o 9on9ern or a range o people in Randan so9iety. Compared to individuals ho


41/65

listened to a soap opera o9used on health issues' those ho listened to the re9on9iliation soap opera

ere more a99epting o 9ross1group marriage and more illing to trust and to 9ooperate ith others in

their 9ommunity ,hi9h in9luded outgroup mem4ers0. +alu98 ,>==$0 9on9luded:

)he dramati9 narrative orm o the radio program may have provo8ed emotional and

imaginative pro9esses 9riti9al to the 9hanges o4served. . . . 5isteners; emotional empathi9

rea9tions to the soap opera 9hara9ters may have transerred onto the real1lie 9ounterparts o the

groups the 9hara9ters represented ,measured 4y the in9reased empathy Pimagine1other

perspe9tive ta8ingQ or real1lie Randans


42/65

approa9hes to attitude 9hange' su9h as learning stereotype1in9onsistent inormation a4out an individual

group mem4er==0 pointed out' i e

are to use evaluation studies to 9reate more ee9tive programs' e need to 8no more than that a

program or8s. It is not even enough to 8no


43/65

other perspe9tive ta8ing and in9reased empathi9 9on9ern or outgroup mem4ers prior to parti9ipation in

any o the various a9e1to1a9e' personal 9onta9t programs su9h as pea9e or8shops' 9ooperative

learning' or intergroup dialogue. As noted in the previous se9tion' media e(perien9es 9an set the stage

in a lo1threat 9onte(t or in9reased openness' understanding' and eeling or outgroup mem4ers prior

to dire9t 9onta9t. )o the degree that the personal e(perien9es outgroup mem4ers share in a9e1to1a9e

9onta9t resonate ith outgroup e(perien9es or hi9h one has 9ome to eel empathi9 9on9ern via

media' perspe9tive ta8ing and empathi9 emotion should 4e primed. At the same time' a9e1to1a9e

9onta9t 9an 4e used to prompt a 9hanneling o empathy1indu9ed attitude 9hange into 9on9rete a9tion.

And imagine the potential 4eneits ere parti9ipants previously prepared ith a Roots o Empathy

9lass hen /1- years old olloed 4y a 9ooperative learning ,?igsa Classroom0 e(perien9e hen %=1

%>. "any 9om4inations seem orth 9onsidering.

Nor are poli9y impli9ations limited to the development o spe9ii9 programs. )o suggest the

4roader potential' 9onsider a e e(amples. 2irst' edu9ational poli9y regarding mainstreaming students

ith learning disa4ilities 9ould 4eneit. In a traditional 9ompetitive 9lassroom' mainstreaming may

e(a9er4ate negative attitudes toard students ith disa4ilities. Cooperative learning may en9ourage

imagine1other perspe9tive ta8ing' leading to in9reased sensitivity toard and 9on9ern or the

dii9ulties a9ed 4y those ith disa4ilities. Curri9ular 9hoi9es 9ould also 4eneit. Beyond providing

te(ts that are 9ons9iously multi9ultural' students 9ould 4e e(posed to novels' 4iographies'

auto4iographies' and histories that sympatheti9ally portray the e(perien9es o mem4ers o outgroups.

Drama programs' 4oth inside and outside edu9ational settings' seem ell1suited to en9ourage

perspe9tive ta8ing' giving parti9ipants the opportunity to step into the shoes o the other.J 3imilarly'

media and the arts provide ri9h opportunities to improve intergroup relations 4y stimulating empathy.


44/65

@roups that have little or no 9onta9t in a9tual lie 9an enter the su4e9tive e(perien9e o the other

through television' ilm' and musi9. As noted at the outset' so9ieties dis9overed long ago ho to

harness the media and arts to demoniGe parti9ular minorities and artime enemies. )he 9onverse ee9t

is possi4le as ell' as +alu98;s ,>==$0 resear9h in Randa suggests. +ortraying the humanity o

individuals rom an outgroup 9an 4uild understanding and empathi9 9on9ern' leading to more positive

outgroup attitudes.

2inally' politi9ians might 9onsider investing in edu9ation and media programs that provide

personaliGing 9onta9t ith mem4ers o disadvantaged groups as a means to 4roaden popular support or

programs to aid these groups. +oliti9ians should also 4e aare that even the language used in poli9y

statements 9an indu9e empathy or hostility toard potential 4enei9iaries. )he ay 4enei9iaries are

portrayed 9an 4e important not only or redu9ing e(isting intergroup 9onli9t 4ut also or preventing

9onli9t rom arising. )hin8' or e(ample' o ho reugee poli9y is presented to the pu4li9. Is it

presented in a ay that indu9es empathi9 9on9ern or reugees' or that promotes 9allousness and

9ontempt

Con9lusion

Improving intergroup attitudes and relations has long 4een a maor so9ial issue and pu4li9

poli9y 9hallenge. Demographi9 shits toard diversity' heightened ideologi9al ervor' e(ploding

populations in developing nations' and a99elerated depletion o natural resour9es 9om4ine to ma8e this

9hallenge even greater today. Empathy shos promise as a means to improve intergroup relations.

Hoever' 4eore this promise 9an 4e realiGed' it is ne9essary to 9learly understand hat is meant 4y

empathy. &e identiied our distin9t empathy states that have 4een 9laimed to improve intergroup

relations. Ea9h is an interpersonal pro9ess ith potential to have intergroup ee9ts. Although none o


45/65

these empathy states is a pana9ea' the e(isting eviden9e supports the idea that these states 9an' in

dierent ays' help improve intergroup attitudes and relations.

