Basic psychological process:Basic psychological process:

Learning & Remembering Learning & Remembering Learning Objectives:Learning Objectives:•Learning as a deliberate effort in acquiring Learning as a deliberate effort in acquiring knowledgeknowledge•Classical conditioning approachClassical conditioning approach•Operating learning: Cognitive & Social Operating learning: Cognitive & Social learninglearning•Types of learning curvesTypes of learning curves•Principle of reinforcement in learning Principle of reinforcement in learning processprocess•Various schedules of reinforcementVarious schedules of reinforcement•Limitations in learning and behavioural Limitations in learning and behavioural modification.modification.

Introduction Introduction • Learning is “ any relatively permanent change in Learning is “ any relatively permanent change in

behaviour that occurs as a result of experience”behaviour that occurs as a result of experience”

• Learning can’t be observed or seen, it can only be Learning can’t be observed or seen, it can only be seen in the change in behaviourseen in the change in behaviour

Now learning can be :-Now learning can be :-

Permanent(word processing)

Indirect(out of other’s

experience)

Direct (Typing course)

Natural (Child)

Behaviour potential(Drugs)

Theories of learning Theories of learning

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

Cognitive learning

Social Learning

A) Classical ConditioningA) Classical Conditioning• It’s a ‘Cause n Effect’ relationship between ‘one stimulus and one response’.It’s a ‘Cause n Effect’ relationship between ‘one stimulus and one response’.• The most well known experiment were conducted by I.P. Pavlov with dogs and The most well known experiment were conducted by I.P. Pavlov with dogs and

he established stimulus-response (S-R) connection or habbit.he established stimulus-response (S-R) connection or habbit.

Food

Bell

Unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned stimulus

Food

Bell

Unconditionedstimulus

Conditioned stimulus

Unconditioned response

Response

Conditional response

• Under certain situations, classical conditioning Under certain situations, classical conditioning does explain human behaviour.does explain human behaviour.

• For ex: if someone is always reprimanded by his For ex: if someone is always reprimanded by his boss when asked ‘to step in the boss’s office’, he boss when asked ‘to step in the boss’s office’, he may become nervous whenever asked to come to may become nervous whenever asked to come to the office of his boss, because of this association.the office of his boss, because of this association.

• Since classical conditioning relates to Since classical conditioning relates to involuntary involuntary responsesresponses, it does not explain situations where , it does not explain situations where people rationally and objectively choose a course people rationally and objectively choose a course of action.of action.

• Also, managers are more interested in voluntary Also, managers are more interested in voluntary and free responses from their workers rather than and free responses from their workers rather than involuntary and reflex responses.involuntary and reflex responses.

B) Operant ConditioningB) Operant Conditioning• An alternate approach to classical conditioning was An alternate approach to classical conditioning was

proposed by B.F Skinner, known as Operant Conditioning proposed by B.F Skinner, known as Operant Conditioning in order to explain more complex behaviour of humans.in order to explain more complex behaviour of humans.

• It includes voluntary change in the behaviour and It includes voluntary change in the behaviour and learning occurs as consequence of such change.learning occurs as consequence of such change.

It is a relationship between consequence-behaviour.

It is also known as Reinforcement theory.

Behaviour is a function of its consequences (results

or outcomes)

Behaviour or job performance is not a function of inner thoughts, feelings,

emotions or perceptions

butIs keyed to the nature of the outcome of that behaviour.If it is positive, employee feel motivated and vice-versa.

For ex: working hard and getting the promotion will probably cause the person to keep working hard in the future.

C) Cognitive LearningC) Cognitive Learning

• Cognition is the act of knowing an item of Cognition is the act of knowing an item of information and this knowledge affects the information and this knowledge affects the behaviour of the person so that information behaviour of the person so that information provides cognitive cues towards the expected provides cognitive cues towards the expected goal.goal.

• Based on the experience of Tolman. Based on the experience of Tolman.

• Using rats in his laboratory shows that they Using rats in his laboratory shows that they learned to run through a complicated maze learned to run through a complicated maze towards their goal of food.towards their goal of food.

• It was observed that rats developed expectations It was observed that rats developed expectations at every choice point in the maze.at every choice point in the maze.

• They learned that this cognitive cues will They learned that this cognitive cues will ultimately lead to food.ultimately lead to food.

• In organisational setting, Tolman’s ideas , some In organisational setting, Tolman’s ideas , some training programs were designed to strengthen training programs were designed to strengthen the relationship between cognitive cues such as the relationship between cognitive cues such as supervision, job procedures and worker supervision, job procedures and worker expectations such as monetary and other expectations such as monetary and other rewards.rewards.

• It was believed that worker would learn to be It was believed that worker would learn to be more productive by building a relationship more productive by building a relationship between following directions and procedures and between following directions and procedures and expectancy of monetary rewards for these efforts.expectancy of monetary rewards for these efforts.

D) Social LearningD) Social Learning• It integrates the cognitive and operant It integrates the cognitive and operant

approaches to learning.approaches to learning.• It recognizes that Learning does not take place It recognizes that Learning does not take place

only because of environmental stimuli (classical only because of environmental stimuli (classical or operant) or individual determinism (cognitive) or operant) or individual determinism (cognitive) but is a blend of both.but is a blend of both.

• It also emphasize that people acquire learning the It also emphasize that people acquire learning the behaviors by observing or imitating others in a behaviors by observing or imitating others in a social setting.social setting.

• In addition, learning can also be gained by In addition, learning can also be gained by discipline and self-control.discipline and self-control.

• Inner desire to acquire knowledge irrespective of Inner desire to acquire knowledge irrespective of external rewards or consequences.external rewards or consequences.

Implications for performance/learningImplications for performance/learning

Importance for a manager:Importance for a manager:

A) A) Ability:Ability: to get the able fit for the job there are to get the able fit for the job there are various steps to get :various steps to get :

• Effective selection process.Effective selection process.

• Promotion and transfer decisions affecting Promotion and transfer decisions affecting individuals already in the organisation’s.individuals already in the organisation’s.

• It can be improved by fine-tuning the job to better It can be improved by fine-tuning the job to better match an incumbent’s abilities.match an incumbent’s abilities.

B) Biographical characteristicsB) Biographical characteristics

C) LearningC) Learning

MotivationMotivation

Motivation Motivation • Motivation is derived from motive that is defined as an Motivation is derived from motive that is defined as an

active form of desire, craving or need that must be active form of desire, craving or need that must be satisfied.satisfied.

• All motives are directed towards goals.All motives are directed towards goals.

Action, movement or behaviour

Tension ordisequilibrium

Feedback, possible modification of

unsatisfied need

Goal

Unsatisfied needMEANING OF MOTIVATION : Motivation is derived from the Latin word ‘movere’ which means ‘to move’ or ‘to energize’ or ‘to activate’.

NATURE OF MOTIVATION: Based on motivesAffected by motivatingGoal directed behaviorRelated to satisfactionPerson is motivated in totalityComplex process

A need is and internal state that makes certain outcomes attractive.

SourcesSources/Concepts/Concepts of motivation of motivation1. Positive motivation:1. Positive motivation:

• Praise and credit for work done.Praise and credit for work done.

• Sincere interest in the welfare of subordinates.Sincere interest in the welfare of subordinates.

• Delegation of authority and responsibility to Delegation of authority and responsibility to subordinates.subordinates.

• Participation of subordinates in the decision Participation of subordinates in the decision making process.making process.

2. Negative motivation2. Negative motivation

• Use of force, power, fear and threats.Use of force, power, fear and threats.

• Punishments.Punishments.

3. Extrinsic (external) motivation3. Extrinsic (external) motivation

• Primarily are of financial naturePrimarily are of financial nature

• It includes higher pay, fringe benefits such as It includes higher pay, fringe benefits such as retirement plans, stock options, profit sharing retirement plans, stock options, profit sharing schemes, paid vacations, health and medical schemes, paid vacations, health and medical insurance.insurance.

4. Intrinsic motivation4. Intrinsic motivation

• It stems from feelings of achievement and It stems from feelings of achievement and accomplishment and is concerned with the state accomplishment and is concerned with the state of self-actualization.of self-actualization.

• The satisfaction of accomplishing something The satisfaction of accomplishing something motivates he employee further so that this motivates he employee further so that this motivation is self-generated and is independent motivation is self-generated and is independent of financial rewards.of financial rewards.