Espe9ially promising' e 4elieve' are ,a0 the in9reased aareness o the pressures a9ed 4y

mem4ers o an outgroup that an imagine1sel perspe9tive 9an provide and ,40 the more positive

attitudes toard and a9tion on 4ehal o the outgroup that an imagine1other perspe9tive and the

resulting empathi9 9on9ern 9an provide. )ogether' these pro9esses may help e(plain the remar8a4le

transormation o C. +. Ellis rom !lan leader to 9ivil rights a9tivist. )ogether' they may 4e a4le to

transorm other lives as ell' 4rea8ing 4arriers and promoting intergroup understanding' respe9t' trust'

and even 9on9ern.


46/65

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)a4le %

our Ps(chological States %alled #mpath( in the Intergroup 'elations iterature

+sy9hologi9al state &hat the state involves

CognitiveLper9eptual states

%. Imagine1sel perspe9tive Imagining ho one ould thin8 and eel in

another;s situation or shoes.J

>. Imagine1other perspe9tive Imagining ho another person thin8s or

eels given hisLher situation.

Ae9tiveLemotional states

*. Emotion mat9hing 2eeling asanother person eels.

. Empathi9 9on9ern 2eelingforanother person ho is in need.


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)a4le >

Intergroup #ffects of the our #mpath( States

+sy9hologi9al state Intergroup ee9ts

CognitiveLper9eptual states

%. Imagine1sel perspe9tive Redu9ed stereotyping and more positive

evaluation o ,a0 the outgroup mem4er

in hose situation one imagines onesel

and ,40 the outgroup as a hole.

>. Imagine1other perspe9tive In9reased situational attri4ution or plight

o the spe9ii9 outgroup mem4er in9reased

empathi9 9on9ern or himLher more positive

attitudes toard the outgroup as a hole

in9reased readiness to help the outgroup.

Ae9tiveLemotional states

*. Emotion mat9hing "ore negative evaluation o those 9ausing

other;s plight more positive eelings toard

the outgroup.


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)a4le *

Illustrative Programs 9sing #mpath( to Improve Intergroup !ttitudes and 'elations

+rogram +arti9ipants utgroup,s0 Brie des9ription 5i8ely role o

empathy

In +rotra9ted +oliti9al Conli9ts

%. Conli9t1 Israeli +alestinians *1 leadersLnegotiators rom ea9h +ersonaliGing

9onta9t' imagine1otherresolution +alestinian Israelis. side meet in 9oniden9e or intense' perspe9tive'

and aareness o needs or8shops leaders. 4rie e(9hange o vies' see8ing to used to

indu9e situational attri4utions

,!elman0 understand other side;s perspe9tive or outgroup4ehavior' providing 4asis

and interests' and to ind in1in or see8ing

superordinate in1in

solutions. solutions.

>. +ea9e 3ri 5an8an )amil +arti9ipants rom 4oth groups +ersonaliGing9onta9t and superordinate or8shops young adults 3inhalese. live together and engage in goals'

aareness o need' and

,"alhotra rom 3inha1 oint a9tivities' 4oth stru9tured imagine1other perspe9tive ta8ing

5iyanage0 lese maority and unstru9tured' in9luding ,imagine1sel

may serve as stepping1,%0 and intera9tive drama' painting' stone0'

leading to in9reased

)amil minor1 9ultural events' 9onli9t1

understanding o and 9on9ern ority ,%%0 in resolution training and the ell4eing

o mem4ers o the

1day or81 dis9ussions' and ree time. other groupand in9reased

shop. illingness

to help poor 9hildreno the

outgroup one year later.


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)a4le * ,9ontinued0


empathy

*. 3torytelling ?eish +alestinians %>1%* students rom ea9h side +ersonaliGing9onta9t' imagine1other

method +alestinian ?es. audiotape intervies in hi9h perspe9tive

,imagine1sel may serve as,Bar1n students at mem4ers rom their parents; or stepping1

stone0' and aareness o needs

!assem0 Ben @urion grandparents; generation tell their used to

indu9e situational attri4utionsUniversity in lie story # students rom ea9h or outgroup

4ehavior and empathi9

year1long group share their intervies ith 9on9ern or outgroupsuering' leading

9lass. the entire group or rele9tion. to improved

attitudes and understandingand to

in9reased eelings o 9loseness.

In Edu9ational 3ettings

. Cooperative +rimary1 and ther ra9ial 2ormation o ra9ially or ethni9ally +ersonaliGing

9onta9t and super1

5earning se9ondary1 or ethni9 mi(ed learning teams o /1 ordinate

goals lead to in9reased,?igsa s9hool pupils groups. students ea9h mem4er has one imagine1

other perspe9tive ta8ing

Classroom in ra9ially part o the inormation needed to ,imagine1selmay serve as stepping1

11Aronson0 or ethni9ally 9omplete the tas8' so all must stone0' and

empathi9 9on9ern e(pressedmi(ed rely on other mem4ers to su99eed. in more

9ooperation' li8ing o outgroup

9lassrooms. Ater a4out - ee8s ne groups mem4ers'outgroup riendships' and

are ormed. outgroup


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helping.


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)a4le * ,9ontinued0


empathy

/. Roots o +rimary1 No spe9ii9 )rained instru9tor 4rings parent Imagine1other perspe9tive ,imagine1sel

Empathy s9hool pupils outgroup and inant rom the 9ommunity into may serve as

stepping1stone0 andproe9t in 9lassroom goals are 9lassroom or a visit ea9h month empathi9

9on9ern e(perien9ed or

,@ordon0 setting. to

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