Classification of Motives:Classification of Motives:

Primary MotivesPrimary Motives

General MotiveGeneral Motive

Secondary MotivesSecondary Motives

Primary Motives:Primary Motives:

A motive is termed as a primary motive A motive is termed as a primary motive when it satisfies both the criteria : it is when it satisfies both the criteria : it is learned as well as it is physiologically learned as well as it is physiologically based. It is not earned, and it is based. It is not earned, and it is physiological based. physiological based.

all human beings have same primary all human beings have same primary motives motives

Example: Hunger, thirst, sleep, Example: Hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of painavoidance of pain

General Motives:General Motives:

A motive is considered to be a general A motive is considered to be a general motive if it is not learned, but is also not motive if it is not learned, but is also not based on physiological need. general based on physiological need. general motives stimulate tension within the motives stimulate tension within the individual. They are also called “stimulus individual. They are also called “stimulus motives” motives”

The motives of curiosity, manipulation and The motives of curiosity, manipulation and motive to remain active motive to remain active

The affection motiveThe affection motive

Secondary Motives:Secondary Motives:

It is a motive that has been learned It is a motive that has been learned or acquired over timeor acquired over time

The power motiveThe power motive

The achievement motiveThe achievement motive

The affiliation motiveThe affiliation motive

The security motiveThe security motive

The status motiveThe status motive

The Power Motive The Power Motive

The person’ drives to gain power and The person’ drives to gain power and

prove himself superior to others.prove himself superior to others.

Achievement Motive Achievement Motive

The achievement motive is a person’ desire to The achievement motive is a person’ desire to perform excellently or to handle complex or perform excellently or to handle complex or competitive situations successfully.competitive situations successfully.

David C. McClellandDavid C. McClelland Profile of High achievers:Profile of High achievers:

Moderate degree of riskModerate degree of risk Need for precise feedbackNeed for precise feedback Satisfaction with accomplishmentSatisfaction with accomplishment Total dedication towards taskTotal dedication towards task

Affiliation Motive Affiliation Motive

Employees especially those at the Employees especially those at the

lower levels of the organizational lower levels of the organizational

hierarchy, have a strong desire to hierarchy, have a strong desire to

belong to and be accepted by other belong to and be accepted by other

employees or the whole group employees or the whole group

Security Motive Security Motive

Security motive is based largely on Security motive is based largely on

fear and is avoidance-oriented i.e., fear and is avoidance-oriented i.e.,

people try to avoid insecurity rather people try to avoid insecurity rather

than attempt to achieve security than attempt to achieve security

Status MotiveStatus Motive

Status is defined as the rank a person Status is defined as the rank a person

holds relative to others within a group. holds relative to others within a group.

The status motive is extremely important The status motive is extremely important

Theories of Motivation:-Theories of Motivation:-Categories of motivation theories are:-Categories of motivation theories are:-

A group of theories that places emphasis on needs that motivate people

A group of theories that places emphasis on needs that motivate people

A category of theories that explain how employees select behaviours to meet their needs

A category of theories that explain how employees select behaviours to meet their needs

Content Theories of Work MotivationContent Theories of Work Motivation

• Maslow’s hierarchy of needsMaslow’s hierarchy of needs

• McGregor’s X Theory & Y theory.McGregor’s X Theory & Y theory.

• Herzberg’s Two-factor theoryHerzberg’s Two-factor theory

• McClelland’s Acquire needs theoryMcClelland’s Acquire needs theory

• Alderfer’s ERG theoryAlderfer’s ERG theory

Maslow’s Motivation TheoryMaslow’s Motivation Theory

Maslow theory – the explanationMaslow theory – the explanation

• Lower-end needs are the priority needs, which Lower-end needs are the priority needs, which must be satisfied before higher-order need are must be satisfied before higher-order need are activated.activated.

• Needs are satisfied in sequence.Needs are satisfied in sequence.

• When a need is satisfied, it declines in When a need is satisfied, it declines in importance and the next need becomes importance and the next need becomes dominant.dominant.

• To motivate an individual one must know To motivate an individual one must know where that person is in the hierarchy and focus where that person is in the hierarchy and focus on satisfying at or above that level.on satisfying at or above that level.

Implications of Maslow’s theory in Implications of Maslow’s theory in the workplacethe workplace

• Not everyone is motivated in the same Not everyone is motivated in the same way.way.

• Motivation and need satisfaction are Motivation and need satisfaction are anticipatory in nature.anticipatory in nature.

• Managers must seek to guide and direct Managers must seek to guide and direct employee behaviour to meet the employee behaviour to meet the organizational needs and individual organizational needs and individual needs simultaneously.needs simultaneously.

McGregor’s X & Y theoryMcGregor’s X & Y theory• Theory X :Theory X :This theory assumes that most people prefer to be This theory assumes that most people prefer to be

directed, are not interested in assuming responsibility & directed, are not interested in assuming responsibility & want safety above all.want safety above all.

Accompanying this philosophy is the belief that work is Accompanying this philosophy is the belief that work is inherently distasteful to most people & people are inherently distasteful to most people & people are motivated by money & the threat of punishment.motivated by money & the threat of punishment.

Managers who accept Theory X assumptions, attempt to Managers who accept Theory X assumptions, attempt to structure, control & closely supervise their subordinates.structure, control & closely supervise their subordinates.

• Theory Y:Theory Y:

This theory assumes that people are not by nature lazy This theory assumes that people are not by nature lazy & unreliable. Man can be self-directed & creative at & unreliable. Man can be self-directed & creative at work, if properly motivated.work, if properly motivated.

Managers who accept this theory, attempt to help their Managers who accept this theory, attempt to help their employees mature, by exposing them to employees mature, by exposing them to progressively less control, allowing them to assume progressively less control, allowing them to assume more self-control.more self-control.

Employees are able to achieve the satisfaction of social Employees are able to achieve the satisfaction of social esteem & self-actualization needs with this kind of esteem & self-actualization needs with this kind of environment.environment.

Herzberg’s Two-factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-factor Theory

Hygiene Factors•Working conditions•Pay and security•Company policies•Supervisors•Interpersonal relationships

Hygiene Factors•Working conditions•Pay and security•Company policies•Supervisors•Interpersonal relationships

Motivators•Achievement•Recognition•Responsibility•Work itself•Personal growth

Motivators•Achievement•Recognition•Responsibility•Work itself•Personal growth

Motivation factorsMotivation factors

Hygiene factorsHygiene factors

Satisfaction No satisfaction

No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction

Herzberg’s theory - Herzberg’s theory - explanationexplanation• Hygiene factors involve the presence or absence of Hygiene factors involve the presence or absence of

job dissatisfiers. When the hygiene factors are job dissatisfiers. When the hygiene factors are present, the individual is not dissatisfied; however present, the individual is not dissatisfied; however when they are absent the individual is dissatisfied. when they are absent the individual is dissatisfied. In any case hygiene factors to not motivate.In any case hygiene factors to not motivate.

• Motivators are factors that influence satisfaction Motivators are factors that influence satisfaction and consequently motivate the person from within and consequently motivate the person from within as he or she achieve as he or she achieve the higher-level needs of the higher-level needs of achievement, recognition, and personal growth.achievement, recognition, and personal growth.

Implication of Herzberg’s Implication of Herzberg’s theorytheory• Providing the hygiene factors will eliminate employee Providing the hygiene factors will eliminate employee

dissatisfaction bur will not motivate workers to high dissatisfaction bur will not motivate workers to high levels of achievement. Recognition, responsibility, and levels of achievement. Recognition, responsibility, and the opportunity to achieve personal growth will the opportunity to achieve personal growth will promote satisfaction and employee performance. promote satisfaction and employee performance.

• The benefit of this theory has implication for the effect The benefit of this theory has implication for the effect of company systems and job design (how work is of company systems and job design (how work is arranged and how much employees control their work) arranged and how much employees control their work) on employee satisfaction and performance. on employee satisfaction and performance.

Alderfer’s ERG Theory:Alderfer’s ERG Theory: Clayton Alderfer : proposed a continuum of

needs rather than a hierarchy Existence needs – These are associated with

the survival and physiological wellbeing of an individual.

Relatedness needs – These needs emphasize the significance of social and interpersonal relationship.

Growth needs – These needs are related to a person’s inner desire for personal growth and development.

• Acc. To Alderfer : a person’s Acc. To Alderfer : a person’s background or cultural environment background or cultural environment may cause the may cause the relatedness needsrelatedness needs to to predominate over unfulfilled predominate over unfulfilled existence existence needs.needs.

• It is also possible that intensity of It is also possible that intensity of growth needsgrowth needs will increase in the will increase in the degree to which they are satisfied.degree to which they are satisfied.

• Limitations of content theories :Limitations of content theories :

• They do not explain the complexities They do not explain the complexities involved in the process of motivation. involved in the process of motivation.

The Relationship between Maslow,s The Relationship between Maslow,s Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg’s Two-Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory and Alderfer’s ERG NeedsFactor Theory and Alderfer’s ERG Needs

Self-actualization and fulfillment

Esteem and status

Belongings and social needs

Safety andsecurity

Physiological needs

Growth

Relatedness

Existence

Work itself AchievementPossibility of growth

Responsibility

Advancement Recognition

Status

Relations with supervisors Peer relationsRelations with subordinatesQuality of supervisions

Company policy and administration Job security

Working conditions Pay

Mot

ivat

ion

fact

ors

Hyg

iene

fa

ctor

s

The Porter-Lawler ModelThe Porter-Lawler Model

Porter and Lawler tried to explore the Porter and Lawler tried to explore the

complex complex relationship between relationship between

motivation, satisfaction and motivation, satisfaction and

performance,performance, and pointed out that and pointed out that

efforts put in by an employee did not efforts put in by an employee did not

directly result in performance.directly result in performance.

it gives a comprehensive it gives a comprehensive

explanation of work motivation. explanation of work motivation.

• Acc to porter Lawler model performance is Acc to porter Lawler model performance is dependent on dependent on three factorsthree factors : :– An employee should have the desire to An employee should have the desire to

perform i.e. he must feel motivated perform i.e. he must feel motivated – Motivation alone cannot ensure successful Motivation alone cannot ensure successful

performance of a a task: he should have the performance of a a task: he should have the necessary skills and abilities.necessary skills and abilities.

– The employee should also have the clear The employee should also have the clear perception of his role in the org. and perception of his role in the org. and accurate knowledge of the job requirement.accurate knowledge of the job requirement.

1. Value of Reward4. Abilities &

Traits

8. Perceived Equitable Rewards

3. Effort6. Performance

7.a Intrinsic Rewards

2. Perceived Effort Reward Probability 5. Role Perception

7. Extrinsic Rewards

9. Satisfaction

• Effort:Effort: the amount of energy expended by an the amount of energy expended by an individual to perform a specific task. Effort individual to perform a specific task. Effort depends upon the depends upon the attractiveness of the rewardattractiveness of the reward and the and the probability that his effortsprobability that his efforts will lead to will lead to the reward. the reward.

• PerformancePerformance : : it is not necessary that the it is not necessary that the effort will result in performance. Performance effort will result in performance. Performance in turn is depended on the abilities and skills in turn is depended on the abilities and skills and the way the individual perceives his role. and the way the individual perceives his role.

important variables in the important variables in the modelmodel• RewardReward: : employee is rewarded acc. To employee is rewarded acc. To

performance. Reward can be intrinsic or performance. Reward can be intrinsic or extrinsic. extrinsic. – intrinsic rewards : are those a person intrinsic rewards : are those a person

grants to himself for having performed a grants to himself for having performed a task welltask well

– Extrinsic rewards : are the rewards given to Extrinsic rewards : are the rewards given to the employee by the organizationthe employee by the organization

• Satisfaction:Satisfaction: depends upon whether the depends upon whether the actual reward offered fall short of, match or actual reward offered fall short of, match or exceed what the individual perceives as an exceed what the individual perceives as an equitable level of reward. equitable level of reward.

The Process Theories of Work The Process Theories of Work Motivation Motivation

The process theories of motivation deal with The process theories of motivation deal with “How” of Motivation. “How” of Motivation.

It deal with the cognitive antecedents (preceding It deal with the cognitive antecedents (preceding factor) that go into motivation or effort, and factor) that go into motivation or effort, and more specifically, with the way the cognitive more specifically, with the way the cognitive antecedents of an individual relate to one antecedents of an individual relate to one another.another.

The theories areThe theories are Vroom's’ Expectancy Theory of MotivationVroom's’ Expectancy Theory of Motivation Equity TheoryEquity Theory Goal-Setting TheoryGoal-Setting Theory

The Vroom’s Expectancy The Vroom’s Expectancy TheoryTheory

• A process theory simply states that people are A process theory simply states that people are motivated to work when they believe that they motivated to work when they believe that they can achieve things they want from their jobs. can achieve things they want from their jobs.

• Such expectation depend on their ability to Such expectation depend on their ability to perform the task, given their effort and the perform the task, given their effort and the attractiveness of the reward.attractiveness of the reward.

• Or, Or, • it is based on the belief that motivation is it is based on the belief that motivation is

determined by the nature of the reward people determined by the nature of the reward people expect to get as a result of their job performance.expect to get as a result of their job performance.

Theories of Work MotivationTheories of Work MotivationInstrumentalities Instrumentalities

(performance-reward relationship ) (performance-reward relationship )

ExpectancyExpectancy (hard work)(hard work)

Second levelSecond level First levelFirst level Outcomes Outcomes outcomesoutcomes Outcome 1 aOutcome 1 a Outcome 1Outcome 1

Outcome 1 bOutcome 1 b Motivational Motivational Force F Outcome2aForce F Outcome2a

Outcome2 Outcome2bOutcome2 Outcome2b

Outcome2cOutcome2c

Equity Theory :Equity Theory :

J. Stacy AdamsJ. Stacy Adams This theory states that the degree of equity This theory states that the degree of equity

or inequity or inequity perceived by an employeeperceived by an employee with with

reference to his work situation plays a major reference to his work situation plays a major

role in work performance and satisfaction.role in work performance and satisfaction.

Employees generally compares their output – Employees generally compares their output –

input ratio with that of others. If they input ratio with that of others. If they

perceives the ratio of their outcomes and perceives the ratio of their outcomes and

inputs are equal to that of their peers and inputs are equal to that of their peers and

others , it will result in equity others , it will result in equity

Equity theory represented schematically as:Person’s Outcomes = Other’s Outcomes Person’s inputs Other’s inputs

Inequity is represented as follows:Person’s Outcomes < Other’s Outcomes Person’s inputs Other’s inputs

(or)Person’s Outcomes > Other’s Outcomes Person’s inputs Other’s inputs

Various referent comparison used by employees:

Self-inside - comparing ones experience in the present position with the experiences of those holding a similar position in same org.

Self-outside - comparing ones experience in the present position with the experiences of those holding a similar position in another org

Other-inside- comparing ones experience in the present position with the experiences of those holding a a different position but belonging to the same org.

Other-outside - comparing ones experience in the present position with the experiences of those holding a different position in another org

After comparing his position with that of his referent, if After comparing his position with that of his referent, if an employee perceives an inequity, he will make certain an employee perceives an inequity, he will make certain choices. The choices that an employee is likely to make choices. The choices that an employee is likely to make are as described below:are as described below: Change in inputs: Change in inputs: he may reduce the effort he he may reduce the effort he

puts in a particular job puts in a particular job Change in outcomes: Change in outcomes: the employee may act the employee may act

an in a manner that brings about change in an in a manner that brings about change in the outcome or end result. the outcome or end result.

Distort perceptions of selfDistort perceptions of self: : the employee may the employee may distort the perception he held about his own distort the perception he held about his own performanceperformance

Distort perception of othersDistort perception of others: : an employee may an employee may change the way he perceives others jobs, positions change the way he perceives others jobs, positions and productivity. and productivity.

choose a different referent choose a different referent leave the field leave the field

Motivating Performance Motivating Performance Through Goal Setting:Through Goal Setting:• A goal can be defined as the desired A goal can be defined as the desired

consequence of an action. consequence of an action.

Performance enhancement through goal setting:Performance enhancement through goal setting:

• Goals should be specificGoals should be specific

• Goals should be difficult and challengingGoals should be difficult and challenging

• Goals must be owned and acceptedGoals must be owned and accepted

• Goals must have a specific time frameGoals must have a specific time frame

• Goals should be measurableGoals should be measurable

Barriers to Effective Goal Barriers to Effective Goal Setting Setting Lack of top management-supportLack of top management-support

Lack of CommunicationLack of Communication

Content of the goalContent of the goal

Technical incompetence Technical incompetence

Application of Goal Setting to Organizational System Application of Goal Setting to Organizational System Performance Performance

The theory of goal setting is usually The theory of goal setting is usually

implemented through a system called implemented through a system called

Management by Objectives, popularly known Management by Objectives, popularly known

as MBO.as MBO.

MBO refers to the process of setting goals MBO refers to the process of setting goals

and objectives through the participation of and objectives through the participation of

the management and the workers. the management and the workers.

Consensus on key goals and Consensus on key goals and objectivesobjectives

Sketch a plan of actionSketch a plan of action

Control of behaviorControl of behavior

Periodic appraisal and reviewsPeriodic appraisal and reviews

The Process of MBOThe Process of MBO